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Instructional Design  教学设计

Michael Molenda, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA Charles M Reigeluth, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA Laurie Miller Nelson, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, USA
Michael Molenda,美国印第安纳州布卢明顿印第安纳大学 Charles M Reigeluth,美国印第安纳州布卢明顿印第安纳大学 Laurie Miller Nelson,美国印第安纳州布卢明顿印第安纳大学

CONTENTS
Introduction
Principles
目 录 导言 原则

Instructional design is that branch of knowledge concerned with theory and practice, related to instructional strategies and systematic procedures for developing and implementing those strategies.
教学设计是与教学策略以及开发和实施这些策略的系统程序有关的理论和实践知识分支。

INTRODUCTION 引言

Instructional design is a construct that refers to the principles and procedures by which instructional materials, lessons, and whole systems can be developed in a consistent and reliable fashion. The principles and procedures can be applied to guide designers to work more efficiently while producing more effective and appealing instruction suitable for a wide range of learning environments.
教学设计是一个概念,指的是以一致、可靠的方式开发教学材料、课程和整个系统的原则和程序。这些原则和程序可用于指导设计者提高工作效率,同时为各种学习环境提供更有效、更吸引人的教学。

As well as being a construct, instructional design is also a field of theory and practice within the larger field of instructional technology. Instructional designers work in many settings, including schools, colleges and universities, corporations, and military and government agencies.
教学设计既是一种结构,也是教学技术领域中的一个理论和实践领域。教学设计师的工作环境多种多样,包括学校、学院和大学、公司、军队和政府机构。

This article will address in turn the underlying instructional principles, the procedural guides by which these principles are put into application, and finally the construction of learning environments as an alternative way of putting the principles into action.
本文将依次论述基本的教学原则、应用这些原则的程序指南,以及作为将这些原则付诸实施的另一种方式的学习环境建设。

PRINCIPLES 原则

The design of instruction can be informed by principles drawn from many disciplines, including educational psychology, cognitive science, systems theory, communications, philosophy, anthropology, and organizational theory.
教学设计可以借鉴许多学科的原则,包括教育心理学、认知科学、系统理论、传播学、哲学、人类学和组织理论。

Behaviorist Psychology Sources
行为主义心理学资料来源

The original momentum for the modern concept of instructional design came from B.F. Skinner’
现代教学设计概念的最初动力来自 B.F. Skinner 的《教学设计》一书。

Applications Leaming environments
应用 制冷环境

suggestions regarding the application of operant conditioning principles to education (Skinner; 1954). His vision became instantiated in proy grammed instruction, which was based on the following set of prescriptive principles:
斯金纳提出了将操作性条件反射原理应用于教育的建议(斯金纳,1954 年)。他的愿景在 "操作性条件反射教学 "中得到了体现,该教学基于以下一系列规定性原则:

(1) an ordered sequence of stimulus items, (2)
(1) 有序的刺激项目序列,(2)

(2) to eac of which a student responds in some specified way, (3) his responses being reinforced by immediate know: ledge of results, (4) so that he moves by small step, (5) therefore making few errors and practicing mostly correct responses, (6) from what he knows, by a prot cess of successively closer approximations, toward what he is supposed to learn from the program. (Schramm, 1962, p. 2)
(2)学生以某种特定的方式对每一个程序做出反应,(3)他的反应通过对结果的即时了解而得到强化,(4)这样他就可以小步前进,(5)因此很少出错,练习的大多是正确的反应,(6)从他所知道的,通过一个连续的接近过程,走向他应该从程序中学到的东西。(施拉姆,1962 年,第 2 页)

As research and practical experience accumulated the generality of many of these principles came into question. That is, the sequence of experiences the nature of the response, the timing of feedback, and the size of steps all appeared to be contingent: on various learner and learning conditions. The prescriptions of programmed instruction were broadened and reduced by Popham (1971) to four principles:
随着研究和实践经验的积累,许多原则的普遍性受到质疑。也就是说,经验的顺序、反应的性质、反馈的时间以及步骤的大小似乎都取决于各种学习者和学习条件。波法姆(Popham,1971 年)将程序化教学的规定扩大并简化为四项原则:

(1) Provide relevant practice for the learner. (2) Provided knowledge of results. (3) Avoid the inclusion of irrele vancies. (4) Make the material interesting. (Popham 1971, p. 171)
(1) 为学习者提供相关练习。(2) 提供有关结果的知识。(3) 避免加入无关紧要的内容。(4) 使材料生动有趣。(波法姆,1971 年,第 171 页)

Cognitive Sources 认知来源

Since the 1960s, instructional design has been in creasingly informed by principles drawn from other sources, especially cognitive science and cog cog cog\operatorname{cog} nitive psychology. Cognitive models for instruction emphasize the importance of the learner’s cognitive and affective processes in mediating the effects 0 instruction. From this perspective, learners use their memory and thought processes to generate strategies as well as to store and manipulate mental representations of images and ideas.
Robert Gagné was a leading interpreter of learning theory into instructional theory. Early editions of his influential book, The Conditions of Learning (Gagné 1965), proposed that the informationprocessing model of learning could be combined with behaviorist concepts to provide a more complete view of learning tasks. From descriptive theories of information processing, Gagné deduced prescriptive theories about instruction methods (‘external conditions of learning’). His list of nine ‘instructional events’ became a robust and influential conceptual schema for the planning of lessons:
罗伯特-盖尼耶是将学习理论诠释为教学理论的领军人物。他的影响深远的著作《学习的条件》(盖尼耶,1965 年)的早期版本提出,学习的信息加工模型可以与行为主义概念相结合,从而为学习任务提供一个更完整的视角。从信息加工的描述性理论出发,盖尼耶推导出了关于教学方法的规定性理论("学习的外部条件")。他列出的九个 "教学事件 "成为备课中一个强有力的、有影响力的概念模式:

(1) gaining attention; (2) informing learners of the objective; (3) stimulating recall of prior learning; (4) presenting the content; (5) providing ‘learning guidance’; (6) eliciting performance; (7) providing feedback; (8) assessing performance; (9) enhancing retention and transfer. (Gagné and Medsker, 1996, p. 140)
(1) 引起注意;(2) 告知学习者目标;(3) 激发对先前学习的回忆;(4) 呈现内容;(5) 提供 "学习指导";(6) 激发表现;(7) 提供反馈;(8) 评估表现;(9) 加强保持和迁移。(Gagné 和 Medsker,1996 年,第 140 页)
More recently, other descriptive theories of learning that are derived from a cognitive perspective have influenced further prescriptive theories and principles for instruction. Schema theory, which emphasizes the schematic structure of knowledge, is one of the major sources of influence. Ausubel (1980) described schemata as providing ideational scaffolding, which contains slots that can be instantiated with particular cases. These schemata allow learners to organize information into meaningful units. This theory implies that the learner’s cognitive structure at the time of learning is the most important factor in determining the likelihood of successful learning. One instructional design principle derived from this theory pertains to the advance organizer - a brief outline based on the learner’s existing knowledge, which serves as ‘ideational scaffolding’ for new learning. Ausubel proposed that advance organizers could activate broader and more inclusive knowledge, providing a cognitive structure for new meaningful learning.
最近,从认知角度衍生出来的其他描述性学习理论进一步影响了教学的描述性理论和原则。图式理论强调知识的图式结构,是主要的影响来源之一。奥苏贝尔(Ausubel,1980 年)将图式描述为提供表意支架,其中包含可与特定案例实例化的槽。这些图式允许学习者将信息组织成有意义的单元。这一理论意味着,学习者在学习时的认知结构是决定学习成功可能性的最重要因素。从这一理论中衍生出的一个教学设计原则与先行组织者有关--先行组织者是基于学习者现有知识的一个简短提纲,可作为新学习的 "表意支架"。奥苏贝尔提出,先行组织者可以激活更广泛、更具包容性的知识,为新的有意义学习提供认知结构。

Constructivist Sources 建构主义来源

Other educational theories emphasize the importance of the ideas generated by learners themselves. Wittrock (1974) described a view of learning and instruction in which the ‘generations’ (mental activities such as summaries, pictures, analogies, and discussions) performed by learners influence the success of instruction. This emphasis on learner generation characterizes constructivism, which assumes that ‘knowledge is individually constructed and socially co-constructed by learners based on
其他教育理论强调学习者自身产生的想法的重要性。维特洛克(Wittrock,1974 年)描述了一种学习和教学观点,即学习者的 "生成"(心理活动,如总结、图片、类比和讨论)影响着教学的成败。这种强调学习者生成的观点是建构主义的特点,建构主义认为 "知识是由学习者在以下基础上个人建构和社会共同建构的:...........

their interpretations of experiences in the world’ (Jonassen, 1999, p. 217). Prescriptive principles from constructivism include the following:
他们对世界经验的解释"(Jonassen,1999 年,第 217 页)。建构主义的规定性原则包括以下内容:

(1) Embed learning in complex, realistic and relevant environments. (2) Provide for social negotiation as an integral part of learning. (3) Support multiple perspectives and the use of multiple modes of representation.
(1) 将学习置于复杂、现实和相关的环境中。(2) 将社会协商作为学习的一个组成部分。(3) 支持多种视角和多种表现形式的使用。

(4) Encourage ownership in learning. (5) Nurture selfawareness of the knowledge construction process. (Driscoll, 2000, pp. 382-383)
(4) 鼓励自主学习。(5) 培养对知识构建过程的自我意识。(Driscoll, 2000, 第 382-383 页)
An alternative view of constructivism, known as the ‘situated cognition’ perspective, which is derived from anthropology (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Barab et al., 1999), proposes that the need to understand the learning context supersedes the need to understand the mental processes going on inside individual learners - that is, the learner and the environment are always interacting. For example, what is understood as memorized algorithms in a mathematics classroom differs from what is understood through grappling with a real-world carpentry problem.
建构主义的另一种观点,即 "情景认知 "观点,源自人类学(Lave and Wenger, 1991; Barab et al.例如,在数学课堂上所理解的死记硬背的算法与通过解决现实世界中的木工问题所理解的算法是不同的。

The field offers a wide variety of theories of instructional design that prescribe specific methods of instruction and the conditions under which they can best be used. A growing number of instructional design theories have been developed to address a wide range of learning situations in order to foster cognitive, psychomotor, or affective development. These include theories for such diverse types of learning as experiential, collaborative, and selfregulated learning, as well as emotional, social, and even spiritual development (Reigeluth, 1999).
教学设计领域提供了各种各样的教学设计理论,规定了具体的教学方法和最佳使用条件。越来越多的教学设计理论被开发出来,以应对各种学习情况,从而促进认知、心理运动或情感的发展。这些理论包括体验式学习、协作式学习、自我调节式学习等不同类型的学习,以及情感、社会、甚至精神方面的发展(Reigeluth,1999)。

Comprehensive Set of Design Principles
一套全面的设计原则

A recent synthesis by M. David Merrill (Merrill, 2001) provides a coherent and comprehensive overview of instructional design principles from an eclectic perspective, incorporating behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist conceptions:
大卫-梅里尔(M. David Merrill)(Merrill, 2001)最近的一篇综述从折衷主义的角度,结合行为主义、认知主义和建构主义的概念,对教学设计原则进行了连贯而全面的概述:
  • Problem. Learning is facilitated when the learner:
    问题学习者在以下情况下可以促进学习

    …is engaged in solving a real-world problem;
    ......参与解决实际问题;

    …is engaged at the problem or task level, not just the operation or action level;
    ......参与的是问题或任务层面,而不仅仅是操作或行动层面;

    …solves a progression of problems;
    ......解决一系列问题;

    …is guided to an explicit comparison of problems.
    ......以明确的问题比较为导向。
  • Activation. Learning is facilitated when the learner:
    激活。学习者在以下情况下可以促进学习

    …is directed to recall, relate, describe, or apply knowledge from relevant past experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge;
    ......指导学生回忆、联系、描述或应用可用作新知识基础的过去相关经验中的知识;

    …is provided with relevant experience that can be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.
    ......提供可用作新知识基础的相关经验。
  • Demonstration. Learning is facilitated when:
    示范。以下情况有助于学习

    …the learner is shown rather than told;
    ......向学习者展示而不是告诉他们;

    …the demonstration is consistent with the learning goal;
    ......演示与学习目标一致;

    …the learner is shown multiple representations;
    ......向学习者展示多种表象;

    …the learner is directed to explicitly compare alternative representations;
    ......引导学习者明确比较其他表象;

    …the media play a relevant instructional role.
    ......媒体发挥着相关的指导作用。
  • Application. Learning is facilitated when:
    应用。以下情况有助于学习

    …the learner is required to use his or her new knowledge to solve problems;
    ......要求学习者运用新知识解决问题;

    …the problem-solving activity is consistent with the learning goal;
    ......解决问题的活动符合学习目标;

    …the learner is shown how to detect and correct errors;
    ......向学员展示如何发现和纠正错误;

    …the learner is guided in his or her problem-solving by appropriate coaching that is gradually withdrawn.
    ......学习者在解决问题的过程中,会得到适当的指导,这种指导会逐渐消失。
  • Integration. Learning is facilitated when the learner:
    整合。学习者在以下情况下可以促进学习

    …can demonstrate his or her new knowledge or skill;
    ......可以展示他或她的新知识或技能;

    …can reflect on, discuss, and defend his or her new knowledge;
    ......能够思考、讨论并为自己的新知识辩护;

    …can create, invent, and explore new and personal ways to use his or her new knowledge.
    ......能够创造、发明和探索新的、个性化的方法来使用他或她的新知识。

    (Merrill, 2001, pp. 5-7) (Merrill, 2001, pp.)

APPLICATIONS 申请

Instructional design theories and principles are put into practice by being embedded in procedural guides or protocols for instructional development. These often take the form of instructional systems development (ISD) process models.
教学设计理论和原则通过嵌入教学开发的程序指南或协议而付诸实践。这些通常采用教学系统开发(ISD)流程模型的形式。

ISD Process Models 基础设施服务部门流程模型

Historically, instructional design can be seen as having two parents, namely the systems approach and behaviorist psychology. The relative contributions of each are difficult to assess because at the time when instructional design was conceived the two sources were quite intertwined. During the post-World War II period each of the US military services had developed doctrines for training development, all of which were based on the systems approach - a ‘soft’ version of systems analysis, itself an offshoot of operations research. Behaviorist learning theory was a pervasive influence in US military training, and was being enthusiastically explored in school and university instruction during this same time period. Many of those who had been involved in military training development were applying their craft in university research and development centers. Thus the systems approach and behaviorist concepts became
从历史上看,教学设计可以被视为有两个 "父母",即系统方法和行为主义心理学。很难评估这两种方法各自的相对贡献,因为在构思教学设计之初,这两种方法是相互交织在一起的。二战后,美国各军种都制定了培训发展理论,这些理论都基于系统方法--系统分析的 "软 "版本,而系统分析本身又是运筹学的一个分支。行为主义学习理论对美国军事训练产生了普遍影响,在同一时期的中小学和大学教学中也得到了积极探索。许多参与过军事训练发展的人都在大学研发中心施展才华。因此,系统方法和行为主义概念成为了

increasingly intertwined, both in the military ser vices and in academia.
无论是在军事服务领域还是在学术界,这种关系都日益密切。
During the 1960s, the systems approach began 2 2 ^(2){ }^{2} to appear in procedural models of instruction in US higher education. Barson’s (1967) instructional systems development project produced an influential model and set of heuristic guidelines for developers. If one looks at the form and language of these early models, the influence of the systems approach paradigm is obvious. Early models instantiate the principles of gathering and analyzing data prior to making decisions, and using feedback to correct deficiencies in work completed. They include systems terminology such as ‘mission objectives,’ ‘transmission vehicles,’ ‘error detection,’ and so on. The ‘soft’ systems concept continued to evolve in terms of its application to complex problems in human organizations, since it was recognized that ‘hard’ mathematical systems concepts did not apply directly to complex clusters of human activities, which represented systems only in the loosest sense of the term. Thus the systems concept came to be seen more as an analogy or as a ‘means of structuring a debate, rather than as a recipe for guaranteed efficient achievement’ (Checkland, 1981, p. 150).
20 世纪 60 年代,系统方法开始出现在美国高等教育的程序化教学模式中。Barson (1967)的教学系统开发项目为开发者提供了一个有影响力的模型和一套启发式指南。从这些早期模型的形式和语言来看,系统方法范式的影响是显而易见的。早期的模型体现了在决策前收集和分析数据,以及利用反馈来纠正已完成工作中的不足之处的原则。这些模型包括 "任务目标"、"传输工具"、"错误检测 "等系统术语。软 "系统概念在应用于人类组织中的复杂问题方面不断发展,因为人们认识到 "硬 "数学系统概念并不能直接应用于人类活动的复杂群组,而人类活动只是最宽泛意义上的系统。因此,系统概念更多地被视为一种类比或 "组织辩论的手段,而不是保证高效实现的秘诀"(Checkland,1981 年,第 150 页)。
The largest group of models is derived from the ‘soft’ systems paradigm, commonly referred to as the ADDIE model (an acronym derived from the key steps in the model: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation). These steps identify a generic systems approach, similar to that applied in other fields such as software engineering and product design. The ADDIE approach is systematic in that it recommends using the decisions made at each step (the output) as the input for the next step. That is, the analysis stage begins by surveying the learners and learning environment in order to determine which learning problems are of high priority and should be chosen as objectives. In the design stage, those learning objectives are translated into lesson plans or blueprints. In the development stage, specific materials and procedures are created to give life to the blueprints. In the implementation stage, learners actually use the materials and procedures that were created. In the evaluation stage, the learners are assessed in order to determine the extent to which they mastered the objectives specified at the beginning, and revisions are made as necessary. The ADDIE family of models, represented by 13 different variations on the systems approach, has been analyzed by Gustafson and Branch (1997).
最大的一组模型源于 "软 "系统范式,通常被称为 ADDIE 模型(该模型中关键步骤的首字母缩写):分析、设计、开发、实施和评估)。这些步骤确定了一种通用的系统方法,类似于软件工程和产品设计等其他领域所采用的方法。ADDIE 方法具有系统性,因为它建议将每个步骤所做的决定(输出)作为下一步骤的输入。也就是说,在分析阶段,首先要对学习者和学习环境进行调查,以确定哪些学习问题是重中之重,应选作目标。在设计阶段,这些学习目标被转化为教案或蓝图。在开发阶段,制作具体的材料和程序,使蓝图具有生命力。在实施阶段,学习者将实际使用所创建的材料和程序。在评估阶段,对学习者进行评估,以确定他们在多大程度上掌握了开始时规定的目标,并在必要时进行修改。Gustafson 和 Branch(1997 年)对 ADDIE 模型系列进行了分析,该模型由系统方法的 13 个不同变体组成。

Instructional Theory-based ISD Models
基于教学理论的综合服务部门模式

In addition to generic ISD process models, a number of alternative models have been developed as guides to the application of particular instructional design theories. One of the earliest was structural communication, developed in the UK by Bennett and Hodgson (Hodgson, 1974). Originating as a reaction to the limitations of programmed instruction, structural communication involved a process of analysis and development contingent on different levels of thinking, namely creative, conscious, sensitive, and automatic levels (whereas programmed instruction lent itself only to the sensitive and automatic levels). The form of the instruction resembles a guided discussion, emphasizing the role of the learner as an active inquirer.
除了通用的 ISD 流程模型外,还开发了许多替代模型,作为应用特定教学设计理论的指南。最早的模式之一是英国的贝内特和霍奇森(Bennett and Hodgson, 1974)提出的结构性交流模式。结构式交流是对程序化教学局限性的一种反应,它涉及到一个分析和发展的过程,取决于不同的思维水平,即创造、意识、敏感和自动水平(而程序化教学只适用于敏感和自动水平)。教学形式类似于引导式讨论,强调学习者作为主动探究者的作用。
A more recent attempt to mold a process model around the constructivist view is the reflective recursive design and development model of Willis and Wright (2000). Their process revolves around three focal points, namely definition, design/development, and dissemination. It assumes
Willis 和 Wright(2000 年)的反思性递归设计和开发模式是最近围绕建构主义观点塑造 流程模式的一次尝试。他们的流程围绕三个焦点,即定义、设计/开发和传播。它假定

that designers will work on all three aspects of the design process in an intermittent and recursive pattern that is neither predictable nor prescribable. The focal points are, in essence, a convenient way of organizing our thoughts about the work. (Willis and Wright, 2000, p. 5)
设计师在设计过程中,会以一种间歇性的、反复出现的、既无法预测也无法规定的模式来处理这三个方面的工作。从本质上讲,焦点是我们组织工作思路的一种便捷方式。(威利斯和赖特,2000 年,第 5 页)

LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS 学习环境

Some approaches to instructional design focus not on the procedural steps involved in creating specific lessons, but on the construction of whole learning environments that have special features conducive to efficient, effective learning. Such learning environments can themselves be viewed as large-scale methods - frameworks that are created in order to immerse learners in a consistent set of instructional conditions. Examples include the personalized system of instruction (Semb, 1997), goal-based scenarios (Schank et al., 1999), problem-based learning (Boud and Feletti, 1997), open learning environments (Hannafin et al., 1999), and constructivist learning environments (Jonasșen, 1999).
有些教学设计方法并不关注创建具体课程的程序步骤,而是关注整个学习环境的构建,这些学习环境具有有利于高效学习的特殊功能。这种学习环境本身可以被视为大规模的方法--为了让学习者沉浸在一套连贯的教学条件中而创建的框架。这方面的例子包括个性化教学系统(Semb,1997)、基于目标的情景(Schank 等人,1999)、基于问题的学习(Boud 和 Feletti,1997)、开放式学习环境(Hannafin 等人,1999)和建构主义学习环境(Jonasșen,1999)。

References 参考资料

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Ausubel DP (1980) Schemata, cognitive structure and advance organizers: a reply to Anderson, Spiro and Anderson.American Educational Research Journal 17: 400-404.

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learner-facilitator system. Journal of the Learning Sciences 8:349-390.
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Boud D and Feletti GI (eds) (1997) The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning, 2nd edn. London, UK: Kogan Page.
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Checkland P (1981) Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
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Driscoll MP (2000) Psychology of Learning for Instruction, 2nd edn. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Driscoll MP (2000)《教学学习心理学》,第 2 版。波士顿,马萨诸塞州:Allyn & Bacon.

Gagné RM (1965) The Conditions of Learning. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Gagné RM (1965) The Conditions of Learning.New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Gagné RM and Medsker KL (1996) The Conditions of Learning: Training Applications. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
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Gustafson KL and Branch RM (1997) Survey of Instructional Development Models, 3rd edn. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology.
Gustafson KL and Branch RM (1997) Survey of Instructional Development Models, 3rd edn. Syrac.Syracuse, NY:ERIC Information and Technology Clearinghouse.

Hannafin M, Land S and Oliver K (1999) Open learning environments: foundations, methods and models. In: Reigeluth CM (ed.) Instructional-Design Theories and Models: a New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, vol. II, pp. 115-140. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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Jonassen D (1999) Designing constructivist learning environments. In: Reigeluth CM (ed.) InstructionalDesign Theories and Models: a New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, vol. II, pp. 215-239. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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Schank RC, Berman TR and Macpherson KA (1999) Learning by doing. In: Reigeluth CM (ed.) InstructionalDesign Theories and Models: a New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, vol. II, pp. 161-181. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Schramm W (1962) Programmed Instruction:Today and Tomorrow.纽约州纽约市:Fund for the Advancement of Education.

Semb GB (1997) The personalized system of instruction (PSI) and the three Rs: revolutions, revelations and
Semb GB (1997) The personalized system of instruction (PSI) and three Rs: revolutions, revelations and.

reflections. In: Dills CR and Romiszowski AJ (eds) Instructional Development Paradigms, pp. 353-370. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
反思。In:Dills CR and Romiszowski AJ (eds) Instructional Development Paradigms, pp.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Skinner BF (1954) The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review 24: 86-97.
Skinner BF (1954) The science of learning and the art of teaching.Harvard Educational Review 24: 86-97.

Willis J and Wright KE (2000) A general set of procedures for constructivist instructional design: the new R2D2 model. Educational Technology 40: 5-20.
Willis J and Wright KE (2000) A general set of procedures for constructivist instructional design: the new R2D2 model.教育技术 40: 5-20.

Wittrock MC (1974) Learning as a generative process. Educational Psychology 11: 87-95.
Wittrock MC (1974) Learning as a generative process.Education Psychology 11: 87-95.

Further Reading 更多阅读

Dick W, Carey L and Carey JO (2001) The Systematic Design of Instruction, 5th edn. New York, NY: Longman.
Dick W, Carey L and Carey JO (2001)《教学的系统设计》,第 5 版。纽约州纽约市:Longman.
Dills CR and Romiszowski AJ (eds) Instructional Development Paradigms. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Dills CR and Romiszowski AJ (eds) Instructional Development Paradigms.新泽西州 Englewood Cliffs:教育技术出版物。

Gustafson KL and Branch RM (2002) What is instructional design? In: Reiser RA and Dempsey JV (eds) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology, pp. 16-25. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Gustafson KL and Branch RM (2002) What is instructional design?In:Reiser RA and Dempsey JV (eds) Trends and Issues in Instructional Design and Technology, pp.Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Molenda M, Pershing JA and Reigeluth CM (1996) Designing instructional systems. In: Craig RL (ed.) The ASTD Training and Development Handbook, 4th edn, pp. 266-293. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Molenda M, Pershing JA and Reigeluth CM (1996) Designing instructional systems.In:Craig RL (ed.) The ASTD Training and Development Handbook, 4th edn, pp.纽约州纽约市:New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Reigeluth CM (ed.) (1987) Instructional Theories in Action: Lessons Illustrating Selected Theories and Models. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Reigeluth CM (ed.) (1987) Instructional Theories in Action:Lessons Illustrating Selected Theories and Models.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Intellectual Ability 智力

Robert J Sternberg, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
美国康涅狄格州纽黑文耶鲁大学 Robert J Sternberg

Intellectual abilities comprise those higher-order cognitive skills that are involved in coping with the environments in which we live, including but not limited to learning and thinking skills. Intelligence, creativity, and wisdom are three of the major intellectual abilities.
智力包括应对我们所处环境的高阶认知技能,包括但不限于学习和思考技能。智力、创造力和智慧是三种主要的智能。

INTELLIGENCE 智力

Defining Intelligence 定义智能

Intelligence involves the ability to adapt to the environment. But what specifically is involved in intelligent thinking?
智力包括适应环境的能力。但智能思维具体涉及哪些方面呢?
Two symposia have sought to ascertain the essential features of intelligence, one in 1921 and the other in 1986. Features that have been proposed include: adaptation in order to meet the demands of the environment effectively; elementary processes of perception and attention; higher-level processes of abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem-solving, and decision-making; ability to learn; and effective behavior in response to problem situations.
有两次研讨会试图确定智力的基本特征,一次是在 1921 年,另一次是在 1986 年。提出的特征包括:为有效满足环境要求而进行的适应;感知和注意的初级过程;抽象推理、心理表征、解决问题和决策的高级过程;学习能力;以及应对问题情境的有效行为。
Some researchers, such as Boring in 1923, have been content to define intelligence operationally, simply as the ‘intelligence quotient’ (IQ). Originally, IQ was defined in terms of a ratio of one’s mental-age level of performance to one’s chrono-logical-age level of performance, but today IQs are defined in terms of how much one differs from the average. An average IQ is 100 . Slightly more than t t ^(t){ }^{t} two-thirds of IQs fall between 85 and 115.
一些研究者,如 1923 年的 Boring,一直满足于将智力简单地定义为 "智商"(IQ)。最初,智商是根据一个人的心理年龄水平与时间逻辑年龄水平的比率来定义的,但如今,智商是根据一个人与平均水平的差异来定义的。平均智商为 100 。略高于 t t ^(t){ }^{t} 三分之二的智商介于 85 和 115 之间。

Scientific definitions rely on tests such as those invented by Binet and Simon in 1916 to measure judgmental abilities or by Wechsler in 1939 to measure verbal and performance abilities. Earlier tests proposed by Galton in 1883 measured psychophysical abilities (such as sensitivity of hearing of touch). They proved to be less valid, in that they, correlated neither with each other nor with success. in educational settings.
科学的定义依赖于测试,如比奈和西蒙在 1916 年发明的测量判断能力的测试,或韦克斯勒在 1939 年发明的测量言语和表现能力的测试。高尔顿在 1883 年提出的早期测试测量的是心理物理能力(如听觉和触觉的灵敏度)。事实证明,这些测试的有效性较低,因为它们既不相互关联,也不与教育环境中的成功相关。

Laypeople also can be asked to define intelli gence, and it turns out that their definitions differ, from scientists’ definitions in placing somewhat greater emphasis on social competence. In on study by Sternberg and his colleagues, for example laypeople defined intelligence in terms of threes
也可以请非专业人士来定义智力,结果发现,他们的定义与科学家的定义不同,他们更强调社会能力。例如,在斯特恩伯格及其同事的一项研究中,非专业人士从以下三个方面来定义智力