Lead has long been recognized as a highly effective material in providing protection from various sources of radiation, and as such, has become a standard in the design of radiation protection systems. 長期以來，人們一直認為鉛是一種能夠提供各種輻射源防護的高效材料，因此鉛已成為輻射防護系統設計的標準。
Lead for Radiation Protection has been written to familiarize architects, designers, specifiers, users and engineering students with the radiation shielding properties, design, and fabrication information on lead and lead based products. No shielding systems should be undertaken without consulting with a qualified radiation consultant or certified radiation physicist. 編寫《輻射防護鉛》的目的是讓建築師、設計師、規範制定者、使用者和工程專業學生熟悉鉛和鉛基產品的輻射屏蔽特性、設計和製造資訊。在未諮詢合格的輻射顧問或認證輻射物理學家之前，不得使用任何屏蔽系統。
The scope of this publication is limited to the application of lead as part of a protective shield or barrier imposed between the energy source and the person or object to be protected. 本出版品的適用範圍僅限於將鉛作為保護罩或屏障的一部分，施加在能量源與受保護的人或物體之間。
Section I provides background information on the sources and characteristics of radiation, and shielding from radiation. Section II provides some basic information on lead as a shield material, and its comparison to other materials; while Section III outlines some of the basic applications of lead for radiation shielding. 第一節提供了有關輻射源、輻射特徵和輻射屏蔽的背景資訊。第二節提供了有關鉛作為屏蔽材料的一些基本信息，以及鉛與其他材料的比較；第三節概述了鉛在輻射屏蔽方面的一些基本應用。
The information provided in Section IV is based upon the currently used construction materials and techniques of applying lead as part of a radiation shielding system. The illustrated methods of lead constructions are intended as a guide only. Again the services of a qualified radiologist should be obtained before the design of any shielding system is considered. 第四部分提供的資訊是基於目前使用的建築材料和鉛作為輻射屏蔽系統一部分的應用技術。圖示的鉛結構方法僅供參考。同樣，在考慮設計任何屏蔽系統之前，應獲得合格放射科醫生的服務。
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 致謝
Many people helped in the preparation and review of this publication, especially in the detailing of the construction methods and the many applications of lead based products. 許多人在本出版物的編寫和審查過程中提供了幫助，尤其是在詳細介紹施工方法和鉛基產品的多種應用方面。
Especially helpful was the Lead Development Association, London, whose publication, Lead for Radiation Shielding, served as a source for much of the material in Section IV. 倫敦鉛開發協會的幫助尤其大，該協會的出版物《用於輻射屏蔽的鉛》是第 IV 部分大部分材料的來源。
Also of assistance were William Schimpf, Donald J. MacKenzie, Martin Z. Karson, Bernard R. Schmidt, J.E. Casteras and James J. Cullen, as well as the staff of Lead Industries Association, Inc. 提供協助的還有 William Schimpf、Donald J. MacKenzie、Martin Z. Karson、Bernard R. Schmidt、J.E. Casteras 和 James J. Cullen，以及鉛工業協會的工作人員。
A GUIDE TO THE USE OF LEAD FOR RADIATION SHIELDING 鉛用於輻射屏蔽指南
TABLE OF CONTENTS 目錄
RADIATION SHIELDING ..... 1 輻射屏蔽 .....1
Introduction ..... 1. 導言 .....1.
Sources of Radiation ..... 1 輻射源 .....1
Types and Characteristics of Radiation ..... 1 輻射的類型和特點 .....1
Characteristics of Shielding ..... 1 屏蔽的特點 .....1
SHIELD MATERIAL ..... 2 屏蔽材料 .....2
Criteria for the Selection of a Shield Material ..... 2 選擇屏蔽材料的標準 .....2
Properties of Lead for Radiation Shielding ..... 2 輻射屏蔽用鉛的特性 .....2
Comparison of Shield Materials ..... 3 防護罩材質比較 .....3
Choice of Shield Materials ..... 3 防護罩材質選擇 .....3
Forms of Lead Available for Radiation Shielding ..... 3 可用於輻射屏蔽的鉛形式 .....3
APPLICATIONS OF LEAD FOR RADIATION SHIELDING SYSTEMS ..... 6 鉛在輻射屏蔽系統的應用 .....6
X-ray Protection ..... 6 X 射線防護 .....6
Portable Space Shielding Systems ..... 6 便攜式空間屏蔽系統 .....6
Protective Clothing ..... 7 防護衣 .....7
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF X-RAY PROTECTIVE 設計與建造 X 光保護裝置
SPACE SHIELDING SYSTEMS ..... 8 空間屏蔽系統 .....8
Introduction ..... 8 簡介 .....8
Design Requirements ..... 8 設計要求 .....8
Construction of A Space Shielding System ..... 8 建構空間屏蔽系統 .....8
Sheet Lead Lining. ..... 9 鉛板襯裡。 .....9
Sheet Lead Lining in Existing Structures ..... 10 現有結構中的片狀鉛襯裡 .....10
Finishing of Sheet Lead Lining ..... 11 鉛板襯裡精加工 .....11
Barrier Construction with Lead Laminates ..... 11 使用鉛層壓板建造隔離牆 .....11
Radiation Protection at Barrier Openings ..... 14 屏障開口處的輻射防護 .....14
X-ray Machine Control Booth ..... 17 X 射線機控制展台 .....17
Thru-Wall X-ray Film Transfer Cabinet ..... 17 穿牆式 X 光膠卷傳輸櫃 .....17
APPENDIX 附錄
A. RADIATION PROTECTION AT WALL OPENINGS FOR DUCT OR PIPE ..... 20 A. 用於管道或管線的牆壁開口處的輻射防護 .....20
B. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF LEAD ..... 24 B. 鉛的一般特性 .....24
RADIATION SHIELDING 輻射屏蔽
Introduction 導言
Radiation is energy propagated through space, and, in the context considered here, encompasses two kinds of phenomena: 1) electromagnetic waves, e.g., x-rays, gamma-rays, and 2) particle emulsions, e.g., alpha and beta-particles from a radioactive substance or neutrons from a nuclear reactor. 輻射是在空間傳播的能量，在這裡包括兩種現象：1）電磁波，如 X 射線、伽馬射線；2）粒子發射，如放射性物質中的α和β粒子或核反應器中的中子。
The universe is flooded with radiation of various energy levels, but the earth's atmosphere shields us from most of the harmful radiation. Without such shielding, human life would not be possible as we know it today. With the advent of man's ability to directly convert matter into energy, in what we call the atomic or nuclear process, and the increased usage of machine produced forms of radiation and radioactive isotopes, we have introduced the possibility of excessive radioactivity into our immediate environment. 宇宙充斥著各種能量水平的輻射，但地球大氣層為我們屏蔽了大部分有害輻射。如果沒有這種屏蔽，人類就不可能有今天的生活。隨著人類將物質直接轉化為能量的能力（即我們所說的原子或核過程）的出現，以及機器生產的輻射形式和放射性同位素使用量的增加，我們已經將過度放射性的可能性引入了我們周圍的環境。
Sources of Radiation 輻射源
A disturbance of the internal structure of the atom, such as occurs in the production of x-rays or in nuclear fission, is followed by an action toward stability within the atom. This action may be accompanied by the emission of particles, called particle radiation, and/or by electromagnetic radiation. Thus the harnessing of atomic energy and increased industrial and medical use of x-rays have brought about the problem of controlling the powerful radiation emitted. 原子內部結構發生紊亂（如產生 X 射線或發生核分裂）後，原子內部會產生一種趨於穩定的作用。這種作用可能伴隨著粒子的發射（稱為粒子輻射）和/或電磁輻射。因此，原子能的利用以及工業和醫療領域對 X 射線使用的增加，帶來了控制強輻射的問題。
Types and Characteristics of Radiation 輻射的類型和特點
The various types of radiation - alpha, beta, gamma, neutron, and x-rays - differ chiefly in their ability to penetrate and ionize matter. It is the latter characteristic which injures living tissue and which must be guarded against. The alpha particle is a positively charged helium nucleus which is completely stopped by 3 or 4 inches of air or a piece of paper. Beta particles are high speed electrons of varying energies. In general, they produce less ionization in matter than alpha particles but are more penetrating. Most common substances such as 1 inch of wood will completely absorb beta rays. 各種類型的輻射--α、β、γ、中子和 X 射線--主要在穿透和電離物質的能力上有所不同。後一種特性會對生物組織造成傷害，必須加以防範。 α粒子是一個帶正電荷的氦核，它能被 3 或 4 英吋的空氣或一張紙完全阻擋。 β 粒子是不同能量的高速電子。一般來說，它們在物質中產生的電離比阿爾法粒子少，但穿透力更強。大多數常見物質，如 1 英吋的木材，都會完全吸收貝塔射線。
Gamma radiation is emitted in all directions from its source as an expanding spherical front of energy, with great powers of penetration. High energy gamma radiation will not be wholly blocked by a foot of lead, while lower energy levels can be safely blocked by inch or less of lead. 伽瑪輻射從輻射源向四面八方發射，是一種不斷擴大的球形能量前沿，具有極強的穿透力。一英尺厚的鉛無法完全阻擋高能量的伽馬輻射，而 英寸或更小的鉛則可以安全地阻擋低能量水平的伽馬輻射。
Neutrons emitted by the atomic pile are uncharged particles which will also ionize certain material indirectly. Neutrons are classified according to their energy levels as very fast, fast, slow and thermal, the last having the lowest energy level. 原子堆發射的中子是不帶電的粒子，也會間接電離某些物質。中子依其能階分為極快、快、慢和熱，最後一種能階最低。
X-ray's are produced by accelerating electrons in a high voltage field to impact a target material, causing the emission of radiation in all directions. Shielding against x-rays can be designed knowing the accelerating voltage. X 射線是透過在高電壓場中加速電子，使其撞擊目標材料，從而向各個方向發射輻射產生的。屏蔽 X 射線的設計可以透過了解加速電壓來實現。
The comparative energy of a particular form of radiation can be depicted on the electromagnetic spectrum. The most familiar form of radiation, that of visible light, falls roughly at the center of the scale. Radio waves occupy the lower energy end of the scale. Gamma and neutron radiation lie near the higher energy extreme, with energies greater than x-ray and just below that of cosmic rays. 特定形式輻射的相對能量可以用電磁波譜來描述。我們最熟悉的輻射形式，即可見光，大致位於光譜的中心。無線電波處於能量較低的一端。伽瑪射線和中子輻射位於能量較高的一端，其能量高於 X 射線，略低於宇宙射線。
Although there are many forms and types of radiation which may be injurious to health, the primary ones of concern are gamma rays, x-rays, and neutron particles. It is widely accepted that if adequate shielding is provided for these forms, the effects from the others can be considered negligible. This protection can be accomplished by barrier shielding with a material that will induce sufficient attenuation of the radiation intensity caused by a particular installation to a tolerable level. 雖然有多種形式和類型的輻射可能會損害健康，但主要的輻射是伽馬射線、X 射線和中子粒子。人們普遍認為，如果對這些形式的輻射提供足夠的屏蔽，其他輻射的影響可以忽略不計。這種保護可以透過使用某種材料進行屏障屏蔽來實現，這種材料可以將特定裝置造成的輻射強度充分衰減到可以承受的水平。
Characteristics of Shielding 屏蔽的特點
Radiation shielding is considered in two general classifications of thermal and biological, which are defined as: 輻射屏蔽分為熱屏蔽和生物屏蔽兩大類，其定義如下：
Thermal Shielding is used to dissipate excessive heat from high absorption of radiation energy, and 熱屏蔽用於散發因大量吸收輻射能量而產生的過多熱量，以及
Biological Shielding is needed to reduce radiation, e.g., gamma or neutron radiation, to a safe level for humans and animals. 生物屏蔽需要將輻射（如伽馬射線或中子輻射）降低到對人類和動物安全的程度。
In providing a system of biological shielding, the danger of exposure to radiation is classified into two separate categories: internal and external. 在提供生物屏蔽系統時，輻照危險分為兩類：內部和外部。
The former is primarily a hygiene and medical problem, and does not involve shielding as such. External radiation comes from a source outside the human body, such as an x-ray tube, cyclotron, nuclear reactor, or radioactive materials such as radium. Protection against external radiation is fundamentally a question of providing a sufficient distance from the radiation source, limiting the time of exposure to the radiation, and imposing a protective shield between the source and the body to be protected. The design of a radiation protective shield will depend, in addition on such factors as the type and characteristics of the radiation source, type of installation, and the properties of the shield material. 前者主要是衛生和醫療問題，不涉及屏蔽本身。外輻射來自人體以外的輻射源，如 X 射線管、迴旋加速器、核反應器或放射性物質（如鐳）。對外部輻射的防護根本上就是與輻射源保持足夠的距離，限制暴露在輻射下的時間，並在輻射源和受保護的人體之間加裝防護罩。輻射防護罩的設計也取決於輻射源的類型和特性、安裝類型以及防護罩材料的特性等因素。
Criteria for the Selection of A Shield Material 選擇屏蔽材料的標準
Theoretically, all materials could be used for radiation shielding if employed in a thickness sufficient to attenuate the radiation to safe limits; however, due to certain characteristics, discussed below, lead and concrete are among the most commonly used materials. The choice of the shield material is dependent upon many varied factors such as: final desired attenuated radiation levels, ease of heat dissipation, resistance to radiation damage, required thickness and weight, multiple use considerations (e.g., shield and/or structural), uniformity of shielding capability, permanence of shielding and availability. The following is a generalization of the more important criteria and the required properties of the shield material: 從理論上講，如果使用的材料厚度足以將輻射衰減到安全限度，那麼所有材料都可用於輻射屏蔽；不過，由於某些特性（下文將討論），鉛和混凝土是最常用的材料。屏蔽材料的選擇取決於許多不同的因素，如：最終所需的衰減輻射水平、散熱的難易程度、抗輻射損傷能力、所需的厚度和重量、多種用途的考慮（如屏蔽和/或結構）、屏蔽能力的均勻性、屏蔽的持久性和可用性。以下是屏蔽材料的重要標準和所需特性的概括：
Attenuation 衰減
Neutrons The attenuation of neutrons is dependent upon the effective cross section of the shield, a measure of the probability that an incident neutron will undergo a nuclear reaction reducing the neutron's energy. Usually a hydrogen containing material such as water is used for thinness. During attenuation of incident radiation, it is important to recognize that secondary radiation, i.e., that produced by an irradiated shield material, can be emitted. For example gamma rays produced within a shield material by neutron absorption are a potential source of secondary radiation. Such phenomena require a shielding material that will not become radioactive. 中子 中子的衰減取決於屏蔽的有效截面，這是入射中子發生核反應降低中子能量的機率的量度。通常使用含氫材料（如水）以達到減薄的目的。在衰減入射輻射的過程中，必須認識到二次輻射（即由輻照屏蔽材料產生的輻射）可能會發射出來。例如，屏蔽材料吸收中子後產生的伽馬射線就是一種潛在的二次輻射源。這種現象需要一種不會產生放射性的屏蔽材料。
Gamma Rays and -Rays Their attenuation is dependent upon the density of the shielding material; it can be shown that a dense shield material with a higher atomic number is a better attenuator of x -rays. 伽馬射線和 -射線 它們的衰減取決於屏蔽材料的密度；可以證明，原子序數越高的緻密屏蔽材料對 x 射線的衰減越好。
Thermal - Heat Removal 熱能 - 熱去除
As it is often necessary to remove heat from the inner layer of the shield, the shield material should have good heat conductivity. 由於經常需要從防護罩內層帶走熱量，因此防護罩材質應具有良好的導熱性。
Radiation Damage Resistance 抗輻射損傷
It is an essential requirement that the radiation which is attenuated does not have a significantly deleterious effect on the mechanical or physical properties of the shield material. 一項基本要求是，被衰減的輻射不會對屏蔽材料的機械或物理特性產生明顯的有害影響。
In designing a radiation shielding system, a balance should be made between the cost, availability, and ease of fabrication of the shield material and the effect of the shield size, weight and configuration on the total installation. The designer should also be aware of the material's transportation costs, wastage and its scrap value, and the flexibility of the materials to be used in various portions of the installation. 在設計輻射屏蔽系統時，應在屏蔽材料的成本、可用性和易加工性與屏蔽尺寸、重量和配置對整個安裝的影響之間取得平衡。設計者也應注意材料的運輸成本、損耗和廢料價值，以及材料在安裝各部分所使用的彈性。
Properties of Lead for Radiation Shielding 用於輻射屏蔽的鉛的特性
The properties of lead which make it an excellent shielding material are its density, high atomic number, high level of stability, ease of fabrication, high degree of flexibility in application, and its availability. The following is a discussion of these properties as related to the criteria of selecting a shield material. 鉛具有密度大、原子序數高、穩定性高、易於製造、應用靈活性高以及容易取得等特性，因此是優秀的屏蔽材料。以下將結合選擇屏蔽材料的標準來討論這些特性。
Attenuation of Neutron particles 中子粒子衰減
As discussed above, in shielding against neutron particles it is necessary to provide a protective shield that will attenuate both the neutron particles and the secondary gamma radiation. 如上所述，在屏蔽中子粒子時，有必要提供一個既能減弱中子粒子又能減弱次級伽瑪輻射的保護罩。
When applied as part of a neutron particle shielding system, lead has an extremely low level of neutron absorption and hence practically no secondary gamma radiation. 作為中子粒子屏蔽系統的一部分，鉛對中子的吸收率極低，因此幾乎沒有二次伽瑪輻射。
If the shield material has a high rate of neutron capture, it will in time become radioactive, sharply reducing its effectiveness as a shield material. 如果屏蔽材料的中子俘獲率很高，那麼過一段時間就會變得具有放射性，從而大大降低其作為屏蔽材料的有效性。
Lead itself cannot become radioactive under bombardment by neutrons. Therefore lead shielding, even after long periods of neutron exposure, emits only insignificant amounts of radiation due to activation. 鉛本身在中子轟擊下不會產生放射性。因此，鉛屏蔽即使經過長時間的中子照射，也只會因活化而釋放出微量輻射。
Attenuation of Gamma Radiation and -Ray 伽瑪射線和 -射線的衰減
In the design of a protective shielding system, one of the key factors is preventing the penetration of the rays. As stated earlier, the property of the shield material of the most significance in preventing this penetration is its density. Lead enjoys the advantage of being the densest of any commonly available material. Where space is at a premium and radiation protection is important lead is often prescribed. It is recognized that lead is not the most dense element (i.e., tantalum, tungsten, and thorium are higher on the density scale), but lead is readily available, easily fabricated and the lowest cost of the higher density materials. 在設計防護屏蔽系統時，防止射線穿透是關鍵因素之一。如前所述，屏蔽材料在防止射線穿透方面最重要的特性是其密度。鉛的密度是所有常見材料中最高的。在空間有限而輻射防護又十分重要的情況下，鉛通常是首選。鉛並不是密度最高的元素（例如，鉭、鎢和釷的密度較高），但鉛易於取得、易於製造，而且是密度較高的材料中成本最低的。
Other Factors 其他因素
Being a metal, lead has an advantage over various aggregate materials such as concrete; being more uniform in density throughout. In addition, because commonly used forms of lead exhibit smooth surfaces lead is less likely to become contaminated with dirt or other material which, in turn, may become radioactive. 作為一種金屬，鉛比混凝土等各種骨材材料更有優勢，其密度更均勻。此外，由於常用的鉛具有光滑的表面，因此不易受到灰塵或其他物質的污染，而這些物質可能具有放射性。
Regarding its re-use, lead contains only small quantities of other elements which can be adversely effected by exposure to radiation, and therefore, it is immediately available for re-use, adaptation, or for sale as scrap. Currently, the price of scrap lead may be as high as of the prevailing price of virgin lead. 關於鉛的再利用，鉛只含有少量會受到輻射不利影響的其他元素，因此可以立即再利用、改造或作為廢料出售。目前，廢鉛的價格可能高達 原生鉛的現行價格。
In addition to the significant physical properties, lead's versatility, ease of fabrication, and availability in a variety of forms lend itself to a great many installation applications. 除了具有重要的物理特性外，鉛的多功能性、易加工性和各種形式的可用性也使其適用於大量的安裝應用。
To meet the varied applications and installations of radiation shielding systems, lead can be fabricated easily into countless designs with weights varying anywhere from ounces to many tons. 為了滿足輻射屏蔽系統的各種應用和安裝要求，鉛可以輕鬆製成無數種設計，重量從盎司到數噸不等。
Comparison of Shield Materials 防護罩材質比較
Lead is heavier than roughly 80 per cent of the periodic table. It could be assumed therefore that shield constructions making use of lead will tend to be heavier than constructions making use of lighter elements. This concept may be true in static shielding structures where weight and volume restrictions are of lesser importance, and concrete and water are often used. In mobile shielding systems however, where weight and volume reductions are at a premium, the selection of the lighter materials would have quite the opposite effect on reducing radiation to that intended. 鉛比元素週期表中大約 80% 的元素都重。因此可以認為，使用鉛的屏蔽結構往往比使用較輕元素的屏蔽結構重。這個概念在靜態屏蔽結構中可能是正確的，因為在靜態屏蔽結構中，重量和體積限制較不重要，通常使用混凝土和水。然而，在移動屏蔽系統中，重量和體積的減少是非常重要的，選擇較輕的材料對減少輻射的效果與預期效果恰恰相反。
The remaining elements which are heavier than lead could contribute to even greater weight savings, although the use of such materials as depleted uranium and tungsten is usually prohibitive in cost. 其餘比鉛重的元素可以進一步減輕重量，但使用貧化鈾和鎢等材料通常成本過高。
The traditional concept of lead being heavy must be re-evaluated in terms of providing a highly effective shield structure, with the lowest volume and weight of the commonly available material. 必須重新評估 "鉛很重 "這個傳統概念，以提供一種高效的屏蔽結構，同時使現有材料的體積和重量最小。
Choice of Shield Materials 防護罩材料的選擇
Using a method of computation from one of the many excellent radiological handbooks, it can be readily determined that lead is an excellent choice as a material for construction of a radiation protective shield barrier. One such source is NCRP Report No. 34 - Medical X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Protection for Energies up to 10 MeV - Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation. This publication is available from National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Washington, D.C. 20008. Although other building materials can be used for either a new or existing structure, their weight and volume will be far greater than that of the required thickness of lead necessary to provide the required level of protection. 利用許多優秀的放射學手冊中的一種計算方法，可以輕鬆確定鉛是建造輻射防護屏障的最佳材料選擇。 NCRP 第 34 號報告--《能量高達 10 MeV 的醫用 X 射線和伽馬射線防護--結構屏蔽設計與評估》就是這樣一本資料。該出版物可從美國國家輻射防護和測量委員會（NCRP）獲得，地址：華盛頓特區 20008。雖然其他建築材料也可用於新建或現有結構，但其重量和體積遠大於提供所需防護等級所需的鉛厚度。
The following section outlines the various forms of lead available for radiation shielding applications, which are summarized in Table 1. 下一節概述了可用於輻射屏蔽應用的各種形式的鉛，表 1 對其進行了匯總。
When lead is specified for a radiation shielding application, regardless of its form or shape, the purity of the selected grade is related to the nature of the radiation source. In some instances the common impurities that might be found in lead could become secondary radiation emitters. 當鉛被指定用於輻射屏蔽應用時，無論其形式或形狀如何，所選等級的純度都與輻射源的性質有關。在某些情況下，鉛中可能存在的常見雜質會成為二次輻射發射體。
Forms of Lead Available for Radiation Shielding 可用於輻射屏蔽的鉛的形式
Sheet, Plates and Foil 片材、板材和箔材
Normal sheet lead is available in thicknesses from 0.002 inches, up to many inches. Any thickness under 普通鉛板的厚度從 0.002 英吋到許多英吋不等。任何厚度低於
Table I FORMS OF LEAD USED FOR RADIATION SHIELDING 表 I 用於屏蔽輻射的鉛的形式
FORM 表格
Lead Sheet, Slab and Plate 鉛板
Lead Shot 鉛彈
Lead Wool 鉛羊毛
Lead Epoxy 環氧鉛
Lead Putty 鉛泥
Lead Brick 鉛磚
Lead Pipe 鉛管
Lead-clad Tubing 覆鉛管
Lead-lined/Lead-clad Pipe 襯鉛/覆鉛管
Lead sleeves 鉛套
Lead Powder 鉛粉
Lead Glass 鉛玻璃
Lead-Polyethylene-Boron 鉛-聚乙烯-硼
USE 使用
Permanent shield installations 永久盾構安裝
Where solid lead is impractical, due to location, shape, and accessibility 由於位置、形狀和可及性的原因，不可能使用固體鉛的地方
Filling deep cracks in a radiation barrier 填補輻射屏障的深層裂縫
In-the-field crack filling patching 現場裂縫填補修補
Non-hardening, temporary seal or patch 非硬化、臨時密封或修補
Convenient, easily handled; may be moved and re-used 方便、易於搬運；可移動和重複使用
Shielding of radioactive liquids 屏蔽放射性液體
Shielding of radioactive liquids 屏蔽放射性液體
Shielding of radioactive liquids 屏蔽放射性液體
Shielding of duct and pipes carrying radioactive materials 屏蔽輸送放射性物質的管道
Dispersed in rubber or plastic for flexible shielding; also mixed with 分散在橡膠或塑膠中，用於柔性屏蔽；也可與以下材料混合使用
concrete and asbestos cement 混凝土和石棉水泥
Transparent Shielding 透明屏蔽
Combined gamma, neutron, and thermal neutron barrier material 伽瑪、中子和熱中子複合屏障材料 inches is referred to as foil, and above inch as plate. Table 2 lists the commercially available lead sheets. This form of lead shielding is extensively used in hospitals, laboratories and industrial facilities for installations that often encompass a large area. Lead sheet requires adequate support when applied to any vertical surface. 英吋稱為箔， 英吋以上稱為板。表 2 列出了市售的鉛板。這種形式的鉛屏蔽廣泛應用於醫院、實驗室和工業設施中的大面積安裝。鉛板在任何垂直表面上使用時都需要足夠的支撐。
Lead Laminates 鉛層壓板
Sheet lead that is bonded to other materials such as wood, steel, wallboard, plastic, and aluminum for the manufacture of panels, doors, cabinets, portable screens, etc., is known as lead laminate. It is frequently used because of its self-supporting nature and greater ease in erecting and handling. Lead laminates can be produced in any practical size to comply with the user's requirements. They are especially suitable for the erection of rooms or sections in industrial plants or other buildings as they can be easily assembled by normal construction methods. 將鉛板與木材、鋼材、牆板、塑膠和鋁材等其他材料黏合在一起，用於製造面板、門、櫥櫃、便攜式屏風等的板材稱為鉛層壓板。鉛層壓板具有自承性，更易於安裝和搬運，因此經常被使用。鉛層壓板可以按照使用者的要求生產任何實際尺寸。它們特別適合在工業廠房或其他建築物中建造房間或部分，因為它們可以輕鬆地用普通建築方法組裝起來。
Table 2 - Commercial lead sheets 表 2 - 商業鉛板
Thickness 厚度
1 平方英尺_部分的重量（磅
Weight in Pounds for
a-1_Square Foot_Section
lnches
毫米當量
Millimeter
equivalent
標稱重量
Nominal
Weight
實際重量
Actual
Weight
0.40
1
0.92
0.60
1.38
0.79
2
1.85
1.00
2.31
1.19
3
2.76
1.39
3.22
-
1.50
-
3.48
1.58
4
3.69
1.98
5
4.60
2.38
6
5.53
一
2.5
-
5.80
一
3.0
-
6.98
3.17
8
7.38
5/32
3.97
10
9.22
4.76
12
1.06
5.55
14
12.9
6.35
16
14.75
8.47
20
19.66
10.76
24
23.60
12.70
30
29.50
16.93
40
39.33
1
25.40
60
59.00
Notes: 備註
I. The density of commercially rolled lead is . I.市售軋鉛的密度為 。
The commercial tolerances are +-0.005 inches for lead up to and for heavier sheets. 對於 以下的引線，商業公差為 +-0.005 英吋；對於較重的板材，商業公差為 。
Lead Plastic Composites 鉛塑膠複合材料
With minor variations, lead plastic composites are available in the following forms: 除略有不同外，鉛塑膠複合材料有以下幾種形式：
Sheet Material A lead powder and plastic mixture core between two sheets of plastic. This material is suitable for protective aprons and is available in a variety of thicknesses for various energy levels. 片狀材質 鉛粉和塑膠混合物夾在兩片塑膠板之間。這種材質適用於防護圍裙，有各種厚度可供選擇，適用於各種能量等級。
Solid Material A mixture of lead powder dispersed in polyethylene, the proportions of which are variable within very wide limits according to the application. A typical proportion is 5 parts lead to 1 part polyethylene by weight. Material is suitable for small and complicated components in nuclear power equipment, where shielding may be required for gamma radiation as well as neutron particles. 固體材料 一種分散在聚乙烯中的鉛粉混合物，其比例可根據應用在很大範圍內變化。典型的比例是 5:1 聚乙烯（以重量計）。該材料適用於核電設備中的小型複雜部件，在這些設備中可能需要屏蔽伽馬輻射和中子粒子。
The material can be accurately machined and individual parts may be welded by using filler rods of the same material. 這種材料可進行精確加工，並可透過使用相同材料的填充棒對單一部件進行焊接。
Bulk Material A mixture of lead powder and a thermo-setting resin containing approximately by weight of lead in the finished component. The material is supplied in an unfinished form and can be used in the manufacture of castings or mouldings where a relatively high degree of protection with considerable mechanical strength and hardness is required. 散裝材料 鉛粉和熱固性樹脂的混合物，成品中鉛的重量約為 。該材料以未完成品的形式供應，可用於製造需要較高機械強度和硬度的鑄件或模具。
Lead Bricks 鉛磚
Lead bricks are produced in a wide range of sizes in the plain and the interlocking styles, and are normally produced from 4 per cent antimonial lead alloy, which is harder than pure lead, and more resistant to damage. Lead bricks are also more resistant to damage than, e.g., concrete. 鉛磚有普通型和聯鎖型兩種，尺寸範圍很廣，通常由 4% 的銻鉛合金製成，比純鉛更硬，更耐損壞。鉛磚也比混凝土等材料更耐損壞。
The unique design of the interlocking type permits mating surfaces to interlock, thus preventing the leakage of radiation. Any rays that penetrate the first angle of the interlocking joint will actually strike an equal or greater depth of lead than the straight thickness of the wall. 互鎖型的獨特設計允許配合表面互鎖，從而防止輻射洩漏。任何穿透互鎖接頭第一角的射線，實際上都會打到與牆壁直線厚度相等或更深的鉛層上。
Lead bricks are manufactured to extremely accurate tolerances, and as a result of recent production improvements, can be obtained with the almost complete absence of porosity. 鉛磚的生產公差極為精確，而且由於最近的生產改進，幾乎完全沒有氣孔。
The smooth surfaces of lead bricks allow for easier decontamination of the shield from radioactive dust. 鉛磚表面光滑，更容易清除防護罩上的放射性塵埃。
Typical standard sizes of interlocking brick are 3 to 13 inches long, 3 to 5 inches thick, and 2 inches high. The standard size of plain brick (non-interlocking) is usually inches. However, both types are manufactured in an ample range of special sizes to meet any requirements. 互鎖磚的典型標準尺寸為 3 至 13 英吋長、3 至 5 英吋厚、2 英吋高。普通磚（非互鎖磚）的標準尺寸通常為 英吋。不過，這兩種磚都有多種特殊尺寸可供選擇，以滿足各種要求。
Concrete or Cinder Block 混凝土或煤渣磚
Another form of space shielding construction is a concrete or cinder block with an unperforated sheet of lead anchored at its center. The two halves of the block are approximately smaller in both directions than the sheet lead. Thus the sheet lead extends past the outer edges of the block on all sides. When a wall is constructed of these blocks the lead in each block overlaps that in all adjoining blocks by 1" providing a continuous lead lining. 另一種空間屏蔽結構形式是在混凝土或煤渣塊的中心固定一塊未穿孔的鉛板。砌塊的兩半在兩個方向上都比鉛板約小 。因此，鉛板在所有側面都超出了砌塊的外緣。用這些砌塊砌牆時，每個砌塊中的鉛板都會與所有相鄰砌塊中的鉛板重疊 1 英寸，從而形成連續的鉛板襯裡。
Lead Shielded Doors and Door Frames 鉛屏蔽門和門框
Lead laminated doors are available for both new and existing structures. The standard door is constructed utilizing a single layer of sheet lead in the center equal in thickness to that in the wall in which the door is to be installed. The sheet lead extends to the edges of the door. Solid wood cores on either side of the sheet lead are held together utilizing poured lead dowels " from all edges and 8" on center. Lead lined doors can be provided in any face veneer desired. 鉛夾層門既適用於新建築，也適用於現有建築。標準門的結構是在中間使用一層鉛板，厚度與安裝門的牆壁相同。鉛板一直延伸到門的邊緣。鉛板兩側的實木門芯透過澆注鉛鐙栓 "距離所有邊緣 8 英吋的中心固定在一起。鉛襯門可以根據需要提供任何表面單板。
When designing the shield system for the door, it will also be necessary to plan for shielding continuity at the door frame. The method selected to shield the door frame will depend upon the method of wall shielding installed, that is whether the lead was applied to the wall surface or used internally in the wall during construction. 在設計門的屏蔽系統時，也需要對門框處的屏蔽連續性進行規劃。門框選擇的屏蔽方法將取決於安裝的牆壁屏蔽方法，即鉛是塗在牆壁表面還是在施工時用於牆壁內部。
It is important to remember that the lead in the door frame must overlap the lead in the wall and be continuous on one side to the door stop surface to achieve effective shielding. 重要的是要記住，門框中的鉛必須與牆壁中的鉛重疊，並在一側與門擋板表面連續，以實現有效屏蔽。
Lead Glass 鉛玻璃
To provide viewing of the patient in the x -ray room while providing protection to the operator, lead glass viewing windows can be furnished in the barrier. It is produced inch thickness which is equivalent to 1.5 mm sheet lead. 為了在 X 射線室中觀察病人，同時保護操作人員，可在屏障中安裝鉛玻璃觀察窗。其生產厚度為 英寸，相當於 1.5 毫米鉛板。
Lead glass can be installed in multiple layers so as to provide a lead equivalency to the lead in the wall in which it is installed. 鉛玻璃可以多層安裝，以提供與安裝牆壁中鉛含量相當的鉛含量。
Lead-Filled Acrylic Sheet 鉛填充丙烯酸板材
Another material available for viewing windows in radiation barriers is a lead-filled acrylic sheet. Adding up to 30 per cent by weight of lead to acrylic resin does not affect the resins mechanical properties or transparency after long exposure to gamma radiation levels. The product can be easily fabricated with only slight modifications of the thermoforming and machining methods used for conventional acrylics. 另一種可用於輻射屏障觀察窗的材料是填充鉛的丙烯酸樹脂板。以重量計，在丙烯酸樹脂中添加多達 30% 的鉛不會影響樹脂的機械性能，也不會影響長期暴露在伽馬輻射水平下的透明度。只需對用於傳統丙烯酸樹脂的熱成型和加工方法稍加改動，就能輕鬆製造出這種產品。
APPLICATIONS OF LEAD FOR RADIATION SHIELDING SYSTEMS 鉛在輻射屏蔽系統的應用
-Ray Protection -射線防護
One of the most important events in modern physics occurred on December 28, 1895, when Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen submitted a paper outlining his discovery of what eventually came to be known as "xrays". He had chosen the term x-ray because they were then of unknown origin, and " " is a scientific symbol for the unknown. 現代物理學最重要的事件之一發生在1895 年12 月28 日，威廉-康拉德-倫琴（Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen）提交了一篇論文，概述了他發現的最終被稱為"X 射線"的東西。他之所以選擇 "X 射線 "這個術語，是因為當時它們的來源不明，而" "是表示未知的科學符號。
Even though x-rays were known before the time of Roentgen, (in 1784 Ben Franklin had witnessed x-rays produced experimentally,) none had recognized any real significance in the production of this electrical phenomenon. Once the milestone marked by Roentgen had been passed, however, many came to grasp the significance of x-rays, among them Thomas Alva Edison who was one of the first to have intentionally produced an x-ray. He was also one of the first to broaden the scope of research and examine other means of using these rays, such as in fluoroscopy. 儘管 X 射線在倫琴時代之前就已為人所知（1784 年，本-富蘭克林在實驗中親眼目睹了 X 射線的產生），但沒有人認識到產生這種電現象的真正意義。然而，倫琴的里程碑一過，許多人就開始認識到 X 射線的意義，其中托馬斯-阿爾瓦-愛迪生就是最早有意製造出 X 射線的人之一。他也是最早拓寬研究範圍，研究使用這些射線的其他方法的人之一，例如在透視學中。
Not all of these discoveries were complete blessings however. Research in fluoroscopy, for example, led to an early case of radiation damage to one of Edison's assistants and the fluoroscopes themselves caused the removal of the skin from the hands of a good many purchasers. Predictions were being made that science would develop a means of photographing the contents of secret documents through letter boxes. This prompted one knowing wag to predict a potential market for lead mail boxes. It was a combination of these essentially unrelated items which spurred the research for means of protection against these rays. The research of other materials did little to inhibit the advancement of sheet lead as an effective means of protection and it was not long before lead was established as a standard against which other materials were measured. 然而，並非所有這些發現都是萬幸。例如，螢光透視技術的研究導致愛迪生的一名助手早期受到輻射傷害，而螢光透視技術本身也導致許多購買者的手部皮膚脫落。有人預測，科學將發展出一種透過信箱拍攝秘密文件內容的方法。這促使一位有識之士預測了鉛信箱的潛在市場。正是這些本質上毫不相干的事物的結合，激發了人們對這些射線防護手段的研究。對其他材料的研究幾乎沒有阻礙鉛板作為一種有效保護手段的發展，不久鉛就被確立為衡量其他材料的標準。
Protection Against -Rays Continuous x-rays are produced in commercial machines when a high energy electron is deflected in the coulomb field of a nucleus. 對 -射線的防護 在商業機器中，當高能量電子在原子核的庫侖場中發生偏轉時，就會產生連續的 X 射線。
The x-rays produced are widely used both by the medical profession and by industry. These rays can cause physical damage to persons exposed to them so it is necessary to enclose or shield the -ray generating units with a material which resists x-ray penetration. Since the impermeability of the shielding material is a function of its density, lead is usually the most economical material for such shielding applications. 所產生的 X 射線被醫學界和工業界廣泛使用。這些射線會對暴露在其下方的人造成身體傷害，因此有必要用一種可抵抗 X 射線穿透的材料來封閉或屏蔽 射線發生裝置。由於屏蔽材料的抗滲透性是其密度的函數，因此鉛通常是此類屏蔽應用中最經濟的材料。
A major factor in the design of a x-ray protective shield is the intensity of the rays, which is a function of the voltage impressed on the x-ray tube. It is customary therefore to use voltage as a primary guide in selecting the proper thickness of the shielding material. Lead is primarily used as radiation shield for x-rays produced at potentials below 300 KV , whereas concrete is used above 300 KV , as well as for gamma beam installations. 設計 X 射線防護罩的一個主要因素是射線強度，它是 X 射線管上電壓的函數。因此，在選擇適當厚度的屏蔽材料時，通常以電壓為主要依據。鉛主要用於電位低於 300 千伏特的 X 射線，而混凝土則用於 300 千伏以上以及伽馬射線裝置。
Medical -Ray The healing arts have benefitted immeasurably from the use of x-ray as a tool for diagnosis and therapy. In recent years the increased use of x-ray itself has become something of a hazard. Operating personnel, as well as occupants of nearby premises, may unknowingly be exposed to dangerous amounts of radiation unless adequate shielding is used. Since liability insurance usually covers only the patient, it does not protect the user of the equipment against injured parties outside his practice. The doctors responsibility towards these occupants or personnel, therefore, become a major consideration when xray equipment is installed. No shielding systems should be undertaken without consulting a qualified radiation consultant or certified radiation physicist. In addition, effective liaison should be established with the office of radiation control of the municipality having jurisdiction over the installation, where a list of qualified radiation consultants can be obtained. 醫學 -射線 使用 X 光作為診斷和治療的工具，使醫術受益匪淺。近年來，X 射線的使用越來越多，本身已成為一種危險。除非使用足夠的屏蔽裝置，否則操作人員以及附近場所的住戶可能會在不知情的情況下暴露於危險的輻射量中。由於責任保險通常只對病人負責，它不會保護設備的使用者免受其診所以外的受傷者的傷害。因此，在安裝 X 光設備時，醫生對這些住戶或人員的責任就成了一個主要考慮因素。在沒有諮詢合格的輻射顧問或認證輻射物理學家之前，不得使用任何屏蔽系統。此外，還應與對安裝設備有管轄權的市政當局輻射控制辦公室建立有效聯繫，以便獲得合格輻射顧問的名單。
Industrial -Ray Certain types of industrial x-ray machines intended for production line operation are self-contained in lead lined cabinets, interlocked to prevent access to the enclosure while the x-ray generating unit is energized. However, a general x-ray department usually requires the provision of a lead lined room. This type of installation of x-ray equipment is comparable to that used in hospitals and other medical facilities. Such a room must be carefully planned and constructed with lead lining of sufficient thickness to keep the exposure of persons in its vicinity below safe tolerance limits. The principal factor in determining this proper thickness of lead to be used is the intensity of the x-rays to be generated. However, consideration must also be given to such factors as cumulative time of operation, the distance of the operator and persons outside the room from the x-ray tube, and the generation of scattered or secondary radiation given off by objects in the path of the useful beam. 工業 -射線 某些類型的用於生產線操作的工業 X 射線機獨立安裝在搪鉛櫃內，當 X 射線發生裝置通電時，透過聯鎖防止進入外殼。但是，一般的 X 光部門通常需要提供一個襯鉛房間。這種類型的 X 光設備安裝與醫院和其他醫療設施中使用的類似。這種房間必須經過精心規劃和建造，內襯鉛的厚度要足夠大，以確保附近人員的暴露量低於安全容許限度。確定所用鉛的適當厚度的主要因素是所產生的 X 射線的強度。然而，還必須考慮以下因素：累積操作時間、操作員和室外人員與 X 射線管的距離，以及有用光束路徑上的物體產生的散射或二次輻射。
Portable Space Shielding Systems 便攜式空間屏蔽系統
With the increased usage of radioactive materials in medicine and industry, hospitals, factories and laboratories require a movable barrier for local applications which will effectively shield the operating personnel. Since these barriers may only be used for relatively short periods - perhaps for one simple operation - and then re-built for an entirely different purpose, it is important that the system can be handled by unskilled workers, with a minimum of mechanical assistance. 隨著放射性材料在醫療和工業領域的使用越來越多，醫院、工廠和實驗室需要一種可移動的屏障，用於局部應用，有效地保護操作人員。由於這些屏障可能只在較短時間內使用--也許只用於一次簡單的操作--然後再重新建造用於完全不同的用途，因此系統必須能夠由非熟練工人操作，並儘量減少機械輔助。
Flexibility of design is an important factor because of the frequent alterations. Therefore, the majority of the components of the system must be freely interchangeable. Those components which serve specific or special purposes should be as versatile as possible. 設計的彈性是重要因素，因為經常要進行改動。因此，系統的大部分組件必須可以自由互換。那些用於特定或特殊用途的部件應盡可能具有通用性。
The efficiency of protection of a portable shield is largely dependent upon the accuracy of the design of the component parts, as well as the quality of manufacture of each of the parts. In addition, the components of the system should be limited in weight, and size, and not easily damaged by repeated handling. 便攜式防護罩的防護效率在很大程度上取決於零件設計的準確性以及每個零件的製造品質。此外，系統部件的重量和尺寸應受到限制，且不易因重複搬運而損壞。
The currently used portable shield materials containing lead are: 目前使用的含鉛便攜式防護罩材料有
Lead Bricks 鉛磚
Leaded Glass, Sheet and Bricks 鉛玻璃、板材和磚塊
Leaded Plastics 含鉛塑料
Lead Clad Building Material 鉛包層建築材料
Lead Laminated Panels 鉛層壓板
Lead Shot 鉛彈
Lead Sheet and Foil 鉛板和鉛箔
The following sections provide some additional information on the more important lead shield materials. 以下各節將提供一些有關更重要的鉛屏蔽材料的補充資訊。
In lead brick shield systems, most of the shield is built from standard interchangeable wall units, with special units available for the installation of tools and implements for remote handling. 在鉛磚護盾系統中，大部分護盾都是由標準的可互換牆體單元建造而成，還有一些特殊單元可用於安裝遠端操作的工具和裝置。
Leaded glass bricks can also be made part of the system so that work being conducted may be viewed directly without any loss in overall shielding efficiency. 鉛玻璃磚也可以作為系統的一部分，這樣就可以直接看到正在進行的工作，而不會降低整體屏蔽效率。
Mobile Lead Screen Lead sheet and various lead laminates may be used in some applications of portable shielding where the erection of a lead brick wall is not the most convenient method. Such specially designed shields are used in medical and industrial applications of radioactive isotopes. 移動式鉛屏蔽 鉛板和各種鉛層壓板可用於某些便攜式屏蔽應用中，在這些應用中，豎立鉛磚牆不是最方便的方法。這種專門設計的屏蔽可用於放射性同位素的醫療和工業應用。
A typical mobile shield would consist of an unpierced lead sheet, laminated with a resilient adhesive between two plywood panels and covered with a variety of surfaces, finishes, such as wood veneer, mylar or plastic. Usually the screen is provided with a metal trim on all edges, in addition to the normally supplied mobile mounts and casters. 典型的移動防護屏由一塊未穿孔的鉛板組成，用彈性黏合劑層壓在兩塊膠合板之間，表面覆蓋各種飾面，如木皮、膠合板或塑膠。除了通常提供的移動支架和腳輪外，螢幕的所有邊緣通常都有金屬飾邊。
If required, mobile lead screens can be furnished with a view window of lead glass of equal shielding capacity as the screen panel. 如果需要，移動式鉛屏風可以配備一個鉛玻璃視窗，其屏蔽能力與屏風面板相同。
Lead Blankets In order to permit maintenance and inspection of a nuclear installation, it is necessary to provide a barrier that will reduce the gamma radiation to an acceptable level. Even though the reactor is not operating when a nuclear plant is shut down, a significant amount of gamma radiation remains in the components of the cooling system. One way to permit the maintenance personnel to reach the necessary locations is by the use of a flexible lead blanket or pad that can be placed over the pipes and other sources of the gamma radiation. In addition to being flexible and rugged, the blankets must contain enough shielding material to be an effective gamma radiation barrier, while light enough to be easily carried. 鉛毯 為了能夠對核設施進行維護和檢查，有必要提供一個屏障，將伽馬輻射降低到可接受的水平。即使核電廠關閉時反應器不再運行，冷卻系統的部件中仍會殘留大量的伽瑪輻射。讓維護人員到達必要位置的一種方法是使用柔性鉛毯或鉛墊，將其覆蓋在管道和其他伽馬輻射源上。除了要靈活和堅固外，毯子還必須含有足夠的屏蔽材料，以便有效地阻擋伽馬輻射，同時又要足夠輕便，便於攜帶。
Lead is unique for this application due to its high density. The flexible lead blankets are fabricated from a layer of leaded vinyl sheet sandwiched between two sheets of flexible plastic. Another form of a lead blanket is made from lead wool evenly distributed between two layers of material, which is then quilted. 鉛的高密度使其在這種應用中獨一無二。柔性鉛毯是由夾在兩片柔性塑膠板之間的一層含鉛乙烯塑膠板製成的。另一種形式的鉛毯是由均勻分佈在兩層材料之間的鉛羊毛製成，然後絎縫。
Protective Clothing 防護服
Special clothing should be worn when there is a possibility of contamination with hazardous amounts of radionuclides. The degree of protection required is a function of the quantity, type, and nature of the radiation, as well as the design of the available facilities. 當可能受到有害放射性核種污染時，應穿戴特殊服裝。所需的防護程度取決於輻射的數量、類型和性質，以及現有設施的設計。
For low and medium level work, coveralls, caps, gloves and either special shoes or shoe covers are suggested. 對於低級和中級工作，建議穿著工作服、戴帽子、手套和專用鞋或鞋套。
For close or contact work with radioactive materials emitting radiation of low penetrating power, shielded clothing such as leather, eye protection or leaded gloves and aprons may be used to increase allowable exposure time. Leather and rubber are effective against most beta radiation, while fabrics loaded with a high atomic number material such as lead are used for shielding against scattered x-rays in fluoroscopy. At the higher energy levels, the great increase in weight and the loss in flexibility which would be necessary to shield against gamma rays rule out the use of shielded garments. 在與穿透力較低的放射性物質近距離或接觸性工作時，可使用皮革、護眼或含鉛手套和圍裙等屏蔽服來增加允許的照射時間。皮革和橡膠可有效抵禦大多數貝塔輻射，而含鉛等高原子序數材料的織物則可用於屏蔽透視檢查中的散射 X 射線。在能量較高的情況下，由於屏蔽伽馬射線所需的重量大大增加，靈活性也會降低，因此不能使用屏蔽服。
Gamma Ray Shielding in Laboratories 實驗室伽馬射線屏蔽
Values prepared by the National Bureau of Standards may be used to determine the required thicknesses for shielding from gamma ray sources in the laboratory. In practice such calculations should be made only under the direction of a qualified expert; the resulting installation may subsequently require measurements of actual radiation levels obtained. 國家標準局編製的數值可用於確定實驗室屏蔽伽馬射線源所需的厚度。在實踐中，只有在合格專家的指導下才能進行此類計算；隨後可能需要對實際輻射水平進行測量。
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 設計和施工
OF X-RAY PROTECTIVE SPACE SHIELDING SYSTEMS X 射線防護空間屏蔽系統
Introduction 導言
Commonly used building materials in walls, ceilings, and floors may provide an adequate level of x-ray protective shielding in a great many installations. When these materials do not furnish the necessary level of protection however, the protective barrier must be increased by either additional thickness of these materials, or by adding a suitable thickness of a shield material such as lead, concrete or steel. 牆壁、天花板和地板中常用的建築材料可以為許多設備提供足夠的 X 射線防護屏蔽。但是，如果這些材料不能提供所需的防護水平，則必須透過增加這些材料的厚度，或增加適當厚度的屏蔽材料（如鉛、混凝土或鋼）來增加防護屏障。
In reviewing the previous section on shield materials, it is clearly evident that the use of lead in a protective shield installation will result in an effective, light-weight, low-volume attenuation barrier. These factors, combined with its versatility, makes lead an ideal choice for x-ray shielding applications. 回顧前面有關屏蔽材料的章節，我們可以清楚地看到，在保護性屏蔽裝置中使用鉛可以形成一個有效、重量輕、體積小的衰減屏障。這些因素加上鉛的多功能性，使鉛成為 X 射線屏蔽應用的理想選擇。
There are a number of methods of applying lead for x -ray protection, including sheet lead, lead laminated to common building materials, lead brick, lead lined block, leaded glass and a variety of leaded vinyls. 應用鉛來保護 X 射線的方法有很多，包括鉛板、鉛與普通建築材料的層壓、鉛磚、鉛塊、鉛玻璃和各種含鉛乙烯基。
It cannot be stressed too strongly that before a radiation protection shielding system is considered, contact should be made with the radiation control officer of the local municipality having jurisdiction, as well as a registered specialist in the field of radiological shielding. 需要特別強調的是，在考慮使用輻射防護屏蔽系統之前，應與當地有管轄權的市政當局的輻射控制官員以及輻射屏蔽領域的註冊專家取得聯繫。
Design Requirements 設計要求
The primary factors to be considered in the design and construction of a x-ray protective space shielding system are: 在設計和建造 X 射線防護空間屏蔽系統時需要考慮的主要因素有
Energy of the radiation source, expressed in KV. 輻射源的能量，以 KV 為單位。
Orientation and projected field size of the useful beam. 有用光束的方向和投影場尺寸。
Distance from source to point where protection is required. 從源頭到需要保護點的距離。
Size and location of openings in the barrier. 隔離柵開口的大小和位置。
Geometrical relationship between the source of radiation, openings, and the position of the person or object to be protected. 輻射源、開口和受保護的人或物體的位置之間的幾何關係。
Maximum allowable dose rate. 最大允許劑量率。
Machine utilization factors and amount of leakage radiation. 機器利用率和洩漏輻射量。
The protective shield is classified as either a primary barrier for x-ray beam attenuation, or as a secondary barrier for shielding against leakage and scattered radiation. The barrier material thickness is based upon the above factors, but the mathematical computations to determine the required thickness can be found in radiological engineering publications and handbooks. 防護罩可分為用於衰減 X 射線束的一級屏障或用於屏蔽洩漏和散射輻射的二級屏障。屏障材料的厚度基於上述因素，但確定所需厚度的數學計算可在放射工程出版物和手冊中找到。
One such publication is the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) Report No. 49 entitled Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Medical Use of X-rays and Gamma Rays of Energies Up to 10 MeV . 國家輻射防護與測量委員會(NCRP) 的第49 號報告就是這樣一份出版物，題為《醫用X 射線和伽馬射線（能量不超過10 兆電子伏）的結構屏蔽設計與評估》（Structural Shielding Design and Evaluation for Medical Use of X-rays and Gamma Rays of Energies Up to 10 MeV）。
An additional factor to consider in the design of a medical x-ray installation is that the occupancy factor in any area adjacent to the radiation source is generally zero for any space more than 7 feet above the floor. This is based on the fact that most individuals are less than seven feet tall, and therefore it is usually possible to reduce the shielding thickness above this height. However, consideration must be given to the height of the radiation source (must be below 7 feet) and the possibility of the radiation scattering from ceiling of the adjacent area toward the occupant, in order to provide sufficient shielding. 在設計醫用 X 光裝置時需要考慮的另一個因素是，對於距離地面 7 英尺以上的任何空間，輻射源附近任何區域的佔用係數通常為零。這是因為大多數人的身高不到 7 英尺，因此通常可以在此高度以上減少屏蔽厚度。但是，為了提供足夠的屏蔽，必須考慮輻射源的高度（必須低於 7 英尺）以及輻射從鄰近區域的天花板向居住者散射的可能性。
In reviewing these factors, a significant consideration unique to dental x-ray installations is the extreme flexibility of the useful beam orientation, and its effect on the shield thickness requirements. It is good engineering practice therefore, to apply the calculated maximum material thickness to both classes of protective barriers. 在審查這些因素時，牙科 X 光裝置所特有的一個重要考慮因素是有用光束方向的極大靈活性及其對屏蔽厚度要求的影響。因此，將計算出的最大材料厚度應用於兩類防護屏障是一種良好的工程實踐。
Construction of A Space Shielding System 建造空間屏蔽系統
The construction of an x-ray protective barrier shall be such that the radiation protection is not impaired by any area being left unshielded. Any openings in the protective barrier, whether nail, screw, or bolt holes, penetrations for pipes, ducts, conduit, electric service devices, or louvers, doors, windows, etc., must be so protected as not to impair the overall attenuation of the rays. X 射線防護屏障的構造應確保不因任何區域未屏蔽而影響輻射防護。防護屏障上的任何開口，無論是釘孔、螺孔或螺栓孔，或管道、導管、導管、電氣設備或百葉窗、門、窗等的穿透孔，都必須加以保護，以免影響射線的整體衰減。
All larger openings, such as doors, observation windows, etc., should be located in the secondary barrier whenever possible (this is principally an economic decision, as shielding these openings frequently involves the use of more expensive materials, i.e., lead glass, lead lined doors, etc.). 所有較大的開口，如門、觀察窗等，都應盡可能設在次要屏障內（這主要是出於經濟考慮，因為屏蔽這些開口往往需要使用更昂貴的材料，如鉛玻璃、搪鉛門等）。
The basic protective barrier involves the use of sheet lead for the protection of the general area (i.e., walls, ceilings, and floors). However, since sheet lead has very little inherent structural strength; most installations require that the sheet lead be supported in some fashion, or that the sheet lead be laminated to some more rigid building material. 基本的保護屏障包括使用鉛板來保護一般區域（即牆壁、天花板和地板）。不過，由於鉛板的固有結構強度很低；大多數安裝都需要以某種方式對鉛板進行支撐，或將鉛板與某種更堅硬的建築材料進行層壓。
Where lead is to be used in the shielding of new structures, careful consideration of the construction methods to be used will result in maximum space saving. 在新結構的屏蔽中使用鉛時，應仔細考慮使用的施工方法，以最大限度地節省空間。
When a sheet lead lining is specified for a new structure, the installation is much simpler as many of the corners between surfaces can be shielded as they are built. However, the addition of sheet lead to an existing structure involves no significant design problems, except that special care is required at all corners, openings, and at any point of shield discontinuity. Therefore, the addition of lead rather than the common building materials presents no particular problem and will result in a considerable saving of the available floor space. 當為新結構指定鉛板襯裡時，安裝要簡單得多，因為表面之間的許多角落都可以在建造時進行屏蔽。不過，在現有結構中添加鉛板並不涉及重大的設計問題，只是在所有轉角處、開口處和任何屏蔽不連續處需要特別注意。因此，與普通建築材料相比，加鉛並不會帶來什麼特別的問題，而且還能大幅節省可用的建築面積。
The use of lightweight partitions, where feasible, with the lead shielding built in, should always be considered. For this reason, lead laminates are eminently suitable for use in the erection of new structures, and may be used without any other material except a stud frame to produce shielded partition walls and ceilings. In such a situation it is often necessary to provide a lead mat under the partition so that excessive radiation is not scattered under it. 在可行的情況下，應始終考慮使用內建鉛屏蔽的輕質隔間牆。因此，鉛層壓板非常適合用於建造新的建築物，除了龍骨框架外，還可以不使用任何其他材料來製作屏蔽隔間牆和天花板。在這種情況下，通常有必要在隔間牆下鋪設鉛墊，以避免過多的輻射散佈在隔間牆下。
Advantage may also be taken of the different forms of laminate available to achieve a hygienic and pleasing finish without any additional treatment or decoration. To achieve the maximum all-round benefit, it is most important that the architect consult a certified radiation physicist or radiologist and the shielding installation contractor at the design stage. Only in this way will it be possible to incorporate the required shielding into the building at minimum cost and without unnecessary waste of valuable floor space. 此外，還可以利用不同形式的層壓板，在不進行任何額外處理或裝飾的情況下，實現衛生、美觀的效果。為了獲得最大的綜合效益，最重要的是建築師在設計階段就諮詢合格的輻射物理學家或輻射學家以及屏蔽安裝承包商。只有這樣，才能以最低的成本在建築中安裝所需的屏蔽裝置，而不會不必要地浪費寶貴的建築面積。
Sheet Lead Lining 鉛板襯裡
In the construction of a sheet lead lining for an x-ray protective shielding system, the support of the sheet lead is very important. 在為 X 射線防護屏蔽系統建造鉛板襯裡時，鉛板的支撐非常重要。
This needed support is accomplished in a variety of ways, and in such a manner as to prevent sag, cold flow, mechanical damage, and to maintain the continuity and integrity of the barrier. All of these methods are satisfactory and the choice of which may depend upon the type of construction and other installation conditions. Some of the more common methods of construction are described in the following section. 這種所需的支撐可以透過多種方式實現，以防止下垂、冷流、機械損壞，並保持隔離層的連續性和完整性。所有這些方法都是令人滿意的，選擇哪種方法取決於建築類型和其他安裝條件。下一節將介紹一些較常見的施工方法。
The sheet lead is positioned against the wall surface, or partition studs, with the longer dimension of the sheet running vertically. The width of the sheet should not exceed 48 in. for ease of handling, with all joints occurring over a vertical support. All joints should be lap joints with an overlap of in., or twice the sheet thickness, whichever is greater. 鉛板緊貼牆面或隔牆板，鉛板的長邊垂直放置。鉛板的寬度不應超過 48 英寸，以便於搬運，所有接縫都應在垂直支撐上進行。所有接縫應為搭接接縫，搭接長度為 英寸，或板材厚度的兩倍，以較大者為準。
It is recommended that the sheets be installed by continuous attaching along the upper edge of the supporting structure, supplemented by additional attaching points at intervals of not more than 30 inches in either direction. The top of the sheet should turn out at least 2 inches over the horizontal support. 建議沿著支撐結構的上緣連續固定板材，並在兩個方向上以不超過 30 英吋的間隔增加固定點。板材頂部應超出水平支撐至少 2 英吋。
At each joint and at 16 in. intervals, studs of either wood, steel angles or channels are placed running from floor to ceiling, and secured at both top and bottom. Additional securing at intermediate points is required, the spacing of which depends on the weight of the sheet lead, but in no case should this vertical spacing be greater than 4 ft . The lead sheet is secured by fastening through the lead to the supporting studs. The selected type of fastener should be used in conjunction with a hard washer for stress relieving at the point of concentration. 在每個接合處和每隔 16 英寸的地方，都要用木頭、角鋼或槽鋼製成的壁骨，從地板一直鋪到天花板，並在頂部和底部固定好。需要在中間點進行額外的固定，間距取決於鉛板的重量，但在任何情況下，垂直間距都不應超過 4 英尺。 鉛板透過鉛板與支撐龍骨之間的緊固件進行固定。所選類型的緊固件應與硬墊圈配合使用，以消除集中點的應力。
There are several methods of fastening the sheet lead to a wall surface, three of which are shown in Figure 2. 將鉛板固定在牆面上有幾種方法，其中三種如圖 2 所示。
The screw-capping method of Figure 2-A requires a lead-patch burned to the sheet lead over each fastener. These patches should extend several inches in each direction beyond the point of fastening so that the rays striking at an angle cannot penetrate the fastener hole. Patches should be of the same thickness of lead as the sheets to eliminate any possibility of radiation leakage. 圖 2-A 中的螺絲封蓋法要求在每個緊固件上的鉛板上燒上鉛補丁。這些補丁應向緊固點以外的每個方向延伸幾英寸，這樣以一定角度照射的射線就無法穿透緊固件孔。補丁的鉛厚度應與板材相同，以消除任何輻射洩漏的可能性。
The lead plug method of Figure 2-B does not require the addition of lead patches. 圖 2-B 中的鉛塞方法不需要添加鉛片。
An alternate method, Figure 2-C, to be considered is to employ boards attached horizontally across the studs. The lowest boards are applied first to a height of 可以考慮的另一種方法（圖 2-C）是使用橫跨牆骨的水平木板。首先將最低的木板鋪設到高度為
Figure 2-B Lead Plug Method 圖 2-B 鉛塞法
about 18 inches, and then covered with sheet lead, which is turned back over the upper edge of the top board, and then turned upward about 1 in . and fastened against the studs. Another 18 inch tier is applied in the same manner, fitted down over the setback of the first sheet of lead, and covered with lead. The joints between the lead sheets are then burned or soldered. 然後將鉛板轉回頂板的上緣，再向上翻大約 1 英寸，緊貼牆柱。再用同樣的方法鋪上另一層 18 英吋的鉛板，在第一層鉛板的後緣向下安裝，並用鉛板覆蓋。然後將鉛板之間的接縫燒焊或焊接。
For the joints at the floors and ceilings, the sheet should be extended around the corners, and burned or soldered to the sheet on the adjoining surface to form a continuous shield. The lead lining should extend around the door frame so that it will overlap the lead lining of door when the door is closed. In addition, the door frames within the protective barrier may require a lead threshold to complete the protective shielding. 在地板和天花板的接縫處，應將鉛板延伸至角落，並與相鄰表面的鉛板燒焊或焊接，以形成連續的屏蔽。鉛襯應圍繞門框延伸，以便在門關閉時與門的鉛襯重疊。此外，保護屏障內的門框可能需要鉛門檻來完成保護屏蔽。
All joints between the lead sheet lining and other materials must be constructed to prevent a reduction in the required level of protection. 鉛板襯裡和其他材料之間的所有接縫都必須防止降低所需的保護等級。
Protection of the ceiling is most easily accomplished by laying lead, with overlapped joints, on the floor above or over a drop ceiling. Figure 3 shows the installation of sheet lead on the floor above. The ceiling lining should be extended sufficiently to prevent the passage of the rays through a gap existing between the lead sheet on the walls and that applied for ceiling protection. This precaution is required as the rays travel in a straight line at an angle to the walls and ceiling. 在天花板上方的地板上或天花板上鋪設鉛板，並將接縫重疊，最容易實現對天花板的保護。圖 3 顯示了在上方地板上安裝鉛板的情況。天花板襯裡應充分延伸，以防止射線穿過牆壁鉛板和天花板保護鉛板之間的縫隙。由於射線是以與牆壁和天花板成一定角度的直線傳播的，因此需要採取這種預防措施。
Soldered or burned seams are permissible providing that the lead equivalent of the joint is not less than the barrier thickness required; and that the !ap joint is onehalf inch or twice the sheet thickness, whichever is greater. 允許焊接或燒焊接縫，但接縫的鉛當量不得小於所要求的隔離層厚度；接縫為半英寸或板材厚度的兩倍，以較大者為準。
Sheet Lead Lining In Existing Structures 現有結構中的鉛板襯裡
When installing a sheet lead lining in an existing structure, the following points should be especially noted. 在現有結構中安裝鉛板襯裡時，應特別注意以下幾點。
When the floor is covered with sheet lead, it should extend up each wall a minimum of 2 in. with the wall shield overlapping it down to the floor level, as shown in Figure 4. It is not good practice to have the floor sheet lead overlapping the wall sheets. 如圖 4 所示，在地板上覆蓋鉛板時，鉛板應向每面牆壁延伸至少 2 英寸，並與牆壁護板重疊，直到地板水平。地板鉛板與牆壁鉛板重疊的做法不可取。
Wall corners should be similarly treated, with one sheet extending around the corner for a minimum of 2 in. and underneath the sheet ending at the corner. This practice will reduce the possibility of the top sheet being accidentally raised, and the Shield effectiveness reduced. 牆角也應進行類似處理，其中一塊板材應在牆角處延伸至少 2 英寸，板材下方應在牆角處結束。這種做法可以減少頂層板材意外翹起的可能性，進而降低防護罩的效果。
The installation of sheet lead to an existing ceiling requires greater care to prevent a discontinuity of shield. In normal construction practices, the sheet lead is laid on the floor above. In existing buildings this will 在現有天花板上安裝鉛板需要更加小心，以防止屏蔽不連續。通常的施工做法是將鉛板鋪設在上面的地板上。在現有建築中，這將
Figure 2-C 圖 2-C
Horizontal Boarding Method 水平登機法
Figure 3 圖 3
Sheet lead on floor covered with building paper and concrete. 地板上的鉛板覆蓋著建築紙和混凝土。
Figure 4 圖 4
Floor to Wall shield continuity. 地板到牆壁的屏蔽連續性。
almost certainly cause a lack of continuity at the joint between the ceiling and the walls. Unless the room construction allows for a continuous shield, the sheet lead applied to the walls should extend several inches along the underside of the ceiling. 幾乎肯定會導致天花板和牆壁之間的接縫處缺乏連續性。除非房間結構允許使用連續的屏蔽，否則牆壁上的鉛板應沿著天花板底部延伸幾英寸。
Figures 5 and 6 show diagrammatically how to prevent discontinuity of shielding in floor-over or adjacent room protection. 圖 5 和圖 6 以示意圖的形式顯示如何防止地板上或相鄰房間保護中屏蔽的不連續性。
Figure 7 illustrates a lead insulated hung ceiling. 圖 7 展示了鉛絕緣天花板。
Finishing of the Sheet Lead Lining 鉛板襯裡的加工
Lead takes paint well without special preparation, so lead linings may simply be painted to present a pleasing appearance. If such treatment is intended, a baseboard and a chair rail should be provided to prevent damage to the lead by being struck by feet or furniture. If a plaster finish is desired, metal lath may be applied to the supports previously described and the wall plastered in the usual manner. Wall board may also be applied to these supports. Wood floors to be laid over lead linings either in the x-ray room or in rooms overhead should be laid on floating sleepers, care being taken that no nails penetrate the lead. Cement floors may also be laid over lead linings but if the lead is left exposed without immediately pouring the concrete, it should be protected against mechanical damage by a layer of heavy building paper or 30-lb. felt. In either case it is essential to protect the lead from the corrosive reaction of "green" concrete by coating it with a cold applied brush coat 12 to 15 mils thick of a bituminous compound. 鉛無需特殊處理就能很好地吸收油漆，因此鉛襯裡只需塗上油漆就能呈現出令人愉悅的外觀。如果要進行這樣的處理，則應設置底板和椅子欄桿，以防止腳或家具撞擊而損壞鉛。如果需要灰泥飾面，可以在前面所述的支撐物上鋪設金屬板條，然後按照通常的方式在牆上抹灰。也可以在這些支撐物上鋪設牆板。在 X 光室或頭頂房間的鉛襯上鋪設的木地板應鋪設在浮動枕木上，注意不要讓釘子穿透鉛層。水泥地板也可以鋪設在鉛襯上，但如果不立即澆注混凝土而讓鉛暴露在外，則應鋪設一層厚建築紙或 30 磅毛氈，以防止機械損傷。無論哪種情況，都必須在鉛表面冷刷一層 12 至 15 密耳厚的瀝青化合物，以保護鉛免受 "綠色 "混凝土的腐蝕。
Barrier Construction With Lead Laminates 含鉛層壓板的屏障結構
Laminated panels containing sheet lead are manufactured with a number of sheet materials including plywood, wallboard, aluminum, steel and various forms of plastics. These laminates are often more convenient to handle than sheet lead since they are selfsupporting and require fewer fasteners. They are especially suitable for temporary barrier structures as they can be easily constructed on a simple stud framework. 含有鉛板的層壓板由多種板製成，包括膠合板、牆板、鋁、鋼和各種形式的塑膠。這些層壓板通常比鉛板更易於處理，因為它們可以自我支撐，所需的緊固件也更少。它們特別適用於臨時隔離結構，因為可以輕鬆地在簡單的螺栓框架上建造。
In all methods of installation of laminated panels, it is important that the laminates be butted as closely as possible. 在所有層壓板安裝方法中，層壓板必須盡可能緊密地對接。
It should be noted that a variety of surface finishes can be provided as an integral part of the lamination by veneering decorative sheet materials to the finished side of the lamination. This can also be accomplished after installation by adhering a variety of surface finishes to the laminated panels. 應該注意的是，可以透過在層壓板的成品面上貼飾面薄板材料來提供各種表面飾面，作為層壓板的一個組成部分。這也可以在安裝後透過在層壓板上粘貼各種表面飾面來實現。
Lead Laminated Plywood 鉛層壓膠合板
Figure 8 illustrates three of the more common methods of installing lead laminated plywood panels to ensure continuity of protection at joints and points of fastening. 圖 8 展示了安裝鉛層壓膠合板面板的三種常用方法，以確保接縫和緊固點處保護的連續性。
In Figure 8A, a batten is fastened on top of a lead strip, which is then turned up around the sides of the batten. The batten is fastened to plugs in the wall, at the minimum number of points to ensure secure fastening. The laminated panels are then secured to the batten with fasteners short enough to avoid penetrating the sheet lead, and spaced apart from the batten fasteners. 在圖 8A 中，壓縫條被固定在鉛條的頂部，然後鉛條會圍繞壓縫條的兩側向上翻轉。壓縫條固定在牆壁上的插頭上，插頭數量最少，以確保固定牢靠。然後用足夠短的緊固件將層壓板固定在壓縫條上，以避免穿透鉛板，並與壓縫條緊固件保持一定間距。
Fgure 8-A 圖 8-A
In Figure 813, the laminated panels are directly fastened to plugs in the wall, with the joints and fasteners covered by a batten, made trom the laminate material, which is glued into place. 在圖 813 中，層壓板直接固定在牆壁的塞子上，接縫和緊固件由層壓材料製成的板條覆蓋，板條用膠水粘合到位。
Figure 8-B 圖 8-B
Figure 8C, illustrates a third method where a wooden batten is placed over the joints and fasteners, and is then fastened through the laminated panels into plugs in the wall. The wooden batten is then covered with a strip of sheet lead, which is fastened along its edges to complete the shielding. 圖 8C 展示了第三種方法，即在接縫和緊固件上鋪設木板條，然後將木板條穿過層壓板固定在牆壁的插頭上。然後在木板條上覆蓋一條鉛板，沿著鉛板的邊緣固定，完成屏蔽。
Figure 8-C 圖 8-C
Lead Laminated Gypsum Wallboard 鉛層壓石膏牆板
Lead laminated gypsum wallboard consists of a single unpierced sheet of lead laminated to either in. or 5/8 in. thick wallboard. The bonding is accomplished with a continuous layer of mastic adhesive. 鉛層壓石膏牆板由一塊未穿孔的鉛板與 英吋或5/8英吋厚的牆板層壓而成。黏合時使用一層連續的膠泥黏合劑。
The lead laminated wallboard should be fastened at a minimum of 8 in . on center at the edges of each sheet, and at a minimum of 12 in . on centers at the intermediate studs. A 2 in. wide strip of sheet lead of the same thickness should be applied to each of the joint studs prior to installing the wallboard. These strips of sheet lead will provide the necessary 1 in. overlap with the adjoining sheet. Each fastener will be covered with a lead disc, equal in thickness to lead laminated to the wallboard to eliminate the possibility of radiation leakage at the point of fastening. 鉛層壓牆板應固定在每塊板邊緣至少 8 英吋的中心位置，中間牆骨至少 12 英吋的中心位置。在安裝牆板之前，應在每個接縫的牆骨上塗抹 2 英吋寬的相同厚度的鉛板條。這些鉛板條將與相鄰板材重疊 1 英吋。每個緊固件上都要覆蓋一個鉛盤，鉛盤的厚度與貼在牆板上的鉛厚度相等，以消除緊固點輻射洩漏的可能性。
Figure 9 illustrates the typical methods of installing and fastening lead laminated gypsum wallboard. 圖 9 展示了安裝和緊固鉛層石膏牆板的典型方法。
Barrier Construction with Lead-Lined Lath. 使用襯鉛板條的阻隔層建築。
The construction of lead-lined lath is similar to that of lead laminated wallboard, except that the sheet lead is laminated to 16 in. x 48 in. x 3/8 in. thick perforated rock lath. The sheet lead extends 1 in. on the top and one side to provide overlap with the lead on adjoining sheets. 襯鉛板條的構造與鉛層壓牆板相似，只是鉛板與 16 英寸 x 48 英寸 x 3/8 英寸厚的穿孔岩板條層壓在一起。鉛板在頂部和一側延伸 1 英寸，以便與相鄰板材上的鉛板重疊。
The lead lath should be installed with staggered vertical joints on either studs or furring strips with a minimum of 12 fasteners per sheet. A finish coat of plaster may then be applied to the lath by normal construction methods. 鉛板條應錯開垂直接縫安裝在牆骨或毛邊條上，每張板至少使用 12 個緊固件。然後可採用正常的施工方法在板條上塗抹一層飾面石膏。
Fastening methods 緊固方法
Figure 9 圖 9
Typical Methods of Installing and Fastening Lead Laminated Gypsum Wallboard. 安裝和緊固鉛層壓石膏牆板的典型方法。
Lath 板條
Figure 10 圖 10
Typical Method of Installing Lead Lined Lath. 安裝襯鉛板條的典型方法。
Radiation Protection at Barrier Openings 屏障開口處的輻射防護
When the protective barrier is penetrated by any opening, special problems are encountered since they cannot be simply covered with sheet lead, and could result in discontinuity of the shielding systems. 當保護屏障被任何開口穿透時，就會遇到特殊的問題，因為這些開口不能簡單地用鉛板覆蓋，可能會導致屏蔽系統的不連續性。
The complicated problem of reflection of the ray should be solved in the early design stages and the resulting designs incorporated into the construction. For ducts it could involve a lead shielded baffle, a leaded cowl or shielding within the mouth of the ductwork. A particular problem area is where the duct has a bend immediately behind the wall: Door openings may require a lead threshold, and, as a minimum, door buck shielding is required. 應在早期設計階段解決複雜的射線反射問題，並將由此產生的設計融入建築中。對於管道來說，這可能涉及到鉛屏蔽擋板、鉛罩或管道口內的屏蔽。一個特別容易出問題的地方是管道緊靠牆壁後面有一個彎道：門開口可能需要鉛門檻，至少需要門降壓屏蔽。
The remaining portion of this section deals with the unique problems of each specific type of barrier opening. 本節的其餘部分將討論每種特定類型隔離牆開口的獨特問題。
Door and Door Frame Shielding 門和門框屏蔽
The amount of shielding to be added to a door is equal to the shielding required by the wall in which it is installed. Due to the increased weight of a heavily shielded door, special consideration must be given to the hinging and supporting arrangements. Figure 11 illustrates the construction of a lead lined door. 門上增加的屏蔽量等於安裝門的牆壁所需的屏蔽量。由於重屏蔽門的重量增加，必須特別考慮鉸鍊和支撐安排。圖 11 展示了襯鉛門的構造。
Special consideration should also be given to maintaining shielding continuity at the door frame. How this is achieved will depend on whether the wall shielding lead is applied to the wall surface or used internally during construction. In all cases it will be necessary to ensure some form of overlap of the lead when the door is closed. A method of shielding a door buck is illustrated in Figure 12. 也應特別考慮在門框處保持屏蔽的連續性。如何實現這一點取決於牆壁屏蔽鉛條是應用於牆壁表面還是在施工過程中在內部使用。在任何情況下，都有必要確保在門關閉時鉛條有某種形式的重疊。圖 12 展示了一種屏蔽門扣的方法。
Where existing structures are being shielded, the lead shielding will normally be on or near the surface of the walls, and this will simplify door shielding. This will often be the case in new structures as well, but is less important since the positioning of the lead sheet around the door frame can be carried out before the frame is installed. 在對現有結構進行屏蔽時，鉛屏蔽層通常位於或靠近牆壁表面，這將簡化門屏蔽。新建築通常也是如此，但這並不重要，因為在安裝門框之前就可以在門框周圍放置鉛板。
It is important to remember that both the face of the door frame and the door stop must be covered with lead to achieve efficient shielding. 必須記住，門框表面和門擋板都必須用鉛覆蓋，以實現有效屏蔽。
Where sliding doors are employed, they should be made as close fitting as possible, with the lead or lead laminate applied to the side of the door closest to the wall shielding. In addition, an adequate overlap must be allowed, and the door should run in a lead-backed channel to prevent leakage underneath. 使用滑動門時，應盡可能使其緊密貼合，並在門最靠近牆壁屏蔽的一側使用鉛或鉛層壓板。此外，還必須留出足夠的重疊部分，門應安裝在鉛背槽內，以防止門下漏水。
Viewing Windows 查看視窗
Lead glass viewing windows for patient observation from a control room or control booth are available in sizes ranging from 12 in.by 12 in., to 36 in. by 48 in. The frame is constructed of solid lead welded in one piece, splayed on four sides for one side angle viewing. An alternate type of frame is constructed from steel and lined with sheet lead. A horizontal trapped opening is provided in the bottom of the frame for voice transmission. 鉛玻璃觀察窗用於從控制室或控制間觀察病人，尺寸從 12 英吋 x 12 英吋到 36 英吋 x 48 英吋不等。窗框由實心鉛焊接而成，四面平展，可單面觀察。另一種框架由鋼製成，內襯鉛板。框架底部有一個水平開口，用於語音傳輸。
The frames are constructed to provide a minimum of in. overlap at all points of the perimeter of the lead glass. Removable lead stops are provided for glazing in the field. Multiple lead glass layers (approximately in. thick equals 1.5 mm sheet lead) are used to achieve 框架的構造是在鉛玻璃週邊的所有位置提供至少 英吋的重疊。提供可拆卸的鉛擋板，以便在現場安裝玻璃。使用多層鉛玻璃（約 英吋厚，相當於 1.5 毫米鉛板），以實現
Standard door thicknesses 標準門厚
lead thickness 鉛厚度
door thickness 門厚
1.0 mm to 2.0 mm 1.0 毫米至 2.0 毫米
2.5 mm to 3.5 mm 2.5 毫米至 3.5 毫米
4.0 mm to 5.0 mm 4.0 毫米至 5.0 毫米
5.5 mm to 6.5 mm 5.5 毫米至 6.5 毫米
Figure 12 Reinforced Lead Lined Back. 圖 12 加固的襯鉛背板。
the total shielding requirement. Figure 13 illustrates a typical lead glass viewing window. 總屏蔽要求。圖 13 展示了一個典型的鉛玻璃觀察窗。
Ventilation Louvers 通風百葉窗
Where ventilation is required in either walls or doors, lightproof louvers of solid lead are available. The louvers are constructed of inter-locking lead channels the same thickness as the lead used in the surface where it is to be mounted. A continuous flange is provided for surface mounting. 如果牆壁或門需要通風，可以使用實心鉛制防光百葉窗。百葉窗由相互鎖定的鉛槽構成，其厚度與安裝表面所用鉛的厚度相同。表面安裝有一個連續的法蘭。
The design of louver allows approximately a 30 per cent air flow. Refer to Figure 11 which illustrates a typical lead ventilation louver installed in a lead lined door. 百葉窗的設計允許大約 30% 的空氣流通。請參閱圖 11，圖中所示為安裝在鉛襯門中的典型鉛通風百葉窗。
Shielding of Ducts and Vents 管道和通風口的屏蔽
Air conditioning vents and duct work in existing structures present a particular problem, since it is not possible to simply cover them with sheet lead. The main difficulty obviously occurs at their point of entry into a room. 現有結構中的空調通風口和管道工程是一個特殊的問題，因為不可能簡單地用鉛板覆蓋它們。主要的困難顯然出現在它們進入房間的地方。
In new construction, duct work should only be incorporated when absolutely necessary, and should enter the room well away from the direct rays of the useful beam. For example, the duct should enter as near to the ceiling and corners as possible to minimize the shielding requirements. Where practical, a lead shielded baffle may be constructed in front of and as close as possible to the mouth of the duct, or by providing a leaded cowl within the duct. 在新建築中，只有在絕對必要時才應安裝管道工程，並且管道進入房間時應遠離有用光束的直接照射。例如，管道應盡可能靠近天花板和牆角，以盡量減少屏蔽要求。在切實可行的情況下，可在管道口前方並儘可能靠近管道口的地方安裝鉛屏蔽擋板，或在管道內安裝鉛罩子。
Since complicated reflection problems will often be encountered, the final design of the shielding system requires the services of a radiologist. However, in the initial design stage some idea of the possible extent of shielding can be estimated by considering the effect of the direct beam. 由於經常會遇到複雜的反射問題，屏蔽系統的最終設計需要放射科醫生提供服務。不過，在最初的設計階段，可以透過考慮直射光束的影響來估計可能的屏蔽範圍。
For additional information on providing radiation protection at wall openings for duct and pipe, the 有關在牆壁開口處為風管和管道提供輻射防護的更多信息，請參見
Figure 13 圖 13
Typical Fixed, Solid Lead Viewing Window Frame with Lead Glass Panel. 帶有鉛玻璃面板的典型固定式實心鉛制觀察窗框。
readers attention is directed to Appendix A, a reprint of an article written by Messrs. Goodman and Hollands, outlining construction techniques to ensure continuity of the protective shield at barrier openings. 請讀者註意附錄 A，這是 Goodman 和 Hollands 先生撰寫的一篇文章的重印本，其中概述了確保屏障開口處保護罩連續性的施工技術。
Pipes, Wires, and Electric Service Boxes 管道、電線和配電箱
Where pipes or wires penetrate the lead lining, they should be fitted with flanged lead elbows welded or soldered to the lead lining and so designed as to prevent passage of rays through the opening. Pipes or wires passing through the wall may be offset so that the opening through the lead lining can be backed with a large lead patch on the outside. Electric switch boxes should also be backed with lead patches much larger than the opening so that rays cannot pass through even at an angle. 管道或電線穿過鉛襯層時，應安裝法蘭式鉛彎頭，焊接或焊接在鉛襯層上，其設計應能防止射線穿過開口。穿過牆壁的管道或電線可以偏移，這樣穿過鉛襯裡的開口就可以在外面用一個大的鉛補丁擋住。電閘箱也應該用比開口大得多的鉛片來支撐，這樣射線即使以一定角度也無法通過。
Shielding Continuity at Joist Ends 桁架端部屏蔽的連續性
In new structures, a shielding difficulty at points where joists enter a wall, can be overcome by a method shown in Figure 14. 在新結構中，托樑進入牆壁處的屏蔽困難可以透過圖 14 所示的方法來解決。
The end of the joist is covered with a lead cap with its four sides separated at the point where the joist emerges from the wall. Before the joists are laid in position, the main lead shielding will have to be attached to the wall of the room, and holes cut in this shield at each point where a joist is to be placed. During construction, the end of each joist will be threaded through the appropriate hole in the lead, the cap fitted over the end of the joist and the joist positioned in the 托樑的端部覆蓋有鉛帽，鉛帽的四邊在托樑從牆壁伸出的地方分開。在擱柵就位之前，必須將主鉛屏蔽連接到房間的牆壁上，並在擱柵的每個位置開孔。在施工過程中，每根托樑的末端都要穿過導線上的相應孔洞，將蓋子蓋在托樑的末端，然後將托樑放置在相應的位置上。
Figure 14 - Shielding continuity at joist ends. wall. The flanges at two sides and the bottom will simply lie behind the main lead sheet. The top flange should be carefully cut so that the top of the cap can be lead burned to the top of the hole in the main sheet. In this way a continuous shield is produced, and the remainder of the shielding to the ceiling can be continued along the joists before the floor boards are laid. 圖 14 - 托樑兩端屏蔽的連續性。兩側和底部的凸緣將位於主鉛板的後方。應小心切割頂部凸緣，以便將帽頂引燃到主鉛板孔的頂部。這樣就形成了一個連續的防護罩，在鋪設地板之前，可以沿著托樑繼續將剩餘的防護罩鋪設到天花板上。
X-Ray Machine Control Booth X 射線機控制室
Where it is inconvenient to erect a permanent stud wall to shield the machine operator, consideration should be given to a prefabricated control booth. 如果不便建造永久性的牆壁來遮擋機器操作員，則應考慮使用預製控制間。
The control booth is fabricated from panels, similar to lead lined door construction, available in sizes up to a maximum of 48 in . wide. The sheet lead in the center of each of the individual panels extends beyond the panel so as to provide an overlap with the adjoining panels. 控制室由面板製成，類似於鉛襯門結構，最大尺寸為 48 英寸寬。每塊面板中央的鉛板都延伸到面板之外，以便與相鄰面板重疊。
The panels are installed using 16 gauge steel wall channels, floor channels, and joint strips, which can be provided to accommodate any desired configuration.. Leaded glass vision panels can be provided in one or more individual panels at any desired location. 面板的安裝使用 16 號鋼製牆槽、地板槽和接縫條，可提供任何所需的配置。可在任何需要的位置提供一塊或多塊單獨的鉛玻璃視板。
Inasmuch as the panels are completely self supporting, they are well suited for alteration purposes. In addition, the panels can be dismantled easily and erected in a new location. Figure 15 illustrates a typical control booth installation and construction details. 由於面板完全自支撐，因此非常適合改建用途。此外，面板還可以輕鬆拆卸並安裝到新的位置。圖 15 展示了典型的控制室安裝和施工細節。
Thru-wall X-ray Film Transfer Cabinet 穿牆式 X 光膠卷傳輸櫃
To prevent the transmission of light or radiation from the -ray room to the film developing room, an ray film transfer cabinet is usually installed in the partition separating the two rooms: Figure 16. 為了防止光線或輻射從 -ray 室傳輸到膠片沖洗室，通常會在分隔兩個房間的隔板上安裝一個 射線膠片傳輸櫃：圖 16.
A typical film transfer cabinet is of a double wall construction of heavy gauge steel, with a lead lining equivalent to that provided in the partition. In addition to being designed to prevent the transmission of light and radiation, the cabinet is of a fireproof construction. The integral face flange usually contains a baffled voice transmission passage. The doors are usually full height with concealed hinges, and are clearly marked exposed and unexposed. An interlocking mechanism is furnished to prevent the doors on opposite sides of each compartment from opening at the same time. 典型的底片轉印櫃採用雙層厚鋼板結構，內襯與隔板相同的鉛層。除了防止光線和輻射的傳播外，箱體還是防火結構。整體面法蘭通常包含一個擋板語音傳輸通道。櫃門通常為全高，並有隱藏式鉸鏈，並清楚標示外露和非外露。箱體設有連鎖裝置，以防止每個隔間相對兩側的門同時打開。
The film transfer cabinet may also be provided with a weight sensitive signal light system to indicate the presence of a x-ray film in either compartment. 底片傳送櫃還可配備重量感應號誌燈系統，以顯示任一隔間內是否有 X 光底片。
Figure 15 圖 15
Typical Control Booth Installation. 典型的控制室安裝。
Roughing-in details 粗加工細節
Figure 16 圖 16
Thru-wall film-transfer cabinets. 穿牆式薄膜轉印櫃
RADIATION PROTECTION AT WALL OPENINGS FOR DUCT OR PIPE 風管或管道牆壁開口處的輻射防護
Harrison D. Goodman* and George Hollands** 哈里森-D-古德曼*和喬治-霍蘭德**
The purpose of these data sheets is to acquaint the air conditioning engineer with the means for shielding ductwork and other openings that penetrate protective barriers around radiation facilities, particularly X-ray rooms. 這些數據表的目的是讓空調工程師了解如何屏蔽管道系統和其他穿透輻射設施（尤其是 X 射線室）周圍防護屏障的開口。
Protection against radiation from X-ray tube, cyclotron, radium or other radioactive material is primarily a question of shielding to reduce the level of radiation to a safe or specified amount, of maintaining safe distances from the rays, and/or of limiting the time of exposure. 來自 X 射線管、迴旋加速器、鐳或其他放射性物質的輻射的防護主要是一個屏蔽的問題，以將輻射水平降低到安全或規定的量，與射線保持安全距離，和/或限制照射時間。
The prime consideration in preventing penetration of rays is density of the shielding material. Lead is the densest of any commonly available. Where space is at a premium, particularly in modern buildings, and where utmost radiation protection is demanded, lead is invariably used. Lead is useful, especially where neutrons and gamma rays are concerned, in that it does not itself become contaminated and emit harmful rays. 防止射線穿透的首要考慮因素是屏蔽材料的密度。鉛是所有常見材料中密度最大的。在空間有限的情況下，尤其是在現代建築中，如果需要最大限度地保護輻射，則必須使用鉛。鉛的有用性，尤其是在涉及中子和伽馬射線的情況下，因為它本身不會受到污染和發射有害射線。
Lead, usually in sheet form, is used to line the walls, floor and often the ceiling of rooms containing radiation facilities. Openings through the barrier for air ductwork, piping, service boxes, conduit, etc., require shielding, usually obtained by a lead barrier around or behind these building utilities of sufficient coverage and thickness to prevent penetration of these rays. 鉛，通常以板材的形式，被用來鋪設含有輻射設施的房間的牆壁、地板和天花板。空氣管道系統、管道、維修箱、導管等穿過隔離層的開口需要屏蔽，通常是在這些建築設施周圍或後面使用鉛隔離層，其覆蓋範圍和厚度足以防止這些射線的穿透。
Determining Shielding Dimensions 確定屏蔽尺寸
Shielding of duct and other openings in the protective barrier of radiation facilities depends on energy of radiation, orientation of the beam, dimensions and location of opening in the protective barrier, geometrical relationship between the radiation source and opening, and geometrical relationship between opening and persons, materials or instruments to be protected. The complexity of these factors requires the services of a radiological physicist, who de- 輻射設施防護屏障中管道和其他開口的屏蔽取決於輻射的能量、光束的方向、防護屏障開口的尺寸和位置、輻射源與開口之間的幾何關係，以及開口與需要保護的人員、材料或儀器之間的幾何關係。由於這些因素的複雜性，需要放射物理學家提供服務，他必須具備以下能力
termines extent of shielding, materials for shielding (usually lead or concrete) and the thickness of the shielding material. After the radiological physicist has done the basic design for this shielding, the protective barrier contractor provides the required shielding for the openings. 輻射物理學家確定屏蔽範圍、屏蔽材料（通常為鉛或混凝土）以及屏蔽材料的厚度。在放射物理學家完成屏蔽的基本設計後，防護屏障承包商將為開口提供所需的屏蔽。
Role of Engineer 工程師的作用
Design of ductwork, piping, etc., should anticipate some of the problems encountered both in the design and installation of shielding. Also, coordination between air conditioning contractor and shielding fabricator can best be achieved by understanding and forethought on the part of the air conditioning designer. 管道系統、管道等的設計應考慮到屏蔽設計和安裝中遇到的一些問題。此外，空調承包商和屏蔽裝置製造商之間的協調，最好是透過空調設計人員的理解和深思熟慮來實現。
Figures 1-4 give some idea of the area of shielding required around ductwork. They show various duct installations which penetrate the protective barrier for walls or partitions of X-ray rooms. Lead shielding is used to cover these openings, the approximate extent of which is indicated in terms of simple equations involving the opening dimensions and wall thickness. These are Conservative estimates, which will aid the air conditioning designer to understand what to expect as to the area of shielded ductwork. The radiological physicist actually determines for each case the lead thickness and the exact amount of shielding required. 圖 1-4 給出了管道系統周圍所需屏蔽面積的一些概念。圖中顯示了穿透 X 射線室牆壁或隔間牆保護屏障的各種管道裝置。鉛屏蔽用於覆蓋這些開口，其大致範圍以涉及開口尺寸和牆壁厚度的簡單公式表示。這些都是保守估計，有助於空調設計人員了解屏蔽管道系統的預期面積。輻射物理學家實際上是根據具體情況來確定鉛厚度和所需屏蔽的確切數量。
Note in Fig. 4 that the protective shielding deals with primary radiation, while Figures 1-3 show protection against scattered or secondary radiation. Primary radiation comes directly from the source; scattered radiation has been deviated in direction; and secondary radiation is emitted by an irradiated material. Primary radiation requires more protection because its energy level is higher. 請注意圖 4 中的防護屏蔽是針對原生輻射的，而圖 1-3 則是針對散射或二次輻射的防護。原生輻射直接來自輻射源；散射輻射在方向上發生了偏差；而二次輻射則是由輻照材料發出的。原生輻射需要更多的防護，因為其能量等級較高。
Fabrication and Installation 製作和安裝
Sheet lead is not structurally self-supporting, so must be mounted to prevent sagging by its own weight. For lead thicknesses up to 3.5 mm , sheet lead can be readily shaped around round and small rectangular ducts, say 24 -inch maximum diameter or width, with all joints overlapped at least inch. To hold these lead sheets in place, 1-inch wide iron bands should be placed around the periphery of the duct on approximately 12 -inch centers, care being taken not to cut into the lead when the bands are bolted up. 鉛板在結構上不具自承性，因此在安裝時必須防止鉛板因自重而下垂。對於厚度不超過 3.5 毫米的鉛板，鉛板可以輕鬆地圍繞圓形和小型矩形導管（例如最大直徑或寬度為 24 英吋）成型，所有接縫至少重疊 英吋。為了固定這些鉛板，應在風管外圍以大約 12 英吋的中心放置 1 英吋寬的鐵帶，注意在栓緊鐵帶時不要切到鉛板。
When lead thickness is greater than 3.5 mm or duct width exceeds 24 inches, lead shielding should be laminated on a plywood or similar structural core, which is made in sections or panels to conform to the 當鉛厚度大於 3.5 毫米或管道寬度超過 24 英吋時，鉛屏蔽應層壓在膠合板或類似的結構芯材上，膠合板或類似的結構芯材應分段或分板製作，以符合以下要求
sides of the duct. The laminated sections are mechanically fastened at the seams and corners. These joints are lapped with sheet lead angles or lead strips, the width of which is twice the thickness of the lead, but not less than inch in any case. Nails, bolts, screws or other fasteners used to secure the lead sheet or panel must be covered with lead of thickness equal to the lead sheet. Lead headed nails may be used as shown in Fig. 5. 管道的兩側。層壓部分在接縫和角落處採用機械固定。這些接縫處以角形鉛板或鉛條搭接，鉛板或鉛條的寬度是鉛板厚度的兩倍，但在任何情況下都不得小於 英吋。用於固定鉛板或面板的釘子、螺栓、螺絲或其他緊固件必須用厚度等於鉛板的鉛覆蓋。可使用鉛頭釘，如圖 5 所示。
For lead shielding of 1.0 mm or less, flexible leaded vinyl sheets can be used for easy forming to complex shapes and contours. The flexible leaded vinyl sheets can be applied in layers where heavier than 1.0 mm lead shielding is required. If the duct has a flexible connection or is made of a flexible material, the flexible vinyl sheets could be applied over it more readily than other forms of shielding. 對於 1.0 毫米或更小的鉛屏蔽，可使用柔性含鉛乙烯基板材，以方便成形為複雜的形狀和輪廓。當需要重於 1.0 毫米的鉛屏蔽時，可分層使用柔性含鉛乙烯板。如果管道具有柔性連接或由柔性材料製成，則柔性乙烯基塑膠板可比其他形式的屏蔽更容易應用在管道上。
Duct hangers are best installed on the outside of the lead shielding so that the hanger rods or straps do not have to pierce the shielding. The lead shielding adds considerably to the weight of the duct and the hangers should be substantial, with such adequate anchoring in the slab above as fish plates. For rectangular ducts, trapeze hangers would be the most practical. For design purposes, estimate each inch of lead at 4 lb . per sq. ft. 風管吊架最好安裝在鉛屏蔽層的外面，這樣吊架桿或吊帶就不必刺穿屏蔽層。鉛屏蔽大大增加了風管的重量，因此吊架應非常堅固，並在上面的樓板上有足夠的錨固（如魚骨板）。對於矩形風管，梯形吊架最實用。出於設計目的，估計每 英吋鉛的重量為每平方英尺 4 磅。
Tests for radiation leakage are usually made after the room is finished and the equipment is installed. It is very important to install all shielding properly during the course of construction because of the expense in making corrections to the finished protective barrier. Moreover, equipment such as dampers should never be put in the shielded section of the ductwork, as repairs to this equipment would be very costly if the shielding must be dismantled. 輻射洩漏測試通常在房間完工和設備安裝後進行。在施工過程中正確安裝所有屏蔽非常重要，因為對已完成的保護屏障進行修正需要花費大量費用。此外，諸如風閥之類的設備絕不應安裝在管道系統的屏蔽部分，因為如果必須拆除屏蔽，對這些設備的維修費用將非常昂貴。
A simple way to avoid penetration of the protective barrier's lead lining by pipes or wires is to offset them as close behind the lead lining as possible so that they can be backed with a lead sheet of sufficient size to prevent passage of the rays at any angle. This lead patch method is also used for electric switch boxes located in the wall. 避免管道或電線穿透保護層鉛襯裡的一個簡單方法是將它們盡可能地偏移到鉛襯裡的後面，這樣就可以用足夠大的鉛板將它們支撐起來，以防止光線從任何角度穿過。這種鉛片方法也可用於牆內的電閘箱。
Medical Installations 醫療設施
The extent of the protective barrier for medical installations is summarized below so that the air conditioning designer can tell whether ducts or pipes running through such spaces are likely to be a problem. For medical radiographic and fluoroscopic rooms the lead shielding generally does not extend above a line in. from the finished floor; and if the service lines and ducts can be located above this line, shielding around them is obviously unnecessary. For X-ray therapy rooms, lead shielding may extend to the ceiling or structural slab. The ceiling or slab above and the floor may also be lead lined, depending upon output of the machine and other conditions. For industrial X-ray work, wall shielding may extend to the ceiling. Both ceiling and floor in some cases will require lead lining. 下文概述了醫療設施的保護屏障範圍，以便空調設計人員了解穿過此類空間的管道是否會造成問題。對於醫用放射線室和螢光透視室，鉛屏蔽一般不會延伸到距離地面 英吋的線以上；如果服務管線和管道可以位於該線以上，則顯然不需要在其周圍進行屏蔽。對於 X 光治療室，鉛屏蔽可延伸至天花板或結構板。上面的天花板或樓板以及地板也可以襯鉛，這取決於機器的輸出和其他條件。對於工業 X 射線工作，牆壁屏蔽可延伸至天花板。在某些情況下，天花板和地板都需要襯鉛。
For shielding in supervoltage rooms, special conditions may apply. In any event, the radiological physicist should be consulted to design the proper protection. Where concrete is considered for the shielding material, it is often more practical to use lead of equivalent value for the shielding of openings. Where recesses occur in concrete barriers for equipment, lead backing, equivalent to the thickness of the concrete removed, should be provided. 對於超電壓房間的屏蔽，可能適用特殊條件。在任何情況下，都應諮詢放射物理學家，以設計適當的防護措施。在考慮使用混凝土作為屏蔽材料時，通常使用同等價值的鉛作為開口的屏蔽材料更為實用。當設備的混凝土屏障出現凹陷時，應提供與拆除的混凝土厚度相當的鉛基板。
Bibliography 參考書目
Of the many publications available on the subject of radiation protection, these two are the most useful: 在眾多有關輻射防護的出版品中，這兩本書最為有用：
Medical X-ray Protection Up to Three Million Volts, Handbook No. 76, National Bureau of Standards, 1961; 高達 300 萬伏特的醫用 X 射線防護》，國家標準局第 76 號手冊，1961 年；
Radiation Protection, Lead Industries Association, 292 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 輻射防護，鉛工業協會，紐約麥迪遜大道 292 號。
In addition, the New York City Health Department publishes the New York City Health Code requirements dealing with radiological hazards (Article 175). 此外，紐約市衛生局也公佈了《紐約市衛生法》中有關放射性危害的規定（第 175 條）。
RADIATION PROTECTION AT WALL OPENINGS FOR DUCT OR PIPE 風管或管道牆壁開口處的輻射防護
RADIATION PROTECTION AT WALL OPENINGS FOR DUCT OR PIPE 風管或管道牆壁開口處的輻射防護
Figure 2. Evaluation of section through -ray room partition where duct opening is exposed to secondary radiation. 圖 2.對穿過 射線室隔間牆的部分進行評估，其中管道開口暴露在二次輻射中。
Figure 3. Plan view of radius elbow in ductwork running through partition of X -ray room, exposed to secondary or scattered radiation. 圖 3.穿過 X 射線室隔板的管道系統半徑彎頭平面圖，暴露在二次輻射或散射輻射。
Note: Where duct runs straight without offset, lead shielding is similar to that shown on Fig. 2 註：在管道直行無偏移的情況下，鉛屏蔽與圖 2 所示類似
Figure 4. Plan view of duct running through partition of X-ray room, exposed to primary radiation. 圖 4.穿過 X 光室隔板的導管平面圖，暴露在初級輻射下。
Note: Let duct rest on wood strips for support. Substantial trapeze hangers should be used for supporting shielding enclosure. Hanger rods must be rigid enough to prevent any sway of the enclosure 註：讓風管靠在木條上支撐。應使用堅固的梯形吊架來支撐屏蔽外殼。吊桿必須足夠堅固，以防止外殼搖晃。
Figure 5. Construction of laminated panel enclosure around shielded ductwork. 圖 5.在屏蔽管道系統周圍建造層壓板圍護結構。
Rolled, equivalent to (density 11.34 grams per c.c.) ....707 lb. per cu. ft. Rolled, . (density 11.37 ) calculated ........ 0.4103 Ib . per cu. in. quid , calculated ........................ 709 lb . per cu. ft. Liquid, 327.4"C., calculated ................. . 3.3854 lb). per cu. in. Sheet lead, 1 ft . square by in. thick .......... approximately 1 lb . Volume of 1 lb . cast lead, ., calculated ............. 2.44 cu. in density 軋製，相當於（密度11.34 克每立方英尺） ....707 磅每立方英尺軋製， . （密度11.37 ）計算........每立方英尺0.4103磅， ，計算........................每立方英尺液體709 磅，327.4 "C.，計算.. ................ .每立方英尺3.3854 磅）。 1 磅。
Cast lead, ..................................... 11.34 g. per c.c. Rolled, to 11.37 g . per c.c. Just solid, . per c.c. Density, vapor (Hydroge 1), calculated .....................103. 6 鑄鉛， .....................................11.34 g. per c.c. 軋製， 至11.37 g. per c.c. 剛固體， . per c.c. 密度，蒸汽（Hydroge 1），計算.......... ...........103。6
thermal properties 熱性能
Melting point, common lead Melting point, chemical lead . .) 熔點，普通鉛 熔點，化學鉛 . .)
150 atm . increase in pressure Casting temperature . .) 150 atm . 增加壓力 鑄造溫度 . .)
790 to . 790 至 。
vapor pressure 蒸氣壓力
specific heat (cal. per g.) 比熱（卡/克）
Temp 溫度
specific heat 比熱
-150
0.02805
-100
0.02880
-50
0.0298
0
0.0303
50
00309
100
0.0315
200
0.0325
300
0.0338
327.4 (solid) 327.4（固體）
0.0340
327.4 (liquid) 327.4（液體）
0.0333
378
0.0338
418
0.0335
459
00335
Latent heat 潛熱
of 的
fusion 聚變
Temp 'C 溫度 'C
specific heat 比熱
--247.1
-160
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0.117
0.092
0.083
0.081
0.077
0.074
0.038
0.037
0.036
Latent heat of fusion .....6.26 cal. per g. or 9.9 B.T.U. per lb . To melt 1 lb . of lead heating from requires or or 27.9 B.T.U. 熔融潛熱 .....6.26 卡/克或 9.9 B.T.U./磅。從 加熱融化 1 磅鉛需要 或或 27.9 B.T.U.。
Latent heat of vaporization .................... 202 cal. per g. Relative thermal conductivity (silver 100) .......................... 8.2 蒸發潛熱.................... 202 cal. per g. 相對熱導率（銀100） .............. ............8.2
溫度 。
temperature
.
拉伸強度
tensile
strength
伸長率
elongation
percent
Brinell 布氏
impact 衝擊
castlead 城堡
房間
room
3000
6200
33
40
4.3
9.0
2.3
3.8
colled lead 銤
59
-4
-40
-103
3600
7200
13300
15200
48
31
24
electrical properties 電氣性能
Specific electrical conductance 比電導率
Effect of temperature on tensile properties (lead annealed at C.) 溫度對拉伸性能的影響（鉛在 C. 下退火）
Temperature 溫度
拉伸強度 psi
Tensile
strength
psi
伸長率
Elongation
percent
面積減少百分比
Reduction
in area
percent
1920
31
100
20
68
1140
24
100
82
180
710
33
100
150
302
570
20
1 100
195
383
280
20
100
tensile strength and elongation 拉伸強度和伸長率
(laboratory rolled specimens, room temperature, pulling speed in. per min. per in. of test section) (實驗室軋製試樣，室溫，拉伸速度 英吋/分鐘，每英吋測試截面）
grade of lead 鉛級
拉伸強度 ・psi
tensile strength
・psi
伸長率
elongation
percent
corroding 腐蝕
1904
37.7
common 普通
1931
34.4
common 普通
2093
43.0
chemical (99.92+0.06 Cu) 化學（99.92+0.06 銅）
2961
42.2
chemical (commercial sheet) 化學品
2454
47.0
chemical (extruded) 化學品
2200
48.0
resistance to bending 抗彎曲性
(extruded strips under 200 lbs . per sq_in. stress subjected to alternate reverse bends over . rolls, 11 cycles per min) (在 . 輥上交替進行 反向彎曲，每分鐘 11 個循環）。
grade of lead 鉛級
循環失敗
cycles to
failure
伸長率
elongation
percent
corroding 腐蝕
54
35
common 常見
72
49
chemical 化學
103
52
creep (room temperature) 蠕動（室溫）
每平方英吋應力磅
stress
lb. per sq. in.
creep, percent per hour 蠕動，每小時百分比
化學或銅鉛
chemical or
copper lead
200
300
400
fatigue 疲勞
While every effort has been made to assure that the information given in this booklet is technically correct, Lead Industries Association, Inc. does not warrant its accuracy. 儘管我們已盡力確保本手冊中提供的資訊在技術上是正確的，但鉛工業協會不保證其準確性。
Lead Industries Association, Inc. 鉛工業協會
Mr. Goodman, formerly with Meyer, Strong and Jones now has his own consulting practice in New York City. He has a masters degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Wisconsin, where he specialized in heat transfer, and is a licensed professional engineer. Goodman 先生曾任職於 Meyer、Strong 和 Jones 公司，現在紐約市擁有自己的顧問公司。他擁有威斯康辛大學機械工程碩士學位，主修傳熱學，並且是一名執照專業工程師。
** Mr. Hollands is chief engineer, in charge of design of radiation shielding materials and equipment, for Bar-Ray Products, Inc., Brooklyn, N.Y. He is a member of ASTM, Society for Nondestructive Testing, Acoustical Society of America and American Institute of Physics. ** 他是 ASTM、無損檢測協會、美國聲學協會和美國物理協會的成員。
