Chapter Two The Divergence and Convergence of Chinese and Western Philosophical Traditions
第二章 中西哲学传统的分歧与融合

Chapter Two: The Divergence and Convergence of Chinese and Western Philosophical Traditions
第二章 中西哲学传统的分歧与融合

Before embarking on a comparative analysis of Chinese and Western philosophies, it is essential to understand the scope of philosophy itself and the fundamental questions it seeks to address. Establishing this framework will facilitate a deeper exploration of both the similarities and differences inherent in these two rich philosophical traditions. Philosophy, at its core, engages with profound questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language, ultimately striving to unveil the underlying principles that shape reality and the human experience.
在对中西哲学进行比较分析之前，必须先了解哲学本身的范围及其试图解决的基本问题。建立这个框架将有助于更深入地探索这两个丰富的哲学传统中固有的相似之处和差异。哲学的核心是探讨存在、知识、价值观、理性、思想和语言等深刻问题，最终努力揭示塑造现实和人类经验的根本原则。

Philosophy is a discipline dedicated to examining some of humanity’s most pressing questions. It endeavors to unravel the complexities of existence, the nature of knowledge, and the principles underlying moral and aesthetic values. Stemming from the Greek words “philos” (meaning love) and “sophia” (meaning wisdom), philosophy fundamentally seeks to explore and attain wisdom, reflecting a deep-seated passion for understanding the essence of life and reality.
哲学是一门致力于研究人类最紧迫问题的学科。它致力于揭示存在的复杂性、知识的本质以及道德和审美价值背后的原则。哲学源于希腊语“philos”（意为爱）和“sophia”（意为智慧），其根本目的是探索和获得智慧，反映了人们对理解生命和现实本质的深切热情。

This vast field encompasses several key subfields, each probing different aspects of human experience:
这个庞大的领域包含几个关键的子领域，每个子领域探究人类经验的不同方面：

Metaphysics: This branch concerns itself with the nature of reality, existence, and the universe. It poses fundamental questions such as: What is the nature of reality? What is the relationship between mind and matter? Is there a purpose to the universe? Do abstract objects (like numbers) exist independently of human thought? What is the nature of time and space? Are free will and determinism compatible?
形而上学：这一分支关注的是现实、存在和宇宙的本质。它提出了一些基本问题，例如：现实的本质是什么？精神和物质之间的关系是什么？宇宙有目的吗？抽象对象（如数字）是否独立于人类思想而存在？时间和空间的本质是什么？自由意志和决定论是否相容？

Epistemology: Focused on the study of knowledge, belief, and the essence of truth, epistemology explores how we acquire knowledge and what we can justifiably claim to know. It raises essential questions like: What is knowledge? How do we acquire knowledge? What distinguishes justified belief from mere opinion? How do perception and reason shape our understanding of reality? Is knowledge absolute or relative? What are the limitations of human understanding?
认识论：认识论专注于研究知识、信仰和真理的本质，探索我们如何获取知识以及我们可以合理地声称知道什么。它提出了一些基本问题，例如：什么是知识？我们如何获取知识？合理的信念与单纯的观点有何区别？感知和理性如何塑造我们对现实的理解？知识是绝对的还是相对的？人类理解的局限性是什么？

Ethics: This area examines moral values and principles, probing questions about what constitutes a good life and ethical conduct. It investigates diverse moral frameworks and asks: What is the good life? What is the nature of right and wrong? How should we live our lives? What is the foundation of moral judgments? Are ethical principles universal or culturally relative? How do we balance individual rights with the common good?
伦理学：该领域研究道德价值观和原则，探讨什么是美好生活和道德行为。它研究不同的道德框架，并提出以下问题：什么是美好生活？什么是对错？我们应该如何生活？道德判断的基础是什么？道德原则是普遍的还是文化相关的？我们如何平衡个人权利和公共利益？

Aesthetics: This area delves into the nature of beauty, art, and the aesthetic experience. It invites exploration of questions such as: What is beauty? What is the role of art? How do we evaluate art and aesthetic experiences? Is art an expression of truth? How do emotions influence our appreciation of art?
美学：该领域深入探讨美、艺术和审美体验的本质。它邀请您探索以下问题：什么是美？艺术的作用是什么？我们如何评价艺术和审美体验？艺术是真理的表达吗？情感如何影响我们对艺术的欣赏？

Social and Political Philosophy: This branch investigates concepts such as justice, rights, and the organization of society. It addresses questions including: What is justice? What is the ideal form of government? What rights do individuals possess, and how should they be protected? What responsibilities do citizens have to one another and to the state? How should power and resources be distributed in society?
社会与政治哲学：该分支研究正义、权利和社会组织等概念。它解决的问题包括：什么是正义？理想的政府形式是什么？个人拥有哪些权利，应如何保护这些权利？公民对彼此和对国家负有哪些责任？社会中应如何分配权力和资源？

In short, philosophy seeks to illuminate the fundamental principles that inform our understanding of the world and our place within it. In the following sections, we will select some core questions shared by both Chinese and Western philosophy and compare their answers to these questions. However, before delving into the points of divergence and convergence in their respective quests for understanding, it is necessary to trace the historical contexts that have shaped the development of both Chinese and Western philosophy.
简而言之，哲学旨在阐明我们理解世界和我们在其中的位置的基本原则。在下文中，我们将选取中西哲学共同提出的一些核心问题，并比较它们对这些问题的回答。然而，在深入探讨各自理解探索中的分歧点和趋同点之前，有必要追溯塑造中西哲学发展的历史背景。

The roots of Chinese philosophy can be traced back to several key ancient texts and cultural developments that shaped its evolution. Its origins can be broadly categorized into periods marked by significant philosophical contributions, particularly during the Zhou Dynasty (around 1046-256 BCE ), which saw the rise of innovative thinkers and schools of thought whose ideas continue to resonate today.
中国哲学的根源可以追溯到塑造其演变的几部重要古代文献和文化发展。其起源大致可分为几个以重大哲学贡献为标志的时期，尤其是周朝（约公元前 1046-256 年），这一时期涌现出许多创新思想家和思想流派，他们的思想至今仍产生影响。
(1) Prehistoric foundations and early texts
（1）史前基础和早期文献

Before the emergence of formal philosophical schools, the foundations of ancient Chinese
在正式的哲学流派出现之前，中国古代哲学的基础
philosophy were shaped by prehistoric beliefs, shamanistic practices, and a profound connection to nature. For example, Shamanism, predominantly among northern ethnic minority groups, was characterized by the belief in the veneration of both nature and ancestors. Shamanists posited that everything possesses a spirit, with mountains, trees, animals, and other elements of the natural world each embodying their own deities. Additionally, they placed significant emphasis on ancestor worship, believing that the souls of their forebears could bestow blessings on future generations. This deep reverence for harmony, balance, and the natural world is also evident in the early inscriptions found on oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty (around 1600-1046 BC). These inscriptions reveal that the people of the Shang Dynasty worshipped ghosts and gods, such as the “Supreme Deity” (上帝), along with deities associated with the earth, rivers, and mountains. This reflects their awe towards nature and their desire to achieve harmony with these forces through rituals and offerings.
哲学受到史前信仰、萨满教习俗和与自然的深厚联系的影响。例如，主要在北方少数民族中盛行的萨满教，其特点是崇拜自然和祖先。萨满教徒认为万物皆有灵性，山脉、树木、动物和自然界的其他元素都体现了各自的神灵。此外，他们非常重视祖先崇拜，相信祖先的灵魂可以赐福子孙后代。这种对和谐、平衡和自然世界的深切崇敬也体现在商朝（公元前 1600-1046 年左右）早期甲骨文的铭文中。这些铭文表明，商朝人崇拜鬼神，例如“至高神”（上帝），以及与大地、河流和山脉有关的神灵。这反映了他们对自然的敬畏以及通过仪式和祭祀与自然力量实现和谐的愿望。

The early Zhou Dynasty marked a pivotal transition with the introduction of the concepts of “Li” (ritual, propriety) and “Tian” (heaven), which would later develop into central themes in Chinese philosophy. The I Ching (Book of Changes), one of China’s oldest classic texts, explores the duality of yin and yang and the dynamic relationships in nature and society. The arrangement of the trigrams represents various ways in which forces interact and transform, highlighting themes of balance, change, and harmony. These ideas play a crucial role in Confucian governance, linking social harmony to cosmic balance.
周朝初期标志着一个关键的转折点，引入了“礼”和“天”的概念，这些概念后来发展成为中国哲学的核心主题。《易经》是中国最古老的经典著作之一，探讨了阴阳二元性以及自然和社会的动态关系。八卦的排列代表了力量相互作用和转变的各种方式，突出了平衡、变化和和谐的主题。这些思想在儒家治理中发挥着至关重要的作用，将社会和谐与宇宙平衡联系起来。
(2) The Hundred Schools of Thought
（2）诸子百家

The Warring States period (475-221 BC) was vital for the blossoming of philosophical thought amid social and political turmoil. This era is often referred to as the “Hundred Schools of Thought,” during which various philosophical schools emerged, notably Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism, and Mohism.
战国时期（公元前 475-221 年）是社会和政治动荡时期，也是哲学思想蓬勃发展的关键时期。这个时代通常被称为“诸子百家”，在此期间，各种哲学流派纷纷涌现，其中最著名的是儒家、道家、法家和墨家。

Confucianism, founded by Confucius (551-479 BC), emphasizes the cultivation of personal virtues, moral governance, hierarchical relationships, and social harmony. Central to Confucian thought is the belief that a well-ordered society relies on the moral integrity of its leaders and the ethical education of its citizens. Confucius advocated the ethical principle of reciprocity by asserting, “What you do not wish for yourself, do not impose on others”, encouraging respectful
儒家思想由孔子（公元前 551-479 年）创立，强调培养个人美德、道德治理、等级关系和社会和谐。儒家思想的核心是相信一个秩序井然的社会依赖于领导者的道德操守和公民的道德教育。孔子提倡互惠互利的道德原则，主张“己所不欲，勿施于人”，鼓励尊重他人