术赤

AIBARSHYN AKHMETKALI，Why Kazakhs Celebrate 800 Years of Jochi Ulus，https://astanatimes.com/2024/08/why-kazakhs-celebrate-800-years-of-jochi-ulus/。
AIBARSHYN AKHMETKALI，为什么哈萨克斯坦人庆祝术赤乌鲁斯诞辰 800 周年，https://astanatimes.com/2024/08/why-kazakhs-celebrate-800-years-of-jochi-ulus/。

2 AUGUST 2024
2 八月 2024

ASTANA – This year, Kazakhstan marks 800 years since the foundation of Jochi Ulus (state), whose large territory once spanning from west Mongolia to eastern Europe, is considered the foundation of Kazakh statehood.
阿斯塔纳—今年是哈萨克斯坦术智乌鲁斯建国800周年，其广阔的领土曾经横跨西蒙古到东欧，被认为是哈萨克斯坦建国的基础。

Jochi was the eldest son of the Mongol Emperor Genghis Khan (ruler). Eight centuries ago, in 1224, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his four sons, giving Jochi the far west of the Mongol Empire, which includes the current territory of southern Russia and Kazakhstan. All Kazakh khans referred to themselves as Chingizids, tracing their lineage back to Genghis Khan and his descendants from Jochi.
术赤是蒙古皇帝成吉思汗（统治者）的长子。八个世纪前，即 1224 年，成吉思汗将他的帝国分给了他的四个儿子，将蒙古帝国的最西端交给了术赤，其中包括现在的俄罗斯南部和哈萨克斯坦的领土。所有哈萨克斯坦可汗都称自己为成吉思汗，他们的血统可以追溯到成吉思汗和他的术赤后代。

About Jochi
关于术驰

Juchi was born around 1182 to Genghis Khan’s first and most esteemed wife, Borte. However, his paternity was frequently questioned because Juchi was born after his mother had been captured by the Merkits, sparking rumors about his true father. Despite this, Genghis Khan is said to have always regarded and treated Juchi as his son.
Juchi 出生于 1182 年左右，是成吉思汗的第一任也是最受尊敬的妻子 Borte。然而，他的父子关系经常受到质疑，因为 Juchi 是在他的母亲被 Merkits 俘虏后出生的，这引发了关于他亲生父亲的谣言。尽管如此，据说成吉思汗一直将 Juchi 视为自己的儿子。

His brothers, particularly Chagatai, often used this uncertainty about his paternity to undermine him. On one occasion, in Genghis Khan’s presence, their bickering nearly escalated into a physical fight, with the brothers grabbing each other by the collar. These complex father-son and sibling dynamics are vividly portrayed in the historical play “Zhoshy Khan” at the Kuanyshbaev Kazakh State Academic Musical and Drama Theater.
他的兄弟们，尤其是察合台台，经常利用这种关于他父子身份的不确定性来削弱他。有一次，当着成吉思汗的面，他们的争吵几乎升级为肢体冲突，兄弟俩互相抓住对方的衣领。这些复杂的父子和兄弟姐妹关系在哈萨克斯坦国家学术音乐剧场的历史剧《Zhoshy Khan》中得到了生动的描绘。

The precise date and reason for Juchi’s death remain uncertain. According to some accounts, he was poisoned by the order of his father, possibly at the suggestion of his brother Chagatai. The Ulytau Region in Kazakhstan houses a mausoleum dedicated to Jochi Khan, but it may not be his actual burial site. Rather, it commemorates the founding of Jochi Ulus in that region.
Juchi 的确切死亡日期和原因仍不确定。根据一些记载，他是在父亲的命令下毒死的，可能是在他的兄弟察合台的建议下。哈萨克斯坦的乌利套地区有一座献给术赤汗的陵墓，但它可能不是他的实际墓地。相反，它是为了纪念术赤乌鲁斯在该地区的建立。

Ulytau Region as the foundation of future Kazakh khanate
乌利套地区是未来哈萨克斯坦汗国的基础

When Jochi first moved to Ordabazar, a medieval summer camp along the Kengir River in what is now the Ulytau Region, he is said to have highly admired the fields of his new settlement.
当术赤第一次搬到 Ordabazar 时，这是一个位于现在的 Ulytau 地区的 Kengir 河沿岸的中世纪夏令营，据说他非常钦佩新定居点的田野。

Persian historian Minhaj-i-Siraj Juzjani quotes Jochi in his historical work, “Tabaqat-i Nasiri:” “Even if you travel around the world, you will not find a place as soul-soothing, with clean air, delicious water, and wide open land as this,” said Jochi, describing the region’s wide steppes.
波斯历史学家 Minhaj-i-Siraj Juzjani 在他的历史著作《Tabaqat-i Nasiri》中引用了 Jochi 的话：“即使你环游世界，你也不会找到像这样令人心灵舒缓的地方，拥有清新的空气、美味的水和广阔的土地，”Jochi 在描述该地区广阔的草原时说。

Since then, this historic region has been the epicenter of political discourse and a crucial gathering place for future Kazakh khans, where, for centuries, they convened to make vital decisions regarding statehood and the future of the Kazakh people.
从那时起，这个历史悠久的地区一直是政治话语的中心和未来哈萨克斯坦可汗的重要聚集地，几个世纪以来，他们聚集在这里，就哈萨克斯坦国家地位和哈萨克斯坦人民的未来做出重要决定。

In the words of prominent Kazakh writer Abish Kekilbai, Ulytau is not called great because of its mountain’s height or its abundance of water but because it is where a great community came together to lay the foundation of the future Kazakh state.
用哈萨克斯坦著名作家 Abish Kekilbai 的话来说，乌利套之所以被称为伟大，并不是因为它的山高或水源丰富，而是因为它是一个伟大的社区聚集在一起，为未来的哈萨克斯坦国家奠定了基础。

Later, the great Abylai khan, who elevated the Kazakh state to unprecedented heights, became the khan of previously divided 300 Kazakh tribes while seated on white felt in the Ulytau Region. Similarly, the crowning ceremony of Kenesari, the last ruler in the Kazakh khanate tradition, took place on Ulytau field.
后来，伟大的 阿比莱汗将哈萨克斯坦国家提升到前所未有的高度，成为之前分裂的 300 个哈萨克斯坦部落的可汗，坐在乌利陶地区的白毡上。同样，哈萨克汗国传统中的最后一位统治者 Kenesari 的加冕仪式也在 Ulytau 田野举行。

Jochi ulus initially occupied northern Khorezm, Turkistan, and the eastern part of Desht-i Kipchak (Steppe of the Kipchaks), which is present-day Kazakhstan. Most of these territories were conquered by forces under Jochi’s command. Even while serving under his father, Jochi captured the cities of Otyrar, Syganak, Uzkent, Barshinkent, Aspas, and Zhankent along the Syrdarya river. Researchers estimate that approximately 65% of present-day Kazakhstan was once part of the territory controlled by Jochi.
术赤兀鲁斯最初占领了花剌子模北部、突厥斯坦和 Desht-i Kipchak（钦察大草原）的东部，即今天的哈萨克斯坦。这些领土中的大部分都被术赤指挥的军队征服。即使在他父亲手下服役期间，术赤也占领了锡尔达里亚河沿岸的奥提拉尔、锡加纳克、乌兹肯特、巴尔辛肯特、阿斯帕斯和詹肯特等城市。研究人员估计，当今哈萨克斯坦约 65% 的领土曾经是术赤控制领土的一部分。

Expansion of territory under Batu
Batu 旗下的领土扩张

It was only after Jochi khan’s death in 1227, when his second son Batu came to power, that the ulus expanded far beyond its initial territory.
直到 1227 年术赤汗去世后，他的次子拔都上台后，兀鲁斯才远远超出了最初的领土。

From 1236 to 1243, Batu led what historians refer to as the Mongol Western campaign, which initially resulted in the conquest of the western Cumans steppe, Volga Bulgaria, the Volga and North Caucasian peoples. Under Batu’s leadership, Mongol forces repeatedly invaded Russia, conquering cities such as Ryazan, Vladimir, Chernigov, and Kiev. Despite facing staunch resistance, the Mongols continued their advance into Central Europe.
从 1236 年到 1243 年，拔都领导了历史学家所说的蒙古西征，最初导致征服了西部库曼草原、伏尔加河、保加利亚、伏尔加河和北高加索人民。在拔都的领导下，蒙古军队多次入侵俄罗斯，征服了梁赞、弗拉基米尔、切尔尼戈夫和基辅等城市。尽管面临顽强的抵抗，蒙古人仍继续向中欧进军。

By the mid-13th century, Batu’s empire, known as Desht-i Kipchak due to its formation by many Turkic-speaking tribes, had become the most extensive empire in Asia and Europe. Although the ulus of Jochi under Batu remained part of the Mongol Empire, it is Batu who can be considered the founder of the future Golden Horde or the Kazakh khanate.
到 13 世纪中叶，拔都帝国，由于许多讲突厥语的部落形成而被称为 Desht-i Kipchak，已成为亚洲和欧洲最广阔的帝国。尽管拔都统治下的术赤兀鲁鲁斯仍然是蒙古帝国的一部分，但拔都可以被认为是未来金帐汗国或哈萨克汗国的创始人。

Ulus Juchi and Saraishyk – at the Origins of Kazakh Statehood，https://www.eurasian-research.org/ulus-juchi-and-saraishyk-at-the-origins-of-kazakh-statehood/。
Ulus Juchi 和 Saraishyk – 哈萨克斯坦建国的起源，https://www.eurasian-research.org/ulus-juchi-and-saraishyk-at-the-origins-of-kazakh-statehood/。

On October 9-11, 2019, an international scientific and practical conference “Ulus Juchi and Saraishyk – at the Origins of Kazakh Statehood” was held in Atyrau. The conference was dedicated to the 750th anniversary of Ulus Juchi (Golden Horde) and was organized by the Eurasian Research Institute of Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University together with the Akimat of Atyrau Region, the State Historical and Cultural Museum-Reserve “Saraishyk” of the Ministry of Culture and Sports of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Rukhani Zhangyru Project Office of the Atyrau Region.
2019 年 10 月 9 日至 11 日，“Ulus Juchi 和 Saraishyk – 哈萨克斯坦建国的起源”国际科学与实践会议在阿特劳举行。本次会议旨在纪念金帐汗国成立 750 周年，由 Khoja Akhmet Yassawi 国际哈萨克斯坦-土耳其大学欧亚研究所与阿特劳地区 Akimat、哈萨克斯坦共和国文化和体育部国家历史文化博物馆保护区“Saraishyk”和阿特劳地区 Rukhani Zhangyru 项目办公室共同举办。

Irina P Panyushkina
伊琳娜 P 潘尤什金娜

Emma R Usmanova,
艾玛·乌斯曼诺娃，

Kanat Z Uskenbay

Mukhtar B Kozha,
穆赫塔尔·科扎，

Dzhambul A Dzhumabekov,
Dzhambul A Dzhumabekov，

Gaziz A Akhatov and
Gaziz A Akhatov 和

A J Timothy Jull，CHRONOLOGY OF THE GOLDEN HORDE IN KAZAKHSTAN: 14C DATING OF JOCHI KHAN MAUSOLEUM，
A J Timothy Jull，哈萨克斯坦金帐汗国年表： 14C JOCHI KHAN MAUSOLEUM 的年代，
Radiocarbon , Volume 64 , Issue 2 , April 2022 , pp. 323 - 331。
放射性碳 ， 第 64 卷， 第 2 期，2022 年 4 月，第 323 - 331 页。

27 April 2022
27 四月 2022

Abstract
抽象

We present accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon (AMS 14C) dating results of the “Jochi Khan Mausoleum”—the proposed burial place of the oldest son of Gengghis Khan in Ulytau, Kazakhstan. The Ulytau region retains 34 burial complexes of Islamic tradition associated with the Golden Horde history (1221–1438 CE). However, there is no calendar-dated chronology of the medieval mausoleums in this region, which complicates their historical interpretation. Three 14C dates from construction timbers and burial of the Jochi Khan mausoleum are calibrated to 1220–1400 CE interval (95.4% range) with the mid-point at 1245 CE for the coffin, 1330 CE for the entry door, and 1350 CE for a masonry wall. The 14C-calibration suggests that the mausoleum was built about 100 years after the death of Jochi (1225 CE) and renovated at least once in the middle of the 14th century. Apparently, the wood for the coffin was harvested sometime in the interval 1220–1270 CE. The calendar ages of the coffin and the mausoleum are ca. 75 years apart. It is possible that the old coffin was placed into a newly constructed mausoleum. However, there is no historical evidence confirming this important re-burial of Jochi. The dating results challenge the attribution of the mausoleum to Jochi Khan. This study demonstrates that the age of the Islamic mausoleums in Ulytau can be successfully dated with 14C. While requiring further data assembly, this first 14C dataset can form the basis of the calendar chronology of the Golden Horde in Kazakhstan. Historical attribution of the mausoleums must be collaborated with the calendar chronology.
我们介绍了“术赤汗陵墓”的加速器质谱放射性碳 （AMS 14C） 测年结果，该陵墓是哈萨克斯坦乌里套市成吉思汗长子的拟议墓地。乌利陶地区保留了 34 座与金帐汗国历史（公元 1221-1438 年）相关的伊斯兰传统墓葬群。然而，该地区没有中世纪陵墓的日历日期年表，这使得它们的历史解释变得复杂。术赤汗陵墓的建筑木材和埋葬的三个 14C 年代被校准为公元 1220-1400 年区间（95.4% 范围），棺材的中点为公元 1245 年，入口门为公元 1330 年，砖石墙为公元 1350 年。 14C 校准表明，陵墓是在术赤去世后约 100 年（公元 1225 年）建造的，并在 14 世纪中叶至少翻修过一次。显然，棺材的木材是在公元 1220 年至 1270 年的某个时间收获的。棺材和陵墓的日历年龄相隔约 75 年。旧棺材有可能被放置在新建的陵墓中。然而，没有历史证据证实术赤的这一重要再埋葬。测年结果对陵墓的归属 Jochi Khan 提出了挑战。这项研究表明，Ulytau 的伊斯兰陵墓的年龄可以成功地确定 14世纪。虽然需要进一步的数据组装，但第一个 14C 数据集可以构成哈萨克斯坦金帐汗国日历年表的基础。陵墓的历史归属必须与日历年表合作。

Keywords
关键字

carbon-14 datingGenghis Khan DynastyMedieval Central AsiaUlytau
碳-14测年成吉思汗王朝中世纪 中亚乌利套

INTRODUCTION
介绍

The historiography of the Golden Horde (1221–1438 CE), the successor of the Mongol World Empire ruled by Chinggisids, is not well defined and bears many contradictories and misinterpretations, partly due to the scarcity of Mongol written chronicles about the internal affairs of the Gengghis Khan’s family (Halperin Reference Halperin1985; Uskenbay Reference Uskenbay2013). Traditionally, the history of Ulus Jochi integrates much lore, legend, and oral genealogy, as well as written narratives from Buddhist cosmology, and Latin, Chinese, Russian, Arab, and Persian chronicles that originated in the conquered states or outside of the nomadic empire (Suleimenov Reference Suleimenov1969; Masanov et al. Reference Masanov, Abylkhozhin Zh and Yerofeeva2007; Yurcheko Reference Yurchenko2008; Usmanova et al. Reference Usmanova, Kozha, Uskenbay, Akhatov and Dzhumabekov2021). The history of the later states in Central Asia representing a direct continuation of the parent Golden Horde (Uskenbay Reference Uskenbay2003) consists mostly of oral tradition. Medieval archaeology of Kazakhstan has been effectively rationalized to the material culture of the Golden Horde (Margulan Reference Margulan1948; Usmanova et al. Reference Usmanova, Dryomov, Panyushkina and Kolbina2018), yet the framework and legitimacy of Chinggis’s dynastic history is constrained by a lack of chronological evidence.
金帐汗国（公元 1221-1438 年）是成吉思汗统治的蒙古世界帝国的继承者，其史学定义不明确，存在许多矛盾和误解，部分原因是蒙古人关于成吉思汗家族内部事务的书面编年史稀缺（Halperin Reference Halperin1985;Uskenbay Reference Uskenbay2013）。传统上，兀鲁斯术赤的历史融合了许多传说、传说和口述家谱，以及佛教宇宙论的书面叙述，以及源自被征服国家或游牧帝国以外的拉丁文、中文、俄文、阿拉伯文和波斯编年史（苏莱门诺夫 参考文献 Suleimenov1969;Masanov et al. 参考文献 Masanov， Abylkhozhin Zh and Yerofeeva2007;Yurcheko 参考文献 Yurchenko2008;Usmanova et al. 参考文献 Usmanova， Kozha， Uskenbay， Akhatov and Dzhumabekov2021）。中亚后来的国家的历史代表了母金帐汗国的直接延续（Uskenbay Reference Uskenbay2003）主要由口头传统组成。哈萨克斯坦的中世纪考古学已经有效地被合理化为金帐汗国的物质文化（Margulan Reference Margulan1948;Usmanova et al. 参考文献 Usmanova， Dryomov， Panyushkina and Kolbina2018），但成吉思汗朝历史的框架和合法性因缺乏年代学证据而受到制约。

Recent archaeological surveys throughout central Kazakhstan describe a considerable amount of preserved historical architecture attributed to the Golden Horde (Khorosh Reference Khorosh2010, Reference Khorosh2011). However, the age of the medieval structures is mainly approximated from architectural elements or oral tradition (Gerasimov Reference Gerasimov1957; Margulan Reference Margulan1974; Yegenbayuly Reference Yegenbayuly2001; Khorosh Reference Khorosh2011). The lack of adequate calendar-defined evidence is a challenge to the authenticity and origin of the historical unions (Masanov et al. Reference Masanov, Abylkhozhin Zh and Yerofeeva2007; Yerofeeva Reference Yerofeeva2016). Clustering of large mausoleums that have been well-kept and worshipped for 500–700 years could be not coincidental and certainly conveys a special historical memory of Mongol and Turks tribes of Central Asia preserved in architecture. We propose to define the age of these masonry structures with radiocarbon dating which will help outlining an improved calendar-based chronology of the Golden Horde archaeology in Kazakhstan.
最近对哈萨克斯坦中部的考古调查描述了大量保存下来的金帐汗国历史建筑（Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2010， 参考文献 Khorosh2011）。然而，中世纪建筑的年龄主要来自建筑元素或口头传统（Gerasimov 参考 Gerasimov1957;Margulan 参考文献 Margulan1974;Yegenbayuly 参考文献 Yegenbayuly2001;Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2011）。缺乏足够的日历定义证据是对历史结合的真实性和起源的挑战（Masanov 等人， 参考文献 Masanov， Abylkhozhin Zh 和 Yerofeeva2007;Yerofeeva Reference Yerofeeva2016）.500-700 年来保存完好并受到崇拜的大型陵墓聚集在一起可能并非巧合，它无疑传达了中亚蒙古和突厥部落的特殊历史记忆，这些记忆保存在建筑中。我们建议用放射性碳测年法来定义这些砖石结构的年龄，这将有助于勾勒出哈萨克斯坦金帐汗国考古学的改进的基于日历的年表。

In the Ulytau Mountains of central Kazakhstan, there are several dozen medieval monuments, including mausoleums, necropolises, and ancient settlements built of burnt bricks from the time of the Golden Horde (13th–15th centuries). A total of 34 mausoleums have been documented there, four of which have preserved architecture and 30 others have only structural footings remained (Khorosh Reference Khorosh2009; QORYQ 2021). The most significant of them is the mausoleum of Jochi Khan (or Zhoshy-khan in Kazakh language). Jochi (ca. 1182–1225) was the oldest son of Gengghis Khan, an accomplished military commander and the founder of the Golden Horde also called the Ulus of Jochi. According to legend, he died while hunting, falling from a horse, and his funeral was carried out according the Chinggis protocol for sacred burial. The mausoleum of Jochi Khan is a medieval burial structure in a shape of a single-chamber domed portal (Figure 1). It was erected according to Islam tradition and presently surrounded by nine other smaller mausoleums. In Medieval Central Asia, a mausoleum was the most popular type of building and site after the mosque (Barthold and Rogers Reference Barthold and Rogers1970; Hillenbrand Reference Hillenbrand1999). The structure includes many key elements of medieval tomb architecture: a massive domed square tower built of burnt bricks, a portal with a rectangular frame around an arched opening, geometrical drum carrying the double dome (inner and outer), gallery, stucco vaults, and decorations with blue glazed tile (Gerasimov Reference Gerasimov1957; Khorosh Reference Khorosh2009).
在哈萨克斯坦中部的乌利套山脉，有几十座中世纪纪念碑，包括陵墓、墓地和用金帐汗国时代（13-15 世纪）用烧砖建造的古代定居点。那里共有 34 座陵墓被记录在案，其中 4 座保留了建筑，另外 30 座只剩 下结构性地基（Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2009;QORYQ 2021 年）。其中最重要的是术赤汗（或哈萨克语中的 Zhoshy-khan）陵墓。术赤（约 1182-1225 年）是成吉思汗的长子，成吉思汗是一位多才多艺的军事指挥官，也是金帐汗国（又称术赤兀鲁斯）的创始人。据传说，他在打猎时从马上摔下来而死，他的葬礼是按照成吉思汗的神圣葬礼进行进行的。术赤汗陵墓是一座中世纪的墓葬结构，形状为单室圆顶门户（图 1）。它是根据伊斯兰教传统建造的，目前被其他九座较小的陵墓所包围。在中世纪的中亚，陵墓是仅次于清真寺的最受欢迎的建筑和遗址类型（Barthold 和 Rogers 参考文献 Barthold 和 Rogers1970;Hillenbrand 参考文献 Hillenbrand1999）。 该结构包括中世纪陵墓建筑的许多关键元素：一座由烧砖建造的巨大圆顶方塔、一个围绕拱形开口的矩形框架的门户、承载双圆顶（内部和外部）的几何鼓、画廊、灰泥拱顶和蓝色琉璃瓦装饰（Gerasimov 参考 Gerasimov1957;Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2009）。

The mausoleum building has been known under this name since the 16th century from the description by Hafeez Tanysh (court historian) of the emir of Bukhara, Abdullah Khan, who visited Ulytau during his military campaign in the spring of 1582 (Suleimenov Reference Suleimenov1969). Folk stories, historical maps, and travelers’ narratives commonly described the Mausoleum throughout the 19th and 20th centuries (Barthold and Rogers Reference Barthold and Rogers1970; Yegenbayuly Reference Yegenbayuly2001; Khorosh Reference Khorosh2009). The first scientific documentation and mapping of the Mausoleum architecture occurred in 1946–47 (Gerasimov Reference Gerasimov1957). Also in 1946, the excavation of the mausoleum’s two burials has found a human skeleton with missing bones of one hand, animal bones, a camel skull, fragments of leather and fabrics, and a female skeleton in another crypt (Margulan Reference Margulan1948). Two decades later A.Kh. Margulan (Reference Margulan1978) suggested that the skeleton in the first coffin (sometimes also referred as a wooden box) belonged to Jochi Khan “who was buried one year later after his death in a new mausoleum built in 1228” (Margulan Reference Margulan1978). This statement began the official recognition of the mausoleum as the burial place of Jochi Khan.
自 16 世纪以来，这座陵墓建筑就以这个名字为人所知，因为哈菲兹·坦尼什（宫廷历史学家）对布哈拉埃米尔阿卜杜拉汗的描述，他在 1582 年春天的军事行动中访问了乌利陶（苏莱门诺夫 参考资料 Suleimenov1969）。民间故事、历史地图和旅行者的叙述通常描述了整个 19 世纪和 20 世纪的陵墓（Barthold 和 Rogers 参考文献 Barthold 和 Rogers1970;Yegenbayuly 参考文献 Yegenbayuly2001;Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2009）。陵墓建筑的第一次科学记录和测绘发生在 1946-47 年（Gerasimov Reference Gerasimov1957）。同样在 1946 年，对陵墓的两座墓葬的挖掘在另一个地下室中发现了一具单手骨缺失的人类骨骼、动物骨骼、骆驼头骨、皮革和织物碎片以及一具女性骨骼（Margulan Reference Margulan1948）。二十年后，A.Kh. Margulan（参考 Margulan1978）提出，第一口棺材（有时也称为木箱）中的骨架属于术赤汗，“他在去世一年后被埋葬在 1228 年建造的新陵墓中”（Margulan Reference Margulan1978）。这一声明开始正式承认陵墓是术赤汗的墓地。

This hypothetic affiliation had been doubted by many researchers, primarily because Jochi as all Genghis’s family had practiced Tengrism, while the mausoleum is designed following the Islamic burial tradition. It is well known from historical evidence that Tengrism kept elite burial places in inaccessible, secret and sacred place under the protection of the ancestors (Barthold and Rogers Reference Barthold and Rogers1970; Rykin Reference Rykin2010), since looting of burials (often practice in the past) was believed to weaken the clan’s power (Yurchenko Reference Yurchenko2008; Usmanova et al. Reference Usmanova, Kozha, Uskenbay, Akhatov and Dzhumabekov2021). Barthold and Rogers (Reference Barthold and Rogers1970) explicitly stated that the burial rites of a Khan remained exactly the same throughout the Mongol Empire, and the royal cemetery was forbidden ground and the grave was not indicated in any way. Interestingly, the name of “Ulytau” is a derivative from the word “Ulug” which is translated from Kazakh and many other Turk languages as a “Grand Place” in the sense of veneration (Sembi Reference Sembi2014). Moreover, Islam only became an official religion of the Golden Horde in the beginning of the 14th century (1313 CE, Halperin Reference Halperin1985; DeWeese Reference DeWeese1994). Recently, the year of Jochi Khan’s death was corrected from 1227 CE to 1225 CE with new analysis of written historical documents (Uskenbay Reference Uskenbay2003).
许多研究人员对这种假设的隶属关系表示怀疑，主要是因为术赤和成吉思汗的所有家人一样，都信奉腾格里教，而陵墓的设计则遵循伊斯兰葬礼传统。从历史证据中可以清楚地知道，腾格里教在祖先的保护下将精英墓地保存在人迹罕至、秘密和神圣的地方（Barthold 和 Rogers 参考文献 Barthold 和 Rogers1970;Rykin 参考文献 Rykin2010），因为人们认为洗劫墓葬（过去经常这样做）会削弱氏族的权力（Yurchenko 参考文献 Yurchenko2008;Usmanova et al. 参考文献 Usmanova， Kozha， Uskenbay， Akhatov and Dzhumabekov2021）。Barthold 和 Rogers（参考 Barthold 和 Rogers1970）明确指出，可汗的葬礼在整个蒙古帝国都完全相同，皇家墓地是禁止的，坟墓也没有以任何方式标明。有趣的是，“Ulytau”这个名字是从“Ulug”这个词衍生而来的，这个词从哈萨克语和许多其他土耳其语言翻译过来，是崇敬意义上的“大地方”（Sembi Reference Sembi2014）。此外，伊斯兰教直到 14 世纪初才成为金帐汗国的官方宗教（公元 1313 年，Halperin Reference Halperin1985;DeWeese 参考文献 DeWeese1994）。最近，术赤汗的去世年份从公元 1227 年更正为公元 1225 年，对书面历史文献进行了新的分析（Uskenbay Reference Uskenbay2003）。

In this study, we aim to establish the calendar age of the coffin and the building of the mausoleum in order to test the hypothesis that Jochi’s remains could have been reburied shortly after his death since the Chinggis funeral tradition excluded the Islamic mausoleum. The human bones from the Margulan’s excavations are currently inaccessible. This predicament limits our approach to the datable materials that are available. Nevertheless, 14C dating can potentially link the historical evidence and calendar dates of the mausoleum. Additionally, this will confirm the prospect on developing a calendar chronology of the Golden Horde in Kazakhstan with radiocarbon dating of the medieval architecture.
在这项研究中，我们旨在确定棺材的日历年龄和陵墓的建造，以检验术赤的遗体可能在他死后不久被重新埋葬的假设，因为成吉思汗的葬礼传统不包括伊斯兰陵墓。Margulan 挖掘的人骨目前无法获得。这种困境限制了我们对可用可测年材料的方法。尽管如此， 14C 年代可能会将历史证据和陵墓的日历日期联系起来。此外，这将证实对哈萨克斯坦金帐汗国进行日历年表的前景，并对中世纪建筑进行放射性碳测年。

METHODS AND DATA
方法和数据

We analyze the age of three wood samples collected at the Jochi Khan mausoleum under different restoration projects in 1997, 2001, and 2021. The mausoleum is located on the left bank of Kara-Kengir River (48°09ʼN, 67°49ʼE). A small piece of a wooden coffin (AA106632) from the burial inside the domed chamber was sampled in 1998 during the burial re-excavation (Yegenbayuly Reference Yegenbayuly2001). Another wood sample (DeA-19262) was cut from a scaffolding attached inside the brick wall at 1/3 height from the ground at the main façade. A third wood sample (DeA-30740) was the end of door- saddle threshold that was subsampled at the archive of National Historical, Cultural and Natural Reserve-Museum “Ulytau” (QORYQ 2021) in Zhezkazgan, Karaganda Oblast. The original wood of the doorway was archived after the latest restoration of the mausoleum. All samples are small pieces of wood with few of visible rings that are not suitable for tree-ring cross-dating that requires >50 rings (Figure 2). The coffin plank is made of a conifer species (probably pine) and two other samples are construction timbers from deciduous trees cottonwood/poplar species which are presently grown in the vicinity of the mausoleum. The curvature of the rings indicates that the wood was harvested from relatively young trees of 20–30 years of age.
我们分析了 1997 年、2001 年和 2021 年在不同修复项目中在术赤汗陵收集的三个木材样本的年龄。陵墓位于卡拉-肯吉尔河（Kara-Kengir 河）左岸（北纬 48°09ʼ，东经 67°49ʼ）。1998 年，在墓葬重新挖掘期间，从圆顶室内的墓葬中取样了一小块木棺材 （AA106632） （Yegenbayuly Reference Yegenbayuly2001）。另一个木头样品 （DeA-19262） 是从主立面距离地面 1/3 高度的砖墙内脚手架上切割下来的。第三个木材样本 （DeA-30740） 是门鞍阈值的末端，在卡拉干达州 Zhezkazgan 的国家历史、文化和自然保护区博物馆“Ulytau”（QORYQ 2021）档案中进行了二次采样。门口的原始木材在陵墓最近一次修复后被存档。所有样品都是小块木头，几乎没有可见的年轮，不适合需要 >50 年轮的树轮交叉测年（图 2）。棺材木板由针叶树种（可能是松树）制成，另外两个样品是目前生长在陵墓附近的落叶树、白杨木/杨树物种的建筑木材。年轮的曲率表明木材是从 20-30 年相对年轻的树木中采伐的。

Wood samples were cleaned and checked for possible contamination then grounded to 20 μm-mesh. The 14C-dating was performed at two AMS facilities: the NSF-Arizona AMS facility, University of Arizona, USA (Arizona) and the Isotope Climatology and Environmental Research Centre, Debrecen, Hungary (ICER). Each powdered sample was converted to α-cellulose using pretreatment by sodium chlorite bleaching at pH 3 (Leavitt and Danzer Reference Leavitt and Danzer1993; Molnar et al. Reference Molnár2013a). The cellulose samples were combusted to CO2 and converted to graphite, and 14C dating was performed using the 3MV Pelletron AMS (National Electrostatics Corporation) operated at 2.5 MV in Tucson, Arizona, and a 200kV MICADAS (ETHZ, Zürich, CH) in Debrecen, Hungary using standard facility protocols (Jull et al. Reference Jull, Burr, Beck, Hodgins, Biddulph, McHargue and Lange2008; Molnar et al. Reference Molnár, Rinyu, Veres, Seiler, Wacker and Synal2013b; Rinyu et al. Reference Rinyu, Molnár, Major, Nagy, Veres, Kimák, Wacker and Synal2013; Janovics et al. Reference Janovics, Futó and Molnár2018). Carbon-14 calculation and error data reduction were done using the standard BATS software (Wacker et al. Reference Wacker, Christl and Synal2010). The fraction of modern carbon, F is defined as the 14C/12C ratio relative to 1950AD (Stuiver and Polach Reference Stuiver and Polach1977; Donahue et al. Reference Donahue, Linick and Jull1990) and this can be converted to an uncalibrated radiocarbon age using the standard formula,
清洁木材样品并检查是否有可能的污染，然后研磨至 20 μm 网孔。 14C 测年在两个 AMS 设施中进行： 美国亚利桑那大学 （Arizona） 的 NSF-Arizona AMS 设施和匈牙利德布勒森的同位素气候学和环境研究中心 （ICER）。通过在 pH 值为 3 的亚氯酸钠漂白进行预处理，将每个粉末状样品转化为α-纤维素（Leavitt 和 Danzer 参考文献 Leavitt 和 Danzer1993;Molnar et al. 参考文献 Molnár2013a）.将纤维素样品燃烧成 CO2 并转化为石墨， 使用在亚利桑那州图森以 2.5 MV 运行的 3MV Pelletron AMS（国家静电公司）和在匈牙利德布勒森以 2.5 MV 运行的 200kV MICADAS（ETHZ，瑞士苏黎世）进行 14 C 测年，使用标准设施方案（Jull 等人。 参考文献 Jull， Burr， Beck， Hodgins， Biddulph， McHargue 和 Lange2008;Molnar et al. 参考文献 Molnár， Rinyu， Veres， Seiler， Wacker and Synal2013b;Rinyu et al. 参考文献 Rinyu， Molnár， Major， Nagy， Veres， Kimák， Wacker and Synal2013;Janovics et al. 参考文献 Janovics， Futó and Molnár2018）。使用标准 BATS 软件完成碳 14 计算和误差数据减少（Wacker 等人， 参考 Wacker、Christl 和 Synal2010）。 现代碳的分数 F 定义为 相对于公元 1950 年的 14C/12C 比率（Stuiver 和 Polach 参考文献 Stuiver 和 Polach1977;Donahue 等人。 参考 Donahue、Linick 和 Jull1990），这可以使用标准公式转换为未校准的放射性碳年龄，

Where λ is 1.245 × 10–4, the decay constant based on the Libby half-life of 5568 yr. The calendar age range can be determined from the uncalibrated age using the OxCal v4.4 program (https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk) and the IntCal20 calibration curve (Reimer et al. Reference Reimer, Austin, Bard, Bayliss, Blackwell, Ramsey, Butzin, Cheng, Edwards, Friedrich, Grootes, Guilderson, Hajdas, Heaton, Hogg, Hughen, Kromer, Manning, Muscheler, Palmer, Pearson, van der Plicht, Reimer, Richards, Scott, Southon, Turney, Wacker, Adolphi, Büntgen, Capano, Fahrni, Fogtmann-Schulz, Friedrich, Köhler, Kudsk, Miyake, Olsen, Reinig, Sakamoto, Sookdeo and Talamo2020).
其中 λ 为 1.245 × 10-4，衰减常数基于 5568 年的 Libby 半衰期。日历年龄范围可以使用 OxCal v4.4 程序 （https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk） 和 IntCal20 校准曲线（Reimer 等人 ，参考 Reimer、Austin、Bard、Bayliss、Blackwell、Ramsey、Butzin、Cheng、Edwards、Friedrich、Grootes、Guilderson、Hajdas、Heaton、Hogg、Hughen、Kromer、Manning、Muscheler、Palmer、Pearson、van der Plicht、Reimer、Richards、Scott、Southon、Turney、 Wacker， Adolphi， Büntgen， Capano， Fahrni， Fogtmann-Schulz， Friedrich， Köhler， Kudsk， Miyake， Olsen， Reinig， Sakamoto， Sookdeo 和 Talamo2020）。

RESULTS
结果

To determine the calendar age of the Jochi Khan mausoleum, we analyzed new and the only available, as of now, accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon (AMS 14C) dataset from three wood samples measured at two AMS facilities: ICER and Arizona (Table 1). All 14C measurements from both AMS facilities are high quality and show a coherent time sequence. The error of measurements is adjusted to 18–26 calendar years and the length of 68% range of calibrated dates are ∼100 yr. The result of the 14C ages calibration is shown in Figure 3. The 3-point sequence of the developed dates matches well the structure of IntCal20 calibration curve for the interval 1220–1400 CE (Figure 4). The calibrated sequence determines the chronology of the studied burial. From the midpoints of the calibrated intervals (95.4%) the coffin timber was harvested ca. 1243 CE (Figure 4). Since Jochi passed away in 1225 CE, the 95.4% confidence interval for the wood of 1218–1268 CE is consistent with this age, yet the mid-point indicates the age of the coffin wood about 20 years later. Masonry work on the mausoleum building continued throughout the 14th century. The bricks of the front facade were laid ca. 1350 CE according to the midpoint of carbon-14 date derived from the wall-top scaffolding. Meanwhile, the door to the burial chamber was installed, most likely, in 1280–90 (Figure 3).
为了确定术赤汗陵墓的日历年龄，我们分析了新的和目前唯一可用的加速器质谱放射性碳 （AMS 14C） 数据集，该数据集来自在两个 AMS 设施（ICER 和亚利桑那州）测量的三个木材样本（表 1）。来自两个 AMS 设施的所有 14C 测量值都是高质量的，并显示出连贯的时间序列。测量误差调整为 18-26 个日历年，校准日期的 68% 范围的长度为 ∼100 年。14 C 年龄校准的结果 如图 3 所示 。显影日期的 3 点序列与区间 1220-1400 CE 的 IntCal20 校准曲线的结构非常匹配（图 4）。校准序列决定了所研究墓葬的时间顺序。从校准区间的中点 （95.4%） 开始，棺材木材是在公元 1243 年左右采伐的（图 4）。由于术赤于公元 1225 年去世，公元 1218-1268 年木材的 95.4% 置信区间与这个年龄一致，但中点表示棺材木材的年龄大约在 20 年后。陵墓建筑的砖石工程在整个 14 世纪继续进行。前立面的砖块是在公元 1350 年左右根据墙顶脚手架得出的碳 14 测年中点铺设的。与此同时，墓室的门很可能是在 1280-90 年安装的（图 3）。

The gap between these two dates from the building probably delineates the period of two construction phases established by the architectural analysis of the masonry earlier (Khorosh Reference Khorosh2011). However, it would be useful to obtain more samples to better define the full period of construction. The mausoleum architecture suggests that the original part of structure had only the front portal with the central cupola (Figure 1). The decorative star-like drum of the cupola and the raised facade of the portal have appeared much later. Moreover, the installation of the decorative elements (e.g., blue glazed tile, gallery, stucco vaults and inner dome) was associated with the increasing importance of the tomb during the rule of the Timurids at the late 14th–15th centuries (Khorosh Reference Khorosh2011). It is well- known that the interior walls of the mausoleum were covered with several layers of stucco before and after the decorative interior renovations (Gerasimov Reference Gerasimov1957; Khorosh Reference Khorosh2009), which is the evidence of the continued maintenance of the building.
这两个日期与建筑物之间的差距可能描绘了早期砌体建筑分析确定的两个施工阶段的时期（Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2011）。但是，获取更多样本以更好地定义整个施工期会很有用。陵墓建筑表明，结构的原始部分只有带有中央圆顶的前门（图 1）。圆顶的装饰性星状鼓和门户的凸起立面出现的时间很晚。此外，装饰元素（例如，蓝色琉璃瓦、画廊、灰泥拱顶和内圆顶）的安装与 14 至 15 世纪帖木儿统治期间陵墓日益重要有关（Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2011）。众所周知，陵墓的内墙在装饰性内部翻修前后都覆盖了几层灰泥（Gerasimov 参考文献 Gerasimov1957;Khorosh 参考文献 Khorosh2009），这是该建筑持续维护的证据。

The dating results challenge the traditional attribution of the mausoleum to Jochi Khan. It is evident from the 14C dating that an older coffin was interred in a later mausoleum structure. Although, there is no historical evidence for such an important reburial of Jochi, Barthold thought there could be a possibility that the mausoleum was erected in the vicinity of the actual burial of Jochi (Barthold and Rogers Reference Barthold and Rogers1970). Ginsburg, who studied the anthropology of the skulls from the Margulan excavations, concluded that the bones most likely belong to the descendants of the Jochi clan (Ginsburg Reference Ginsburg1956). We think that the secret burial of Jochi could be located anywhere in the Ulus Jochi and its location remains unknown (Masanov et al. Reference Masanov, Abylkhozhin Zh and Yerofeeva2007; Yerofeeva Reference Yerofeeva2016; Usmanova et al. Reference Usmanova, Kozha, Uskenbay, Akhatov and Dzhumabekov2021). The mausoleum most likely contains the remains of members of the Jochi clan. However, to confirm this hypothesis, it is necessary to look for new historical evidence.
测年结果挑战了将陵墓归属于术赤汗的传统观点。从 14C 的年代可以明显看出，一具较旧的棺材被埋葬在后来的陵墓结构中。虽然没有历史证据证明术赤如此重要的重葬，但巴托德认为陵墓有可能建在术赤实际埋葬的附近（Barthold 和 Rogers 参考文献 Barthold 和 Rogers1970）。金斯伯格研究了马古兰发掘的头骨的人类学，得出结论，这些骨头很可能属于术赤氏族的后代（金斯伯格 参考文献 Ginsburg1956）。我们认为术赤的秘密埋葬可能位于兀鲁斯术赤的任何地方，其位置仍然未知（Masanov 等人， 参考文献 Masanov， Abylkhozhin Zh and Yerofeeva2007;Yerofeeva 参考文献 Yerofeeva2016;Usmanova et al. 参考文献 Usmanova， Kozha， Uskenbay， Akhatov and Dzhumabekov2021）。陵墓很可能包含术赤氏成员的遗骸。然而，要证实这一假设，有必要寻找新的历史证据。

CONCLUSIONS
结论

Our first 14C dating of Medieval construction timbers in Kazakhstan showed a great potential of this dating approach for developing the calendar chronology of the Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi). The attribution of the Jochi Mausoleum as the burial place of the Jochi Khan does not correspond with the dating results. The mausoleum was built about 100 years after the death of Jochi (1225 CE) and, more importantly, soon after Islam became the official religion of the Golden Horde (1313 CE). The historical date of the Jochi Khan Mausoleum ca. 13th–15th centuries should be narrowed down to the 14th century. The architectural context of the dated timbers suggests two phases in the mausoleum construction during the 14th century, which points to the importance of the complex for the Golden Horde elite. The coffin date from the burial excavated in 1998 is consistent with near the time of Joshi’s death or some decades later. The age of the coffin does not overlap with the age of the building materials. Perhaps the mausoleum complex was built for the descendants of Jochi Khan and named after Jochi to honor the great ancestor.
我们对哈萨克斯坦中世纪建筑木材的第一次 14C 测年表明，这种测年方法在开发金帐汗国 （Ulus Jochi） 的历法年表方面具有巨大潜力。将术赤陵归属为术赤汗的埋葬地与测年结果不符。这座陵墓建于术赤去世约 100 年（公元 1225 年）后，更重要的是，在伊斯兰教成为金帐汗国的官方宗教（公元 1313 年）后不久。术赤汗陵的历史日期约为 13 至 15 世纪，应缩小到 14 世纪。这些过时木材的建筑背景表明了 14 世纪陵墓建设的两个阶段，这表明了该建筑群对金帐汗国精英的重要性。1998 年出土的墓葬的棺材日期与 Joshi 去世时或几十年后的时间一致。棺材的年龄与建筑材料的年龄不重叠。也许陵墓建筑群是为术赤汗的后代建造的，并以术赤命名，以纪念这位伟大的祖先。

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
确认

This paper is dedicated to the memory of (1) Irina V Yerofeeva (1953–2020), Director of Institute for Cultural Heritage of Nomads, Kazakhstan, and (2) our dear colleague and friend Elena Khorosh (1957–2018), who passed away while this paper was being prepared for publication. E. Khorosh, historical architect, has surveyed the medieval structures in the Ulytau region and assembled multiple datasets for future chronology of the Golden Horde. The sampling efforts were supported by award NSF BCS #1122359. We would like to thank Anur Tolebaev, Director and Restoration Specialist of Ular-Ulytau Ltd, and Baktiyar Kojakhmetov, Director of the National Historical, Cultural and Natural Reserve-Museum “Ulytau” (2011–2021) for assistance in the field.
本文旨在纪念 （1） 哈萨克斯坦游牧民族文化遗产研究所所长 Irina V Yerofeeva （1953-2020） 和 （2） 我们亲爱的同事和朋友 Elena Khorosh （1957-2018），她在准备出版本文时去世。历史建筑师 E. Khorosh 调查了 Ulytau 地区的中世纪建筑，并收集了多个数据集，用于未来金帐汗国的年表。采样工作得到了 NSF BCS #1122359 奖项的支持。我们要感谢 Ular-Ulytau Ltd 的董事兼修复专家 Anur Tolebaev 和国家历史、文化和自然保护区博物馆“Ulytau”馆长 Baktiyar Kojakhmetov（2011-2021 年）在该领域的帮助。

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2017年3月24日

In March 2017, V International Golden Horde Forum "History of the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates" was held in Kazan. Zh. Sabitov shared his impressions with the NDH portal
2017 年 3 月，V 国际金帐汗国论坛“金帐汗国与鞑靼汗国的历史”在喀山举行。Zh. Sabitov 与 NDH 门户网站分享了他的印象

The Center for Research of the Golden Horde and Tatar Khanates of the Institute of History named after Sh. Mardjani of the Republic of Tatarstan initiated and organized the forum. The forum was timed to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the founding of the Golden Horde. The forum has become a major event in the scientific life of researchers of the Golden Horde theme. The geography of the forum is extensive: 113 scientists, 64 scientific centers from 18 countries: Great Britain, USA, France, Hungary, Serbia, Egypt, Italy, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Finland, Croatia, etc. have submitted applications for participation in the V forum. Kazakhstan scientist Zhaksylyk Sabitov represented Astana on this eminent forum is not the first time.
以鞑靼斯坦共和国的 Sh. Mardjani 命名的历史研究所金帐汗国和鞑靼汗国研究中心发起并组织了这次论坛。该论坛的举办是为了庆祝金帐汗国成立 750 周年。该论坛已成为金帐汗国主题研究人员科学生活中的重大事件。论坛的地理范围很广：来自 18 个国家的 64 名科学家、18 名科学家、18 个科学中心：英国、美国、法国、匈牙利、塞尔维亚、埃及、意大利、哈萨克斯坦、蒙古、芬兰、克罗地亚等。已提交参加 V 论坛的申请。哈萨克斯坦科学家 Zhaksylyk Sabitov 代表阿斯塔纳参加这个著名的论坛并不是第一次。

Your name has already gained certain fame in scientific circles, however, how did you get to the conference?
你的名字已经在科学界获得了一定的名气，但是，你是怎么参加会议的呢？

- The procedure for getting to such conferences is common. It is necessary to submit your application for participation in the conference before a specific deadline, as well as the main theses of your speech. I did everything on time and got to the conference.
- 参加此类会议的程序很常见。有必要在特定截止日期之前提交您的参加会议申请以及您演讲的主要论点。我按时完成了所有工作并参加了会议。

Here it can be noted that I visited all five Golden Horde forums that have been held since 2009 every two years. Therefore, there is nothing surprising in the fact of my getting to the conference.
在这里可以指出，我参观了自 2009 年以来每两年举办一次的所有五个金帐汗国论坛。因此，我参加会议的事实并不令人惊讶。

- What are the main working problems, the questions were announced in the conference program?
- 主要的工作问题是什么，问题在会议议程中宣布了？

- Basically all the work was aimed at discussing issues of source study of the Golden Horde, the political history of the Golden Horde, and the numismatics of the Golden Horde. The plague in the Golden Horde and the Great Silk Road in the Golden Horde were also discussed separately. It should be noted right away that
- 基本上，所有的工作都是为了讨论金帐汗国的来源研究、金帐汗国的政治历史和金帐汗国的钱币学问题。金帐汗国的瘟疫和金帐汗国的大丝绸之路也分别讨论了。应该立即注意的是

the name "Golden Horde" is conditional. In fact, this state was called Ulus Juchi or Ulug Ulus, and the Golden Horde is the name of the rate of rulers of Ulus Juchi.
“Golden Horde”这个名字是有条件的。事实上，这个国家被称为 Ulus Juchi 或 Ulug Ulus，金帐汗国是 Ulus Juchi 统治者的名称。

- Do these problems reflect modern trends in the world historical science?
- 这些问题是否反映了世界历史科学的现代趋势？

- Yes, certainly. Now, probably, the Golden Horde research is one of the few branches of scientific knowledge that develops mainly in Russian. Therefore, the regular Golden Horde forum in Kazan is the flagship of the Golden Horde research for all scientists.
- 是的，当然。现在，金帐汗国研究可能是为数不多的以俄语为主的科学知识分支之一。因此，喀山的定期金帐汗国论坛是所有科学家的金帐汗国研究的旗舰。

Does Kazakhstan's historical science keep up with the main world scientific trends or remain at the level of gathering facts and praising individuals?
哈萨克斯坦的历史科学是跟上世界主要的科学趋势，还是停留在收集事实和赞美个人的水平？

- There were several scientists from Kazakhstan at the Golden Horde forum: Yulai Shamiloglu and Nurlan Kenzheakhmet from Nazarbayev University, Zh. Sabitov and A.K. Kushkumbayev from ENU named after L.N. Gumilyov. At the moment, these historians and about the same number of orientalists - these are people who at a high scientific level can participate in a discussion about certain aspects of the history of the Ulus Djuchi. In general, we have good medieval scientists, but there is no well-established scientific work.
- 金帐汗国论坛上有几位来自哈萨克斯坦的科学家：纳扎尔巴耶夫大学的 Yulai Shamiloglu 和 Nurlan Kenzheakhmet，来自 ENU 的 Zh. Sabitov 和 A.K. Kushkumbayev，以 L.N. Gumilyov 的名字命名。目前，这些历史学家和大约相同数量的东方学家——这些人在高科学水平上可以参与关于 Ulus Djuchi 历史某些方面的讨论。总的来说，我们有优秀的中世纪科学家，但没有成熟的科学著作。

Kazakhstan for historical research spends hundreds of times more money than Tatarstan, but the efficiency is tens of times smaller.
哈萨克斯坦在历史研究方面花费的资金是鞑靼斯坦的数百倍，但效率却小了几十倍。

As for the whole of historical science in Kazakhstan, I think that
至于哈萨克斯坦的整个历史科学，我认为

now science is in deep crisis because of the lack of strategic planning, the weak prestige of the historian's profession and the weak scientific environment.
现在，由于缺乏战略规划、历史学家职业的威望低下以及科学环境薄弱，科学陷入了深深的危机。

And the weakness of the scientific environment does not mean the weakness of historians in general, there are strong historians, even world-class, but the very system of training new historians in magistracy and doctoral studies is very weak. This leads to stagnation in historical science.
科学环境的薄弱并不意味着一般历史学家的薄弱，有强大的历史学家，甚至是世界级的，但在地方法官和博士研究中培养新历史学家的系统本身就非常薄弱。这导致了历史科学的停滞。

- With what scientific achievements did you go to the conference?
- 您带着哪些科学成就参加了会议？

- I took two reports to the conference - personal and joint reports. My personal report was devoted to the possessions of Tuka-Timur (son of Juchi) and his descendants in the 13th-14th centuries. This topic is interesting, since the Tuka-Timur is the direct ancestor of the Kazakh Khans Janibek and Kerey. Initially, his possessions were on the territory of Kazakhstan, but according to my hypothesis Tuka-Timur was transferred to the West, where he got possession of the Crimea. According to the famous numismatists Konstantin Khromov and Vladimir Nastich, he owns one of the first independent coins in the Ulus Dzhuchi (Golden Horde), minted in 1260-62. Then, after him, the Crimea was ruled by his son Uran-Timur, and after that, in the time of Nogay Emir, Achik, the son of Uran-Timur and the great-grandfather of Urus Khan, the founder of the Kazakh dynasty of khans, ruled in Crimea. Thus, the ancestors of the Kazakh khans for some time ruled in the Crimea. Another son of Tuka-Timur ruled Mangyshlak among the Turkmen. In general, by 1359 the Tuka-Timurids were a large clan that fought for power in different parts of Ulus Juchi.
- 我向会议提交了两份报告——个人报告和联合报告。我个人的报告专门介绍了 13-14 世纪 Tuka-Timur（Juchi 的儿子）及其后代的财产。这个话题很有趣，因为图卡-帖木儿是哈萨克斯坦可汗 Janibek 和 Kerey 的直接祖先。最初，他的财产在哈萨克斯坦的领土上，但根据我的假设，图卡-帖木儿被转移到西方，在那里他获得了克里米亚的所有权。根据著名钱币学家康斯坦丁·赫罗莫夫 （Konstantin Khromov） 和弗拉基米尔·纳斯蒂奇 （Vladimir Nastich） 的说法，他拥有 1260-62 年铸造的 Ulus Dzhuchi（金帐汗国）中最早的独立硬币之一。然后，在他之后，克里米亚由他的儿子乌兰-帖木儿统治，之后，在诺盖-埃米尔时代，乌兰-帖木儿的儿子、哈萨克斯坦可汗王朝的创始人乌鲁斯汗的曾祖父阿奇克统治克里米亚。因此，哈萨克斯坦可汗的祖先在克里米亚统治了一段时间。图卡-帖木儿的另一个儿子统治着土库曼斯坦的曼吉什拉克。总的来说，到 1359 年，图卡-帖木儿是一个在兀鲁斯树赤不同地区争夺权力的大氏族。

My second report was made with the participation of our famous orientalist Kambarbekova Galiya Amzeevna. She took the trouble to translate the information of Khondemir about Muhammad Sheibani and I also in our joint article compared this information with other sources. As a result, Iranian sources are in many ways more adequate in assessing history than sources from Central Asia.
我的第二份报告是由我们著名的东方学家坎巴尔别科娃·加利亚·阿姆泽夫娜 （Kambarbekova Galiya Amzeevna） 参与撰写的。她不厌其烦地翻译了 Khondemir 关于 Muhammad Sheibani 的信息，我在我们的联合文章中也将这些信息与其他来源进行了比较。因此，伊朗的资料在许多方面比来自中亚的资料更充分地评估历史。

Now we can say with great confidence that the Kazakhs took a lot of part in the process of the conquest of Central Asia by Muhammad Sheibani.
现在我们可以非常自信地说，哈萨克人在穆罕默德·谢巴尼 （Muhammad Sheibani） 征服中亚的过程中发挥了很大作用。

- The theme of the Golden Horde's legacy is very important. Many people pull the blanket over themselves, but not Kazakh historians. At the same time, the status of Kazakhstan as one of the main heirs is difficult to challenge, what do you think?
- 金帐汗国遗产的主题非常重要。许多人都把毯子盖在自己身上，但哈萨克斯坦历史学家却不是。与此同时，哈萨克斯坦作为主要继承人之一的地位难以挑战，您怎么看？

- Yes, Kazakhstan is one of the main heirs of the Golden Horde, along with other countries. This is understood by our rulers and the people themselves, but
- 是的，哈萨克斯坦和其他国家一样是金帐汗国的主要继承国之一。我们的统治者和人民自己都明白这一点，但是

many Kazakhstani historians since the Soviet times still believe that Kazakhstan is not related to the Golden Horde, but comes from the phantom state Ak Orda.
自苏联时代以来的许多哈萨克斯坦历史学家仍然认为，哈萨克斯坦与金帐汗国无关，而是来自幻影国家 Ak Orda。

Actually, Kazakhstan does not participate in the "political struggle" for the "symbolic heritage of the Golden Horde." Here I am as a scientist want to say that any attempts to privatize the Golden Horde and attribute it to one modern nation are unscientific.
实际上，哈萨克斯坦并没有参与争夺“金帐汗国的象征性遗产”的“政治斗争”。作为一名科学家，我想说的是，任何将金帐汗国私有化并将其归于一个现代国家的企图都是不科学的。

The Golden Horde is our common heritage. The Golden Horde for Nogays, Kazakhs, Kazan, Siberian, Crimean, Polish-Lithuanian Tatars, Karakalpaks, Uzbeks and other nations is the same as Kievan Rus for Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. "The Golden Horde" is our common past and attempts to privatize it or "nationalize" are antiscientific.
金帐汗国是我们共同的遗产。诺盖斯人、哈萨克斯坦人、喀山人、西伯利亚人、克里米亚人、波兰-立陶宛鞑靼人、卡拉卡尔帕克人、乌兹别克人和其他国家的人的金帐汗国与俄罗斯人、乌克兰人和白俄罗斯人的基辅罗斯相同。“金帐汗国”是我们共同的过去，将其私有化或“国有化”的企图是反科学的。

So the politicization of this scientific issue is not needed. But here it is necessary to avoid the other extreme, namely the complete ignoring of historical symbolic dates. We often simply ignore the symbolic dates related to the Golden Horde. In 2013, Tatarstan celebrated 700 years of the adoption of Islam in the Golden Horde. In Kazakhstan, this date was missed. In 2019, Tatarstan will celebrate the 750th anniversary of the formation of the Golden Horde as an independent state. This was officially announced at the fifth Golden Horde forum in Kazan. If in this case Kazakhstan also misses this anniversary, it will be very sad, since the events of the Talas kurultai of 1269 were unfolding in the territory of Kazakhstan, in the modern Zhambyl region.
因此，没有必要将这个科学问题政治化。但在这里，有必要避免另一个极端，即完全忽视历史的象征性日期。我们经常简单地忽略与金帐汗国相关的象征性日期。2013 年，鞑靼斯坦庆祝了伊斯兰教在金帐汗国皈依 700 周年。在哈萨克斯坦，错过了这个日期。2019 年，鞑靼斯坦将庆祝金帐汗国独立成立 750 周年。 这是在喀山举行的第五届金帐汗国论坛上正式宣布的。如果在这种情况下，哈萨克斯坦也错过了这个周年纪念日，那将是非常可悲的，因为 1269 年的 Talas kurultai 事件正在哈萨克斯坦境内，即现代 Zhambyl 地区展开。

- What is the significance of the conference for the history of Kazakhstan, Tatarstan and the world scientific community as a whole?
- 会议对哈萨克斯坦、鞑靼斯坦和整个世界科学界的历史有何意义？

- This is the strongest conference on the "Golden Horde" in the world. Many things that you will hear on it, in a decade will fall into the school history books or become part of the mass culture. Therefore, for beginners-novice historians, such a conference is like looking into the future on a "time machine". Also for young historians, this conference on the one hand allows increasing their level of competence, and on the other hand it allows them to establish social ties with other historians.
- 这是世界上最强的“金帐汗国”会议。十年后，你会在上面听到的许多东西都会被写进学校的历史书或成为大众文化的一部分。因此，对于初学者和新手历史学家来说，这样的会议就像在“时间机器”上展望未来。同样对于年轻的历史学家来说，这次会议一方面可以提高他们的能力水平，另一方面让他们与其他历史学家建立社会联系。

- What interesting things did you discover in Kazan?
- 您在喀山发现了哪些有趣的事情？

- For me, scientific reports were interesting in Kazan. The excursion to Bulgar was also interesting.
- 对我来说，喀山的科学报告很有趣。去保加利亚的短途旅行也很有趣。

What surprised you in the culture and traditions of the Tatar people?
鞑靼人的文化和传统中，什么让您感到惊讶？

- I have been traveling to Kazan every year since 2009, so it's hard to surprise me. I can note in the Tatars their hospitality and strong cohesion.
- 自 2009 年以来，我每年都会去喀山旅行，所以很难让我感到惊讶。我可以注意到鞑靼人的热情好客和强大的凝聚力。

- I ask you to disclose the main achievements of scientists on the theme of the Golden Horde.
- 我请您披露科学家在金帐汗国主题上的主要成就。

- I will list below, in five paragraphs, what historical science has achieved that studies the Golden Horde in the last 10 years.
- 我将在下面分五段列出过去 10 年研究金帐汗国的历史科学所取得的成就。

1. It is proved that the first khan of Ulus Dzhuchi (Golden Horde) was Mengu-Timur, grandson of Batu, and not Juchi or his sons Batu or Berke who were rulers of Ulus Juchi, but did not accept the khan's title and did not consider themselves independent and sovereign rulers.
1. 事实证明，兀鲁斯竹赤（金帐汗国）的第一任可汗是拔都的孙子孟古帖木儿，而不是朱赤或他的儿子拔都或伯克，他们是兀鲁居赤的统治者，但没有接受可汗的头衔，也不认为自己是独立和主权的统治者。

2. The coins of the rulers of Ulus Juchi allowed opening many new things, by revealing new names of khans and by clarifying the chronology and geography of the khans of Ulus Juchi.
2. 兀鲁斯术士统治者的钱币为打开许多新事物的大门，揭示了可汗的新名字，并阐明了兀鲁斯术学可汗的年表和地理信息。

3. Administrative reform of Uzbek Khan in 1313 played a key role in the success of his policy. In 1313, Uzbek Khan centralized Ulus Juchi and if earlier the rulers of the provinces were the Juchids and succeeded to the rulers of the uluses (regions), then under Uzbek Khan, he himself appointed rulers of the uluses. The Juchids, displeased with this policy, were killed; the survivors were taken into custody and sent to Sygnak.
3. 1313 年乌兹别克汗的行政改革对其政策的成功起了关键作用。1313 年，乌兹别克汗集中了 Ulus Juchi，如果说早期各省的统治者是 Juchids 并继承了 ulus（地区）的统治者，那么在乌兹别克汗的统治下，他自己任命了 ulūs 的统治者。Juchids 对这一政策不满，被杀害;幸存者被拘留并被送往 Sygnak。

4. Origin of the dynasty of Kazakh khans. In Soviet times, it was believed that the ancestor of the Kazakh khans was Orda Edzhen, son of Juchi. It has now been proved that the ancestor of the Kazakh khans was Tuka-Timur, another son of Juchi.
4. 哈萨克斯坦可汗王朝的起源。在苏联时代，人们认为哈萨克斯坦可汗的祖先是 Juchi 的儿子 Orda Edzhen。现在已经证明，哈萨克可汗的祖先是 Juchi 的另一个儿子 Tuka-Timur。

5. Ak Orda, the Golden Horde, the Blue Horde. In Soviet times, these names were used as the names of certain states. It has now been proved that the White, the Golden and the Blue Hordes are, first of all, the names of the residences of the rulers of Ulus Juchi, and not the names of states. And here is very symbolic the fact that the residence of our President, "Ak Orda" is named after the residence of Batu and other khans of Ulus Juchi.
5. Ak Orda，金帐汗国，蓝帐汗国。在苏联时代，这些名称被用作某些国家的名称。现在已经证明，白帐汗国、金帐汗国和蓝帐汗国首先是乌鲁斯主赤统治者的住所名称，而不是国家名称。非常具有象征意义的事实是，我们的总统官邸“Ak Orda”是以拔都和 Ulus Juchi 的其他可汗的住所命名的。

- Zhaksylyk, thank you for such a meaningful interview. The history of the Golden Horde has become much closer to the history of the Kazakh people!
- Zhaksylyk，谢谢你这么有意义的采访。金帐汗国的历史与哈萨克斯坦人民的历史更加接近！

On the main photo: fragment of the Catalan atlas of 1375 with the image of Janibek Khan.
主图：1375 年加泰罗尼亚地图集的残卷，上面有贾尼贝克汗的形象。

Genghis Khan and the Mongol conquests of Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The formation of the uluses，https://e-history.kz/en/history-of-kazakhstan/show/9542。
成吉思汗和蒙古人对哈萨克斯坦和中亚的征服。乌鲁斯的形成，https://e-history.kz/en/history-of-kazakhstan/show/9542。

2019年9月3日

At the end of 12th - early 13th centuries the political situation in the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan was represented by the growing struggle between the rulers of the tribal alliances.
在 12 世纪末至 13 世纪初，中亚和哈萨克斯坦草原的政治局势以部落联盟统治者之间日益激烈的斗争为代表。

At the end of 12th - early 13th centuries the political situation in the steppes of Central Asia and Kazakhstan was represented by the growing struggle for power over other tribes between the rulers of the strong nomadic tribal alliances. In this struggle the member of one of the Mongolian tribes, Temujin (Genghis Khan) united many nomadic tribes of Central Asia, and became the most powerful conqueror in the Central Asian steppes. Temujin’s fame grew in the wars of the Kereit Khan against the Naimans, Mongol-speaking Tatar and Merkit tribes. The future Khan Genghis acted in these wars as a vassal of Wang Khan and took an active part in them.
在 12 世纪末至 13 世纪初，中亚和哈萨克斯坦草原的政治局势表现为强大的游牧部落联盟的统治者之间对其他部落的权力争夺日益激烈。在这场斗争中，蒙古部落之一铁木真（成吉思汗）统一了中亚的许多游牧部落，成为中亚草原上最强大的征服者。铁木真在克雷特汗与奈曼人、讲蒙古语的鞑靼人和梅尔吉特部落的战争中声名鹊起。未来的成吉思汗作为王汗的附庸参加了这些战争，并积极参与其中。

In the spring of 1206 at the Onon River was a Kurultai of nomadic elite, supporters of Temujin. Under the waving white flag he was acknowledged as Great Khan of consolidated tribes and took the new title “Genghis Khan,” supplanted his name. He had no idea what heights he will reach in the campaigns against the West and the East, particularly, pursuing the Naimans and Merkits, again defeated by him in 1208 on the banks of the Irtysh.
1206 年春天，应嫩河上有一个游牧精英的 Kurultai，他们是铁木真的支持者。在飘扬的白旗下，他被承认为联合部落的大汗，并取了“成吉思汗”的新称号，取代了他的名字。他不知道自己在对抗西方和东方的战役中会达到什么高度，特别是追击奈曼人和梅尔基特人，他们于 1208 年在额尔齐斯河畔再次被他击败。

Multilingual written sources indicate that the empire of Genghis Khan was largely founded on the basis of the Turkic tribes of Central Asia, part of which were the steppes of Kazakhstan.
多语种书面资料表明，成吉思汗帝国主要建立在中亚突厥部落的基础上，其中一部分是哈萨克斯坦的草原。

Turkic traditions had an impact on the form of Mongolian statehood. The military-administrative system of the Golden Horde originated in the Turkic Khaganate was developed in the Naiman and Kereit uluses.
突厥传统对蒙古国家的形式产生了影响。金帐汗国的军事行政系统起源于突厥汗国，在奈曼和克雷特乌鲁斯发展起来。

All the territory and the population were divided into three military administrative districts: the right wing - barungar, left wing - djungar and center - gol. Each county was divided into tumens, consisting of ten thousand men, thousands - of ten hundreds and hundreds - of ten dozen.
所有领土和人口被划分为三个军事行政区：右翼 - barungar、左翼 - djungar 和中翼 - gol。每个县都被划分为图门，由一万名男子、数千人、一百人、数百人、一打人组成。

Under Genghis Khan and his successors a new civilian and military code of laws, called the Yassa or Jasag, was created. It was codified collection of principal law, satisfying the new socio-political relations in society. Genghis Khan appointed his harshest son Chagatai to oversee the execution of it. In the empire there were also the positions of the Chief Justice, or dzhargulugsan, and of judges - dzharguchi.
在成吉思汗和他的继任者统治下，制定了新的民用和军用法典，称为 Yassa 或 Jasag。它是主要法律的编纂集合，满足了社会中新的社会政治关系。成吉思汗任命他最严厉的儿子察合台来监督它的执行。在帝国中，还有首席大法官 （dzhargulugsan） 和法官 - dzharguchi 的职位。

The Yassa of Genghis Khan consisted of two parts. The first part, Bilik, taught the statecraft, gave useful advises on governance. The second part was called Jasag and contained the criminal law and religious taboos. An important place in Jasag took rules of the military organization and discipline.
成吉思汗的 Yassa 由两部分组成。第一部分，比利克，教授治国方略，就治理提供有用的建议。第二部分称为 Jasag，包含刑法和宗教禁忌。Jasag 的一个重要地方制定了军事组织和纪律的规则。

The state founded by Genghis Khan and his successors in the first half of the 13th century in short time became a world empire. It was represented by strong centralized power, unequal relations between the center and the border regions and the state ideology, which had three main pillars: the right of Genghis’s descendants to the throne, the need of consolidating of all the nomads and the need to unite all countries in the world under the authority of the nomads. However, the internal contradictions among the ruling elite and economic fragmentation of individual parts of the empire led to the isolation of the major uluses. The norms of the Yassa were used in creation of the Kazakh code of laws "Jeti Jargi." Many of the rules of social organization and forms of statehood were used in the states that appeared on the territory of Kazakhstan after the fall of the Mongol Empire.
成吉思汗和他的继任者在 13 世纪上半叶建立的国家在短时间内成为一个世界帝国。它以强大的中央集权、中心和边境地区之间的不平等关系以及国家意识形态为代表，其有三个主要支柱：成吉思汗后裔的王位继承权、整合所有游牧民族的需要以及在游牧民族的权威下团结世界所有国家的需要。然而，统治精英之间的内部矛盾和帝国各个部分的经济分裂导致了主要 uluse 的孤立。Yassa 的规范被用于制定哈萨克斯坦法典“Jeti Jargi”。许多社会组织规则和国家形式在蒙古帝国灭亡后出现在哈萨克斯坦领土上的国家中使用。

The Merkits and Naimans were defeated by the Uyghur Idiqut (ruler) in 1209, while trying to cross his lands. The survivors of Naiman tribes were led by Kuchlug Khan into Semirechye in possessions of the Kara Khitans, and the Merkits fled to the Kipchaks in the steppes of central Kazakhstan.
1209 年，梅尔基特人和奈曼人在试图穿越他的土地时被维吾尔人伊迪库特（统治者）击败。奈曼部落的幸存者被库赫鲁格汗率领进入喀喇契丹人的塞米雷奇，而梅尔基特人则逃到了哈萨克斯坦中部草原上的钦察人。

For some time, local principalities of Semirechye and Eastern Turkistan recognized the sovereignty of the Kara Khitans, but at the turn of the 12-13th centuries became de facto independent. Therefore the Kara Khitan Gurkhan (ruler) wanted to use the Naiman soldiers to stifle the rebellious vassals. Kuchlug Khan gained the confidence of the Gurkhan and in 1210 seized power in the state, deposed the Gurkhan, but leaved him alive. Kuchlug intended to subjugate the Karluks, Kanglys and Uyghurs and began devastating attacks against them.
一段时间以来，塞米列切和东突厥斯坦的地方公国承认喀喇契丹人的主权，但在 12-13 世纪之交，喀喇契丹事实上独立了。因此，Kara Khitan Gurkhan （统治者）想利用奈曼士兵来扼杀叛乱的附庸。Kuchlug Khan 获得了廓尔汗的信任，并于 1210 年夺取了国家政权，废黜了廓尔汗，但留下了他。库赫鲁格打算征服喀鲁克人、康利人和维吾尔人，并开始对他们进行毁灭性的攻击。

In this situation, the Karluk Khan Arslan, the ruler of Almalyk, and the Uyghur Idiqut Baurchuk Art Tekin had to seek help from the enemies of the Naimans, the Mongols of Genghis Khan. Written sources report about the obedience of these lords to Genghis Khan in 1211. The consequence of these events was the first appearance of Mongolian army in Semirechye.
在这种情况下，阿尔马雷克的统治者阿斯兰·阿斯兰 （Karluk Khan Arslan） 和维吾尔人 Idiqut Baurchuk Art Tekin 不得不向奈曼人的敌人，即成吉思汗的蒙古人寻求帮助。书面资料报道了这些领主在 1211 年对成吉思汗的服从。这些事件的结果是蒙古军队首次出现在塞米雷奇。

In 1216 the Mongols resumed their movement to the west. Genghis Khan ordered his eldest son Jochi to pursue the Merkits fled to the Kipchaks, and one of his favorite generals Jebe Noyon to punish Kuchlug Khan. In 1218 Kuchlug Khan was defeated, and the Mongols entered his possessions in Semirechye.
1216 年，蒙古人恢复了他们的西进运动。成吉思汗命令他的长子术赤追捕逃到钦察王朝的墨吉特人，他最喜欢的将军之一杰比·诺永惩罚库赫鲁格汗。1218 年，库赫鲁格汗被击败，蒙古人进入了他在塞米列奇的属地。

Kuchlug fled again, but was overtaken by the Mongols in Badakhshan and beheaded. Earlier Jochi Khan met in combat with the Merkits in the Turgay steppes of Kazakhstan and defeated them. But the next morning he was attacked by 60000 army of Muhammad Khwarezm Shah. Muhammad was leading his army from Jend, near the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, against the Kipchak nomads. This accidental encounter made ​​a strong impression on the Khwarezm Shah. After that the Mongolian and Khwarezm relations become more strained and led to war. The formal reason was the so-called "Otrar catastrophe."
库赫鲁格再次逃跑，但在巴达赫尚被蒙古人追上并被斩首。早些时候，Jochi Khan 在哈萨克斯坦的 Turgay 草原与 Merkit 人相遇并击败了他们。但第二天早上，他遭到了穆罕默德·花剌子模·沙阿 （Muhammad Khwarezm Shah） 的 60000 名军队的袭击。穆罕默德率领他的军队从锡尔河下游附近的让德出发，与钦察游牧民族作战。这次偶然的相遇给花剌子模沙阿留下了深刻的印象。此后，蒙古和花剌子模的关系变得更加紧张并导致了战争。正式的原因是所谓的“Otrar 灾难”。

There appeared a lot of talk in Central Asia about the victories won by Genghis Khan. The Khwarezm Shah sent to Mongolia one after the other two embassies. Genghis Khan also sent an embassy. In the spring of 1218 Muhammad Khwarezm Shah met it.
在中亚，关于成吉思汗赢得胜利的讨论很多。花剌子模沙阿 （Khwarezm Shah） 接连派遣了另外两个大使馆前往蒙古。成吉思汗还派出了一个大使馆。1218 年春天，穆罕默德·花剌子模·沙阿 （Muhammad Khwarezm Shah） 遇到了它。

After that Genghis Khan sent to the Central Asia a trade mission. There were 450 people in a caravan of 500 camels. Crowded caravan arrived in the summer of 1218 in Otrar. The governor of Otrar Ghaiyr Khan Inalchuq suspected the merchants to be spies, confiscated their goods and executed them. Genghis Khan demanded the extradition of Ghaiyr Khan, but the Khwarezm Shah not only refused, but ordered to kill the ambassadors. This was the reason for the war against the Khwarezm.
之后，成吉思汗派遣了一个贸易代表团到中亚。一个由 500 只骆驼组成的商队有 450 人。拥挤的商队于 1218 年夏天抵达奥特拉。Otrar 总督 Ghaiyr Khan Inalchuq 怀疑商人是间谍，没收了他们的货物并处决了他们。成吉思汗要求引渡盖尔汗，但花剌子模沙阿不仅拒绝，还下令杀死大使。这就是对花剌子模开战的原因。

The exact number of troops mustered by the Mongols is not known, the likely number - 150,000 warriors with the allies, the Karluks of Semirechye and the Uyghurs of Eastern Turkistan.
蒙古人集结的军队的确切人数尚不清楚，可能的数量是 - 150,000 名战士以及盟友，即塞米列奇的卡尔鲁克人和东突厥斯坦的维吾尔人。

The military campaign began in September 1219 on the banks of the Irtysh. When approaching Otrar, Genghis Khan left for its siege the troops under his sons Chagatai and Ogedei. Jochi Khan led his division to the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, to Yangikent and Jend cities. The third division went to conquer the cities in the upper reaches of the Syr Darya, and Genghis Khan with the main forces went to Bukhara.
军事行动于 1219 年 9 月在额尔齐斯河畔开始。当接近 Otrar 时，成吉思汗离开了他的儿子察合台和窝阔台率领的军队进行围攻。术赤汗率领他的师到达锡尔河下游的 Yangikent 和 Jend 城市。第三师去征服锡尔河上游的城市，成吉思汗率领主力部队前往布哈拉。

The governor of Otrar, Ghaiyr Khan defended desperately. The siege of Otrar lasted almost five months. At the end of the fifth month of the heroic defense, Khwarezmian commander Karadza-Hadzhib with a ten thousand detachment surrendered to the Mongols, letting them into the city. However, Otrar still was not crushed. Ghaiyr Khan with a group of soldiers strengthened in the citadel for the taking of which the Mongols needed another month. When all the defenders perished, Otrar was taken in February 1220. Ghaiyr Khan was captured and executed.
Otrar 的总督 Ghaiyr Khan 拼命辩护。对 Otrar 的围攻持续了将近五个月。英勇防御的第五个月结束时，花剌子模指挥官卡拉扎-哈吉布率领一万分遣队向蒙古人投降，让他们进入城市。然而，Otrar 仍然没有被压垮。盖尔汗带着一群士兵在城堡中增援，蒙古人需要再过一个月才能占领城堡。当所有守军都死去后，奥特拉于 1220 年 2 月被占领。盖尔汗被俘并被处决。

The eldest Genghis’s son Jochi marched to Sygnak, the center of the Kipchaks of the Syr Darya. The Mongols besieged city during seven days and nights and finally took it by storm and killed all the people. Then the Mongol army moved to Ashnas. Despite the resistance, the city fell and many of its inhabitants were killed.
长子成吉思汗的儿子术赤向锡尔河钦察人的中心锡格纳克进军。蒙古人围攻这座城市七昼夜，最后掀起了一场风暴，杀死了所有的人。然后蒙古军队转移到阿什纳斯。尽管遭到抵抗，这座城市还是沦陷了，许多居民被杀害。

All these events took place in the winter 1219-1220 and in the spring 1220. Jochi Khan stayed in Jend in the Aral Sea region for the whole 1220. In 1221, he conquered Urgench near the Amu Darya. After that he led his army into the steppes of Kazakhstan to the north-east of the Aral Sea, where he met the resistance of the Kipchaks and defeated them.
所有这些事件都发生在 1219-1220 年冬天和 1220 年春天。术赤汗在整个 1220 年都住在咸海地区的詹德。1221 年，他征服了阿姆河附近的乌尔根奇。之后，他率领军队进入哈萨克斯坦咸海东北部的草原，在那里他遇到了钦察人的抵抗并击败了他们。

In 1220 the generals Jebe Noyon and Subutai Noyon with a 30000 army marched from Northern Iran and invaded the Caucasus, defeated the Alans, Kipchaks and Russians on the Kalka River, ravaged southern Russian lands and across the steppes of modern Kazakhstan in 1224 returned to the horde of Genghis Khan on the Irtysh River. As a result of the Mongol invasion in 1219-1224 Kazakhstan and Central Asia became part of the empire of Genghis Khan.
1220 年，将军杰贝·诺永和速不泰·诺永率领 30000 人的军队从伊朗北部出发，入侵高加索地区，在卡尔加河上击败了阿兰人、钦察人和俄罗斯人，蹂躏了俄罗斯南部的土地，并于 1224 年穿越现代哈萨克斯坦的草原，回到额尔齐斯河上的成吉思汗部落。由于 1219-1224 年蒙古人的入侵，哈萨克斯坦和中亚成为成吉思汗帝国的一部分。

The entire adult population of Mongolia was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands and tens of thousands. There was strictest discipline. According to the laws of Genghis Khan were punished by death: murder, adultery, polygamy, wife’s unfaithfulness, theft, robbery, buying stolen goods, concealing a runaway slave.
蒙古的整个成年人口被分为几十、几百、几千和几万。有最严格的纪律。根据成吉思汗的法律，被判处死刑：谋杀、通奸、一夫多妻、妻子不忠、盗窃、抢劫、购买赃物、藏匿逃跑的奴隶。

The Mongol military art reached the highest levels, especially, the siege warfare. Genghis’s son Tole during the siege of Nishabur used about 3000 ballista, 300 catapults, 700 machines for throwing pots of burning oil, 4000 assault ladders and 2500 packs of stones for throwing from ballista.
蒙古的军事艺术达到了最高层次，尤其是攻城战。成吉思汗的儿子托勒在围攻尼沙布尔期间使用了大约 3000 个弩炮、300 个投石机、700 台用于投掷燃烧油的机器、4000 个突击梯和 2500 包用于从弩炮上投掷的石头。

Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons. The vast territory of Kazakhstan was divided between his three eldest sons. Large territory west of the Irtysh River, covering the northern part of Semirechye and the entire Central, Northern and Western Kazakhstan including the lower Volga was part of the Jochi Ulus. South and South-East Kazakhstan, that is a big part of Semirechye, was part of the Chagatai ulus, and the north-eastern Kazakhstan was given to Ogedei.
成吉思汗将他的帝国分配给他的儿子们。哈萨克斯坦的广阔领土被他的三个长子瓜分。额尔齐斯河以西的大片领土，包括塞米列奇北部和整个哈萨克斯坦中部、北部和西部，包括伏尔加河下游，是术赤兀鲁斯的一部分。哈萨克斯坦南部和东南部是塞米雷奇的大部分，是察合台兀鲁斯的一部分，而哈萨克斯坦东北部则被给了窝阔台。

The Mongol conquest of Kazakhstan made significant changes in the balance of ethnic groups on the territory of Kazakhstan. It led to significant movement of the tribes. Russian researcher V.V Barthold said that the Mongol conquest contributed to the growth of the political influence of the Turkic-speaking tribes and establishment of their authority in the steppes of Eurasia.
蒙古人征服哈萨克斯坦使哈萨克斯坦境内的民族平衡发生了重大变化。它导致了部落的重大迁移。俄罗斯研究员 V.V Barthold 说，蒙古人的征服有助于扩大讲突厥语的部落的政治影响力，并在欧亚大陆草原上建立他们的权威。

Arman Aisultan，Significance of Ulus of Jochi for Kazakhstan: A Link between the Past and the Future，https://en.inform.kz/news/significance-of-ulus-of-jochi-for-kazakhstan-a-link-between-the-past-and-the-future-494564/。
Arman Aisultan，术赤兀鲁斯对哈萨克斯坦的意义：过去与未来的联系，https://en.inform.kz/news/significance-of-ulus-of-jochi-for-kazakhstan-a-link-between-the-past-and-the-future-494564/。

11 July 2024
11 七月 2024

This year, Kazakhstan is celebrating a significant event - the 800th anniversary of the founding of the Ulus of Jochi. By the middle of the 15 century Ulus of Jochi ceased to exist, but it was of great importance in the history not only of Kazakhstan, but also of the Eurasian region. Kazinform News Agency offers a look at the historical influence of the Ulus of Jochi.
今年，哈萨克斯坦正在庆祝一个重大事件——术赤兀鲁斯成立 800 周年。到 15 世纪中叶，术赤的兀鲁斯不复存在，但它不仅在哈萨克斯坦的历史上，而且在欧亚地区的历史上都具有重要意义。Kazinform 通讯社介绍了术赤兀鲁斯的历史影响。

The Fall of Ulus
兀鲁斯的陷落

From the second half of the 14th century, the Ulus of Jochi began to be weakened by centrifugal forces. The campaigns of Timur, the ruler of the Timurid dynasty, in different years greatly weakened the state. Ulus finally disintegrated in the middle of 15 century.
从 14 世纪下半叶开始，术赤的兀鲁斯开始被离心力削弱。帖木儿王朝的统治者帖木儿在不同年份的战役大大削弱了国家。兀鲁斯最终在 15 世纪中叶解体。

The reasons for the disintegration can also be called the lack of economic unity and the struggle for power between the descendants of Genghis Khan. In addition, the aggravation of the contradiction between the nomadic nobility and the settled trading upper classes of cities and agricultural regions also affected the weakening of the Ulus.
解体的原因也可以称为缺乏经济团结和成吉思汗后代之间的权力斗争。此外，游牧贵族与城市和农业地区定居贸易上层阶级之间矛盾的加剧也影响了兀鲁人的衰弱。

Emergence of new states
新状态的出现

In the 15th century, stable territorial formations with clear dynastic branches of rulers actually began to appear. It was during this period that all post-ulus khanates emerged, some of which retained their independence until the 18th and even 19th centuries.
在 15 世纪，具有明确统治者王朝分支的稳定领土结构实际上开始出现。正是在这一时期，所有后兀鲁斯汗国都出现了，其中一些直到 18 世纪甚至 19 世纪才保持独立。

As a result of the Ulus' collapse, such large khanates as the Khanate of Sibir (1420-1421), the Uzbek Khanate (1428), Khanate of Kazan (1438) were formed, the Nogai Horde and the Crimean Khanate (1440, 1441) appeared next, and the Kazakh Khanate (1465) became the last.
由于兀鲁斯的崩溃，西伯利亚汗国（1420-1421 年）、乌兹别克汗国（1428 年）、喀山汗国（1438 年）等大型汗国相继形成，诺盖汗国和克里米亚汗国（1440 年、1441 年）紧随其后，哈萨克汗国（1465 年）成为最后一个。

The Ulus of Jochi had a great influence on the entire ethno-political history of the Central Eurasian region. The political structure, administrative practices, cultural aspects inherited from the Ulus played an important role in the formation of the new states.
术赤的兀鲁斯对中欧亚地区的整个民族政治历史产生了巨大影响。从兀鲁斯继承下来的政治结构、行政实践、文化方面在新国家的形成中发挥了重要作用。

Ulus of Jochi and Kazakh Khanate
术赤和哈萨克汗国的兀鲁斯

Ulus of Jochi plays the role of a link between the history of the Kazakh Khanate and more ancient periods of our history.
术赤兀鲁斯在哈萨克汗国的历史和我们历史上更古老的时期之间发挥着纽带的作用。

Thus, during the period of the Ulus of Jochi, the ethnogenesis of the Kazakh people was mainly formed. By the time of the Ulus' collapse, the only thing missing was the modern name "kazakh", which appeared later.
因此，在术赤兀鲁斯时期，主要形成了哈萨克人的民族起源。到兀鲁斯崩溃时，唯一缺少的就是后来出现的现代名称“哈萨克斯坦”。

The Kazakh Khanate as a historical successor appeared on the cultural and historical basis of Ulus of Jochi. Zhanibek and Kerey, the founders of the Kazakh Khanate established near Zhetysu, as well as all its subsequent rulers, up to the last khan Kenesary, were descended from Urus-khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan.
哈萨克汗国作为历史上的继承者出现在术赤兀鲁斯的文化和历史基础上。在热提苏附近建立的哈萨克汗国的创始人扎尼别克和克雷，以及它的所有后续统治者，直到最后一位可汗肯内萨里，都是成吉思汗的后裔乌鲁斯汗的后裔。

Their ancestor, Urus Khan, one of the rulers of the Ulus of Jochi in the 14th century, is identified by some Kazakh historians, such as R. Temirgaliev, with the legendary Alasha Khan, who, according to legend, was a great ruler who united Turkic and Mongolian peoples.
他们的祖先乌鲁斯汗是 14 世纪术赤兀鲁斯的统治者之一，一些哈萨克斯坦历史学家，如 R. Temirgaliev，将他与传说中的阿拉沙汗相提并论，根据传说，阿拉沙汗是一位伟大的统治者，统一了突厥和蒙古人民。

By 1500, the Kazakh Khanate had noticeably expanded, and then the history of another state began, with new borders and new challenges.
到 1500 年，哈萨克汗国显着扩张，然后另一个国家的历史开始了，伴随着新的边界和新的挑战。

BY ASSEL SATUBALDINA，Preserving Kazakhstan’s Historical Legacy and Culture: Tokayev Visits Zhoshy Khan Complex in Ulytau，https://astanatimes.com/2021/10/preserving-kazakhstans-historical-legacy-and-culture-tokayev-visits-zhoshy-khan-complex-in-ulytau/。
作者：ASSEL SATUBALDINA，保护哈萨克斯坦的历史遗产和文化：托卡耶夫参观了 https://astanatimes.com/2021/10/preserving-kazakhstans-historical-legacy-and-culture-tokayev-visits-zhoshy-khan-complex-in-ulytau/ 乌利陶的 Zhoshy Khan 建筑群。

22 OCTOBER 2021
22 十月 2021

resident Kassym-Jomart Tokayev visited the Zhoshy Khan historical and cultural complex in Ulytau District as part of his working visit to the Karaganda Region, reports the Akorda press service. 
据阿科尔达新闻处报道，居民 Kassym-Jomart Tokayev 参观了位于 Ulytau 区的 Zhoshy Khan 历史和文化综合体，这是他对卡拉干达地区工作访问的一部分。

The center serves as a tourist destination that takes visitors into the ancient Kazakh past and aims to become a scientific center for studying the era of the Golden Horde, a medieval multinational state also known as the Ulus of Jochi, Ulug Ulus, or the Kipchak Khanate. The Horde was first formed in the 13th century and is a historical predecessor of the Kazakh Khanate. The increased examination of the Golden Horde legacy is prompted by Tokayev marking 2019-2020 as a commemorative period to celebrate the 750th anniversary of the Golden Horde. 
该中心是一个旅游目的地，带领游客了解古老的哈萨克斯坦历史，旨在成为研究金帐汗国时代的科学中心，金帐汗国是一个中世纪的多民族国家，也被称为术知的兀鲁斯、乌鲁格兀鲁斯或钦察汗国。部落最早成立于 13 世纪，是哈萨克汗国的历史前身。托卡耶夫将 2019-2020 年定为庆祝金帐汗国成立 750 周年的纪念期，促使对金帐汗国遗产进行更多审查。

The complex, which spans across an area of 2,500 square meters, is named after Jochi Khan (Zhoshy Khan in Kazakh), the eldest son of Chinggis Khan and a Mongol army commander who was known to be a participant in his father’s conquest of Central Asia. According to historical records, his stavka, or headquarters, were based in the Ulytau, a low-altitude mountain range and the vast steppe lands located some 50 kilometers from the town of Zhezkazgan.  
该建筑群占地 2,500 平方米，以成吉思汗的长子术赤汗（哈萨克语为 Zhoshy Khan）的名字命名，他是一名蒙古军队指挥官，众所周知，他参与了父亲征服中亚的行动。根据历史记录，他的 stavka（或总部）位于 Ulytau，这是一座低海拔山脉和距离 Zhezkazgan 镇约 50 公里的广阔草原。

The area is rich in ancient mausoleums, petroglyphs, and monuments, and the smell of wormwood all around Ulytau is reminiscent of ancient times. Built in the 13th century, the blue-domed mausoleum of Jochi Khan is among the first places to visit in Ulytau. 
该地区拥有丰富的古老陵墓、岩画和纪念碑，Ulytau 周围艾草的气味让人想起古代。建于 13 世纪的术赤汗 （Jochi Khan） 蓝色圆顶陵墓是乌利套 （Ulytau） 的必游之地之一。

The new complex honors the memory of the Jochi Khan with valuable exhibits displayed in the complex, including the museum, monument to the khan, the tent city, and a hotel.
新的建筑群是为了纪念术赤汗，建筑群中展出了珍贵的展品，包括博物馆、可汗纪念碑、帐篷城和酒店。

Tokayev said that researchers and scientists should focus on studying this sacred historical site. Back in 2019, when participating in the Ulytau International Tourism Forum, Tokayev described Ulytau as a “sacred cradle of the Kazakh people, a symbol of the unity of the nation and a fierce struggle for independence.”
托卡耶夫说，研究人员和科学家应该专注于研究这个神圣的历史遗迹。早在 2019 年，托卡耶夫在参加乌里套国际旅游论坛时，就将乌里套描述为“哈萨克斯坦人民的神圣摇篮，是民族团结和独立激烈斗争的象征”。

During his visit to the complex, Tokayev suggested organizing an international conference next year devoted to the Golden Horde with the participation of international and local researchers. 
在参观该建筑群期间，托卡耶夫建议明年组织一次专门讨论金帐汗国的国际会议，国际和当地研究人员都参加了会议。

The development of tourism potential in the region is also a priority voiced by Tokayev. Karaganda Region Akim (Governor) Zhenis Kassymbek briefed the President on the region’s plans to develop resort areas and historical and cultural complexes that include strengthening the tourism opportunities in the Ulytau, and Karkaraly districts as well as Balkhash city.
开发该地区的旅游潜力也是托卡耶夫提出的优先事项。卡拉干达地区 Akim （州长） Zhenis Kassymbek 向总统简要介绍了该地区开发度假区和历史文化综合体的计划，其中包括加强 Ulytau 和 Karkaraly 地区以及 Balkhash 市的旅游机会。

Dmitry Shlapentokh，Kazakhstan Resurrects Golden Horde in Political Messaging，https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13798-kazakhstan-resurrects-golden-horde-in-political-messaging.html。
德米特里·施拉彭托赫（Dmitry Shlapentokh），哈萨克斯坦在政治信息中复活金帐汗国，https://www.cacianalyst.org/publications/analytical-articles/item/13798-kazakhstan-resurrects-golden-horde-in-political-messaging.html。

April 24, 2024
4月 24， 2024

Recently, Kazakhstan’s President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev delivered a public address wherein he underscored the significance of the Golden Horde, also known as Ulus Jochi, to Kazakhstan. He emphasized that Kazakhstan stands as the true descendant of the Golden Horde, equating its historical importance to that of the Roman Empire. Tokayev emphasized the importance of ensuring international recognition of this fact. Additionally, he announced the commissioning of a comprehensive multi-volume history of Kazakhstan, with a dedicated volume specifically focusing on Ulus Jochi and its pivotal role in shaping Kazakhstan’s history. Tokayev’s recent revival of this ideology suggests that Kazakhstan, in stark contrast to Russia and implicitly other post-Soviet states, espouses principles of tolerance and peaceful coexistence.
最近，哈萨克斯坦总统卡西姆-若马尔特·托卡耶夫发表了公开讲话，他强调了金帐汗国（也称为 Ulus Jochi）对哈萨克斯坦的重要性。他强调，哈萨克斯坦是金帐汗国的真正后裔，将其历史重要性等同于罗马帝国的历史重要性。托卡耶夫强调了确保国际社会承认这一事实的重要性。此外，他还宣布委托编写一本全面的多卷本哈萨克斯坦历史，其中一卷专门关注兀鲁斯术赤及其在塑造哈萨克斯坦历史中的关键作用。托卡耶夫最近对这种意识形态的复兴表明，与俄罗斯和其他后苏联国家形成鲜明对比的是，哈萨克斯坦拥护宽容与和平共处的原则。

BACKGROUND: Eurasianism, which emerged among Russian emigres in the early 20th century, became a prominent ideology in the post-Soviet era, particularly in Russia and Kazakhstan. Its central premise revolves around the assumption that Russia and the USSR represents a unique civilization, blending Slavs—predominantly Russians, historically Orthodox—and mostly Turkic peoples, historically Muslims. Eurasianism found eager acceptance among segments of the Russian and Kazakh populations as it addressed the interests of the elite. For the Russian elite, Eurasianism primarily served as a manifestation of its enduring claim over the post-Soviet space, promoting an ideology of symbiotic relations between Russians and ethnic minorities. This implication of Eurasianism held particular significance for Kazakhstan, given its multiethnic population and the predominant presence of ethnic Russians in the northern part of the country.
背景：欧亚主义于 20 世纪初在俄罗斯移民中出现，成为后苏联时代的重要意识形态，尤其是在俄罗斯和哈萨克斯坦。它的核心前提围绕着这样一个假设，即俄罗斯和苏联代表着一个独特的文明，融合了斯拉夫人（主要是俄罗斯人，历史上是东正教徒）和大多数突厥民族（历史上是穆斯林）。欧亚主义在俄罗斯和哈萨克斯坦人口中得到了热切的接受，因为它涉及精英的利益。对于俄罗斯精英来说，欧亚主义主要是作为其对后苏联空间的持久主张的体现，促进了俄罗斯人和少数民族之间共生关系的意识形态。欧亚主义的这种含义对哈萨克斯坦具有特别重要的意义，因为哈萨克斯坦的人口是多民族的，而且俄罗斯族人在该国北部占主导地位。

As time progressed, Eurasianism declined in both Russia and Kazakhstan, driven by a variety of factors. In Russia, events such as the wars with Chechnya, ethnic riots—including those in Kondopoga and Stavropol—and a growing aversion towards migrants from the Caucasus and Central Asia eroded the notion of “Eurasian” symbiosis, transforming the Soviet-era slogan of “friendship of the people.” In Kazakhstan, fear of Russian separatism and declining numbers of Russian speakers also prompted a shift among the elite away from the original ideals of Eurasianism.
随着时间的推移，在各种因素的推动下，俄罗斯和哈萨克斯坦的欧亚主义都衰落了。在俄罗斯，与车臣的战争、种族骚乱（包括孔多波加和斯塔夫罗波尔的骚乱）以及对来自高加索和中亚的移民日益增长的厌恶等事件侵蚀了“欧亚”共生的概念，改变了苏联时代的“人民友谊”口号。在哈萨克斯坦，对俄罗斯分离主义的恐惧和讲俄语的人数下降也促使精英阶层背离了欧亚主义的最初理想。

The manifestation of this decline in Eurasianism was evident in various Russian cinematic portrayals. In the film “Mongol,” Russia, personified by Genghis Khan, was depicted as mistreated and ultimately seeking brutal revenge. Conversely, in “Horde,” Mongol/Tatar characters were portrayed as savage brutes unrelated to peaceful Christian Russians. A similar message was conveyed in “Kolovrat”, which focused on the Mongol invasion.
欧亚主义这种衰落的表现在各种俄罗斯电影描绘中显而易见。在电影《蒙古人》中，以成吉思汗为化身的俄罗斯被描绘成受虐待并最终寻求残酷报复。相反，在《部落》中，蒙古/鞑靼人角色被描绘成与和平的基督教俄罗斯人无关的野蛮野蛮人。“Kolovrat”也传达了类似的信息，它侧重于蒙古人的入侵。

Despite Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and confrontation with the West, the notion of “Eurasian” symbiosis did not experience a resurgence. Instead, any rapprochement with Asia was driven by pragmatic geopolitics or economic interests. This lack of resurgence did not lead to an ideology of trans-ethnic “Eurasian” symbiosis, and the policy of Russification continued unabated. Indeed, “Russianness” became associated not with ethnicity or citizenship but with language and culture, shaping the concept of the “Russian world.”
尽管俄罗斯入侵乌克兰并与西方对抗，但“欧亚”共生的概念并未复兴。相反，与亚洲的任何和解都是由务实的地缘政治或经济利益驱动的。这种缺乏复兴并没有导致跨种族“欧亚”共生的意识形态，俄罗斯化政策继续有增无减。事实上，“俄罗斯性”不再与种族或公民身份联系在一起，而是与语言和文化联系在一起，塑造了“俄罗斯世界”的概念。

IMPLICATIONS: Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014 raised concerns in the Kazakh government. However, it did not disrupt the ongoing process of “Kazakhization.” Parallel to the “Russian world,” “Kazakhization” implied that ethnicity played a minimal role, and anyone could be considered Kazakh if they spoke the Kazakh language. This concept was exemplified in the film “Tomiris,” which depicted the defeat of the Persian King by the Massagetae. In the film, Queen Tomiris, portrayed with Indo-European features, spoke an “ancient Turkic language.” This model closely resembled the “Russian world,” which suggested that anyone could be viewed as “Russian” regardless of their ethnicity.
影响：俄罗斯在 2014 年吞并克里米亚引起了哈萨克斯坦政府的担忧。然而，它并没有破坏正在进行的“哈萨克斯坦化”进程。与“俄罗斯世界”平行，“哈萨克斯坦化”意味着种族起着微不足道的作用，任何人只要说哈萨克语就可以被认为是哈萨克斯坦人。这个概念在电影《托米里斯》中得到了体现，该电影描绘了 Massagetae 击败波斯国王。在电影中，具有印欧语系特征的托米里斯女王说着一种“古老的突厥语”。这种模式与“俄罗斯世界”非常相似，后者表明任何人都可以被视为“俄罗斯人”，无论其种族如何。

Kazakhstan maintained its commitment to similar policies, with President Tokayev emphasizing the crucial role of the Kazakh language. However, this decision to advance with “Kazakhization” was tempered by a renewed interest in Eurasianism, as evidenced by the elevation of the Golden Horde, implicitly praised as a mighty and advanced civilization. Yet, in this context, it represented more than just military prowess. It symbolized mutual tolerance and a “symbiotic” coexistence of different ethnicities and languages. It was this aspect, rather than solely cultural or economic advancements, that elevated the Golden Horde as a great and civilized state.
哈萨克斯坦继续致力于实施类似政策，托卡耶夫总统强调了哈萨克斯坦语的关键作用。然而，这种推进“哈萨克斯坦化”的决定被对欧亚主义的新兴趣所缓和，金帐汗国的崛起证明了这一点，金帐汗国被含蓄地赞美为强大而先进的文明。然而，在这种情况下，它所代表的不仅仅是军事实力。它象征着相互宽容以及不同种族和语言的“共生”共存。正是这一方面，而不仅仅是文化或经济的进步，将金帐汗国提升为一个伟大而文明的国家。

It was not coincidental that Tokayev likened the Golden Horde to the Roman Empire. In this comparison, the glory of Rome was not solely attributed to its military might, but rather to various attributes of its greatness. Rome established a “Pax Romanus,” a Roman world characterized by peace and tolerance, where numerous ethnicities and languages coexisted despite the dominance of Latin. Similarly, the Golden Horde represents a nation of diversity and multiculturalism, embodying essential attributes akin to those found in modern Western states that trace their origins back to the Roman Empire.
托卡耶夫将金帐汗国比作罗马帝国并非巧合。在这个比较中，罗马的荣耀不仅在于它的军事实力，还在于其伟大的各种属性。罗马建立了“罗马治下”，一个以和平与宽容为特征的罗马世界，尽管拉丁语占主导地位，但众多种族和语言在这里共存。同样，金帐汗国代表着一个多元化和多元文化的国家，体现了类似于现代西方国家的基本属性，这些国家的历史可以追溯到罗马帝国。

From this perspective, the Golden Horde, with its Eurasian multiethnic culture, paved the way for the creation of a multicultural Kazakhstan, akin to a distinct Asian variant of the Roman Empire. This analogy highlights the role of the Golden Horde in fostering a society where different ethnicities and cultures could flourish, contributing to the development of a diverse and harmonious nation reminiscent of the ideals embodied by the Roman Empire.
从这个角度来看，金帐汗国及其欧亚多民族文化为创建多元文化的哈萨克斯坦铺平了道路，类似于罗马帝国的独特亚洲变体。这个类比强调了金帐汗国在培养一个不同种族和文化可以繁荣的社会方面的作用，有助于发展一个多元化与和谐的国家，让人想起罗马帝国所体现的理想。
Another implication is that Kazakhstan, despite its physical location in Asia, could be perceived as a Western country characterized by tolerance and the symbiotic coexistence of all ethnicities and languages, regardless of the promotion of the dominant language, Kazakh. This appeal to multiculturalism, as embodied by the Golden Horde, carries significant relevance for Kazakhstan’s elite.
另一个含义是，尽管哈萨克斯坦位于亚洲，但可以被视为一个西方国家，其特点是宽容和所有种族和语言共生共存，而不管主导语言哈萨克语的推广如何。金帐汗国所体现的这种对多元文化主义的吸引力对哈萨克斯坦的精英阶层具有重要意义。

Their concern stems from the conflict in Ukraine, where linguistic and cultural differences between Eastern and Western Ukraine escalated tensions and provided a pretext for Russian intervention. Additionally, the presence of restless Russian minorities in some Baltic states posed a potential parallel to historical events, such as the Sudetenland crisis preceding the Nazi invasion of Czechoslovakia. This historical context underscores the elite’s apprehension regarding the potential consequences of linguistic and cultural divisions within Kazakhstan, prompting a reevaluation of the country’s approach to multiculturalism and ethnic relations.
他们的担忧源于乌克兰冲突，乌克兰东部和西部之间的语言和文化差异加剧了紧张局势，并为俄罗斯的干预提供了借口。此外，一些波罗的海国家存在不安分的俄罗斯少数民族，这可能与历史事件相似，例如纳粹入侵捷克斯洛伐克之前的苏台德地区危机。这一历史背景凸显了精英们对哈萨克斯坦内部语言和文化分歧潜在后果的担忧，促使人们重新评估该国处理多元文化和种族关系的方法。

President Tokayev is evidently cognizant of the significant Russian-speaking population in the northern region of Kazakhstan, which harbors the potential for separatist sentiments. Additionally, he is aware of statements made by certain members of the Russian establishment, such as Vyacheslav Nikonov, a Duma deputy, who persists in claiming that Northern Kazakhstan is essentially Siberian territory, populated and developed by Russians, and that its transition to Kazakhstan was arbitrary and unlawful.
托卡耶夫总统显然意识到哈萨克斯坦北部地区有大量讲俄语的人口，该地区可能产生分离主义情绪。此外，他还注意到俄罗斯建制派的某些成员的言论，例如杜马代表维亚切斯拉夫·尼科诺夫 （Vyacheslav Nikonov），他坚持声称哈萨克斯坦北部本质上是西伯利亚领土，由俄罗斯人居住和开发，其向哈萨克斯坦的过渡是任意和非法的。

Furthermore, Tokayev is mindful of assertions made by Russian politicians, including President Putin, insinuating that Kazakhstan, along with other post-Soviet states, was artificially created by Lenin to fragment the cohesive Russian empire and appease minority groups. These statements highlight Tokayev’s awareness of external pressures and challenges to Kazakhstan’s territorial integrity and underscore the importance of his diplomatic and political maneuvers to address such concerns.
此外，托卡耶夫还注意到包括普京总统在内的俄罗斯政客的断言，他们暗示哈萨克斯坦和其他后苏联国家是列宁人为创造的，目的是瓦解有凝聚力的俄罗斯帝国并安抚少数群体。这些声明凸显了托卡耶夫对哈萨克斯坦领土完整的外部压力和挑战的认识，并强调了他通过外交和政治手段解决此类问题的重要性。

Tokayev endeavored to safeguard himself by maintaining a diplomatic rapport with the West, following the tradition established by his predecessor, Nursultan Nazarbayev, and also fostering stronger ties with China. Additionally, he sought to bolster relations with neighboring Uzbekistan. Nonetheless, Tokayev recognized that in the event of significant turmoil, akin to the events experienced by Kazakhstan in 2022, these alliances will offer limited protection, particularly given the proximity of Russian forces. Indeed, in 2022, Russia temporarily deployed its military to Kazakhstan to quell unrest.
托卡耶夫遵循其前任努尔苏丹·纳扎尔巴耶夫 （Nursultan Nazarbayev） 建立的传统，努力通过与西方保持外交关系来保护自己，并与中国建立更牢固的关系。此外，他还寻求加强与邻国乌兹别克斯坦的关系。尽管如此，托卡耶夫认识到，如果发生类似于哈萨克斯坦在 2022 年经历的事件的重大动荡，这些联盟将提供有限的保护，特别是考虑到俄罗斯军队的接近。事实上，在 2022 年，俄罗斯临时向哈萨克斯坦部署了军队以平息骚乱。

However, Tokayev acknowledged that the current situation might evolve, and President Putin could potentially exploit grievances among ethnic Russian or Russian-speaking populations to either advocate for the secession of Northern Kazakhstan or to transform Kazakhstan into a puppet state. Sensing these potential risks, Tokayev sought to “resurrect” Eurasianism, complementing his ongoing Kazakhization efforts. By praising the Golden Horde as a unique Eastern counterpart to the Roman Empire, which respected local minorities, Tokayev conveyed a clear message: while Kazakhization will continue, the rights of minorities, particularly the Russian-speaking population, will be upheld and respected.
然而，托卡耶夫承认，目前的局势可能会发生变化，普京总统可能会利用俄罗斯族或讲俄语的人群的不满情绪来倡导哈萨克斯坦北部的分裂或将哈萨克斯坦变成一个傀儡国家。意识到这些潜在风险后，托卡耶夫试图“复活”欧亚主义，以补充他正在进行的哈萨克斯坦化努力。托卡耶夫称赞金帐汗国是罗马帝国的独特东方对应物，尊重当地少数民族，传达了一个明确的信息：虽然哈萨克斯坦化将继续，但少数民族的权利，特别是讲俄语的人口，将得到维护和尊重。

CONCLUSIONS: The trajectory of development in Kazakhstan has mirrored the Russian model, suggesting a departure from the traditional trans-ethnic concept of “Eurasianism” towards a more nationally focused narrative. In both instances, the emphasis has shifted away from ethnic or biological attributes towards culture and language.
结论： 哈萨克斯坦的发展轨迹反映了俄罗斯模式，表明哈萨克斯坦从传统的跨种族概念“欧亚主义”转向更加以国家为中心的叙事。在这两个例子中，重点都从种族或生物属性转移到了文化和语言。

Simultaneously, the resurgence of ethnic, linguistic, and cultural tensions, as well as the looming specter of conflict or war, have prompted President Tokayev to revive Eurasianism by promoting the Golden Horde as the progenitor of Kazakhstan’s statehood. The Golden Horde symbolizes a distinct aspect of Kazakhstan’s historical prominence and underscores its claim to significance in the post-Soviet landscape. Moreover, it highlights Kazakhstan’s commitment to multiculturalism, even amid the ongoing process of Kazakhization. This juxtaposition underscores the complexities of Kazakhstan’s identity formation, as it navigates between national consolidation and the preservation of its diverse cultural heritage.
与此同时，种族、语言和文化紧张局势的卷土重来，以及冲突或战争的幽灵迫在眉睫，促使托卡耶夫总统通过推动金帐汗国成为哈萨克斯坦建国的鼻祖来复兴欧亚主义。金帐汗国象征着哈萨克斯坦历史上突出地位的一个独特方面，并强调了它在后苏联景观中的重要性。此外，它突出了哈萨克斯坦对多元文化主义的承诺，即使在哈萨克斯坦化进程中也是如此。这种并置突显了哈萨克斯坦身份形成的复杂性，因为它在国家整合和保护其多样化的文化遗产之间游走。

AUTHOR'S BIO: Dmitry Shlapentokh is Associate Professor of History, Indiana University at South Bend.
作者简介：Dmitry Shlapentokh 是印第安纳大学南本德分校历史学副教授。