sustained income, and high quality and performance, which generates demand for the entrepreneur’s service, income and motivation for ensuring quality and performance.
持续的收入、高质量和绩效，这产生了对企业家的服务、收入和确保质量和绩效的动力的需求。
5.3. Post-construction service and user education
5.3. 施工后服务和用户教育

One of the keys to the success of this entrepreneur was post-construction service. If there was any fault in the stove construction or if the performance of the stove was poor, it was rectified by the entrepreneur. The entrepreneur also provided adequate information on good practices in using the stove. Conversely, in the large government-sponsored programmes both post-construction service and user education were nearly absent [Ravindranath and Hall, 1995].
这家企业家成功的关键之一是施工后服务。如果炉子结构有任何故障或炉子的性能不佳，则由企业家进行纠正。这位企业家还提供了有关使用炉灶的良好做法的充分信息。相反，在政府资助的大型计划中，施工后服务和用户教育几乎不存在 [Ravindranath 和 Hall， 1995]。

Households paid for the stove components as well as the services of the builder. Thus they could and did demand quality performance. The entrepreneur was also under contract to ensure quality performance. In the government programmes, the subsidy feature, which in some cases meant a free stove, inhibited the households from demanding quality of performance. The builder under the government programme had no obligation to ensure high performance.
家庭支付了炉灶组件以及建筑商的服务费用。因此，他们可以而且确实要求高质量的性能。这位企业家还签订了合同，以确保质量表现。在政府计划中，补贴功能，在某些情况下意味着免费炉灶，抑制了家庭对性能质量的要求。政府计划下的建筑商没有义务确保高性能。

The improved stove programme should be “demanddriven” at all times, as against the government programmes that are target- and subsidy-driven. Trained and skilled individuals should undertake construction of the stove, with accountability for quality of construction and performance. Generation of demand depends on the performance and impact of the stoves in delivering one or more of the intended benefits, such as saving in fuel and
改进后的炉灶计划应始终是“需求驱动”的，而不是由目标和补贴驱动的政府计划。应由经过培训且技术娴熟的人员负责炉灶的建造，并对施工质量和性能负责。需求的产生取决于炉灶在提供一个或多个预期好处方面的性能和影响，例如节省燃料和
cooking time and removal of smoke. The case-study of the entrepreneur is a success story of stove dissemination. The key factors and lessons are the following.
烹饪时间和除烟。企业家的案例研究是炉灶传播的成功故事。关键因素和教训如下。

We thank the late R.K. Joshi and his son A.R. Joshi for their cooperation and also for providing data for our analysis. We also thank all the households that cooperated during our survey. The Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Government of India provided financial support to the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, for conducting research on these issues. R. Kumar, S.S. Lokras, M.S. Hegde and K.S. Jagadish were responsible for the success of the ASTRA stove programme in the Sirsi area.
我们感谢已故的 R.K. Joshi 和他的儿子 A.R. Joshi 的合作，并为我们的分析提供数据。我们还感谢所有在调查期间合作的住户。印度政府环境和森林部为印度科学研究所生态科学中心提供了财政支持，以开展这些问题的研究。R. Kumar、S.S. Lokras、M.S. Hegde 和 KS Jagadish 负责 Sirsi 地区 ASTRA 炉灶计划的成功。

Kishore, V.V.N., and Ramana, P.V., 2002. “Improved cookstoves in rural India: how improved are they? A critique of the percieved benefits from the National Programme on Improved Chulhas (NPIC)”, Energy, 27, pp. 47-63.
Kishore， V.V.N. 和 Ramana， PV，2002 年。“印度农村改进的炉灶：它们改进得如何？对国家改进 Chulhas 计划 （NPIC） 的感知好处的批评“，《能源》，第 27 期，第 47-63 页。

Ravindranath, N.H., and Hall, D.O., 1995. Biomass Energy and Environment: a Developing Country Perspective from India, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
新罕布什尔州 Ravindranath 和 DO 霍尔，1995 年。生物质能源与环境：来自印度的发展中国家视角，牛津大学出版社，牛津。

Ravindranath, N.H., Rao, U.K., Natarajan B., and Monga, P., 2000. Renewable Energy and Environment - a Policy Analysis for India, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New Delhi.
Ravindranath， N.H.， Rao， U.K.， Natarajan B. 和 Monga， P.， 2000 年。可再生能源与环境 - 印度政策分析，塔塔麦格劳-希尔出版公司，新德里。

Ravindranath, N. H., Babu, D.S.S., and Shailaja, R., 1989. “Conservation of biomass: potential of a fuel-efficient wood stove”, Energy Management, 13(2), pp. 14-20.
Ravindranath， NH， Babu， DSS 和 Shailaja， R.，1989 年。“生物质保护：节能柴火炉的潜力”，《能源管理》，第 13 卷第 2 期，第 14-20 页。

Energy Program, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
亚洲理工学院环境、资源与发展学院能源项目，P.O. Box 4， Klong Luang， Pathumthani 12120， Thailand

A regional research and dissemination programme, “Renewable Energy Technologies in Asia”, funded by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) and coordinated by the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), is being executed in six Asian countries during 1996-2003. Biomass briquetting is one of the three research areas under the programme, the others being photovoltaics and solar drying. Research and dissemination activities are being carried out at AIT as well as in three participating country institutions. The main objective of
1996-2003 年期间，由瑞典国际开发合作署 （Sida） 资助并由亚洲技术研究所 （AIT） 协调的区域研究和传播计划“亚洲可再生能源技术”正在六个亚洲国家实施。生物质压块是该计划的三个研究领域之一，其他三个是光伏和太阳能干燥。AIT 以及三个参与国机构正在开展研究和传播活动。主要目标
briquetting research at AIT is to develop improved heateddie screw-press biomass briquetting systems by reducing the electrical energy consumption by pre-heating the biomass in order to reduce the electrical energy consumption, heating the die of the briquetting machine by means of a briquette-fired stove and by incorporating a smoke removal system. This paper presents the experimental data on rice-husk briquetting with and without pre-heating and also details the design and operating parameters of a dieheating stove, which was used to replace the electrical coil heaters, to reduce the net electricity consumption.
AI Technology的压块研究是开发改进的加热模具螺旋压榨生物质压块系统，通过预热生物质来减少电能消耗，通过压块炉加热压块机的模具，并结合排烟系统。本文介绍了有和没有预热的稻壳压块的实验数据，还详细介绍了用于替代电线圈加热器以减少净耗电量的模具加热炉的设计和运行参数。

Utilisation of agricultural residues is often difficult due to their uneven and troublesome characteristics. The process of compaction of residues into a product of higher density than the original raw material is known as densification or briquetting. Densification has lately aroused a great deal of interest in developing countries all over the world as a technique for upgrading of residues as energy sources. Converting residues into a densified form has the following advantages.
由于农业废弃物的不均匀和麻烦的特性，其利用通常很困难。将残留物压实成比原始原材料密度更高的产品的过程称为致密化或压块。致密化最近引起了全世界发展中国家的极大兴趣，作为一种将残渣升级为能源的技术。将残基转化为致密形式具有以下优点。

Figure 1. The heated-die screw-press type briquetting machine used for the experiments
图 1.用于实验的加热模压螺丝压制式压块机

The process also helps to reduce deforestation by providing a substitute for fuel-wood.
该过程还通过提供薪柴的替代品来帮助减少森林砍伐。

There are several methods available for densifying biomass. Screw-press briquetting is a popular densification method suitable for small-scale applications in developing countries. The raw material from the hopper is conveyed and compressed by a screw in screw-press briquetting. This process can produce denser and stronger briquettes than those produced by piston presses. There are basically two types of screw press: conical screw press and screw press with heated die.
有几种方法可用于致密化生物质。螺旋压压块是一种流行的致密化方法，适用于发展中国家的小规模应用。来自料斗的原料通过螺旋压制压块中的螺杆输送和压缩。这个过程可以产生比活塞压榨机产生的更致密、更坚固的煤球。基本上有两种类型的螺旋压榨机：锥形螺旋压榨机和带加热模具的螺旋压榨机。

It has been reported that pre-heating the raw materials reduces the power required for the briquetting, allows higher quality briquettes for given energy input, lowers wear on dies or a combination of these [Joseph et al., 1985; Reed et al., 1980]. Reed et al. [1980] found that the work and pressure of compression or extrusion can be reduced by a factor of two by pre-heating the raw material to $200-{250}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$$200-{250}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$200-250^(@)C200-250^{\circ} \mathrm{C} before densification.
据报道，预热原材料会降低压块所需的功率，在给定的能量输入下允许更高质量的压块，降低模具的磨损或这些的组合 [Joseph et al.， 1985;Reed et al.， 1980]。Reed 等人 [1980] 发现，通过将原材料预热到 $200-{250}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$$200-{250}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$200-250^(@)C200-250^{\circ} \mathrm{C} 致密化之前，压缩或挤压的功和压力可以减少两倍。

Joseph and Hislop [1985] reported the results of briquetting preheated papyrus by the Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG). Papyrus briquettes were produced at pressure between 25-30 MPa with pre-heat, compared to a pressure of approximately 180 MPa without pre-heat. The authors concluded that existing briquetting plants modified for pre-heat should operate at lower pressures, wear rates and power requirements.
Joseph 和 Hislop [1985] 报告了中间技术开发小组 （ITDG） 对预热纸莎草纸进行压块的结果。纸莎草压块是在 25-30 MPa 的压力下生产的，有预热，而没有预热的压力约为 180 MPa。作者得出结论，现有的针对预热进行改造的压块厂应在较低的压力、磨损率和功率要求下运行。

Aqa and Bhattacharya [1992] studied the effect of varying the die temperature and the raw material (sawdust) pre-heat temperature on the energy consumption for saw-
Aqa 和 Bhattacharya [1992] 研究了改变模具温度和原材料（锯末）预热温度对锯子能耗的影响。
dust using a heated-die screw press. Densifying sawdust pre-heated to a suitable temperature could save a significant amount of energy. The energy input to the briquetting machine motor, die-heaters and the overall system were reduced by 54.0, 30.6 and $40.2\mathrm{\%}$$40.2\mathrm{\%}$40.2%40.2 \% respectively, in the case of sawdust pre-heated to ${130}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$${130}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$130^(@)C130^{\circ} \mathrm{C}.
使用加热的模具螺旋压力机除尘。将预热到适当温度的锯末致密可以节省大量能源。在锯末预热到的情况下，压块机电机、模具加热器和整个系统的能量输入分别减少了 54.0、30.6 和 $40.2\mathrm{\%}$$40.2\mathrm{\%}$40.2%40.2 \% ${130}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$${130}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$130^(@)C130^{\circ} \mathrm{C} 。

Performance tests of a Shimada (Europe) briquetting machine in India showed that raising the feed temperature to $80-{90}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$$80-{90}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$80-90^(@)C80-90^{\circ} \mathrm{C} before briquetting increases screw life to 44 hours from 17 hours without pre-heating [Mishra, 1996]. Also, the production rate was found to increase from 340 to $360\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$$360\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$360kg//hr360 \mathrm{~kg} / \mathrm{hr} and the power consumption was reduced by 15-20 %.
印度岛田（欧洲）压块机的性能测试表明，将进料温度提高到 $80-{90}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$$80-{90}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$80-90^(@)C80-90^{\circ} \mathrm{C} 压块前，螺杆寿命从没有预热的 17 小时增加到 44 小时 [Mishra， 1996]。此外，发现生产率从 340 增加到 $360\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$$360\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$360kg//hr360 \mathrm{~kg} / \mathrm{hr} ，功耗降低了 15-20%。

The briquetting machine used in the present study was of single extrusion heated-die screw-press type (Figure 1). The major parts of the machine are a driving motor, screw, die, die-heaters and power transmission system. A pulley and belts were used to transmit power from the motor to the screw. An electrical coil heater was fixed on the outer surface of the die, to heat it to about ${300}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$${300}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$300^(@)C300^{\circ} \mathrm{C}. This temperature is required to soften the lignin in the biomass, which acts as a binder. The electrical heater was thermostatically controlled, to maintain the temperature at all times. When the motor is started and raw material is fed to the screw, it gets compressed and extruded through the die.
本研究中使用的压块机是单挤出加热模头螺旋压制式（图 1）。该机器的主要部件是驱动电机、螺杆、模具、模具加热器和动力传输系统。滑轮和皮带用于将动力从电机传输到螺杆。将电线圈加热器固定在芯片的外表面，将其加热到约 ${300}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$${300}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$300^(@)C300^{\circ} \mathrm{C} .需要这个温度来软化生物质中的木质素，它起到粘合剂的作用。电加热器是恒温控制的，以始终保持温度。当电机启动并将原材料送入螺杆时，它被压缩并通过模具挤出。
The cylindrical die has, lengthwise on the inner surface, five grooves which serve to prevent the densified material from rotating with the screw. The briquettes often get partially pyrolysed at the surface and hence there is quite a lot of smoking during briquetting. The design of the screw results in the formation of a central circular hole in the briquette; this acts as an escape route for steam formed during briquetting.
圆柱形模具的内表面纵向有五个凹槽，用于防止致密材料随螺杆旋转。煤球通常在表面部分热解，因此在压块过程中会有相当多的烟雾。螺钉的设计导致在煤球上形成一个中心圆孔;这是压块过程中形成的蒸汽的逃逸路线。

Figure 2. The rice-husk pre-heater
图 2.稻壳预热器

The briquetting machine had a capacity of about 90 $\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$$\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$kg//hr\mathrm{kg} / \mathrm{hr} and was driven by a $20-\mathrm{hp}$$20-\mathrm{hp}$20-hp20-\mathrm{hp} (1 horse power or $\mathrm{hp}=$$\mathrm{hp}=$hp=\mathrm{hp}= 746 W ) electrical motor.
压块机的容量约为 90 $\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$$\mathrm{kg}/\mathrm{hr}$kg//hr\mathrm{kg} / \mathrm{hr} ，由 $20-\mathrm{hp}$$20-\mathrm{hp}$20-hp20-\mathrm{hp} （1 马力或 $\mathrm{hp}=$$\mathrm{hp}=$hp=\mathrm{hp}= 746 W）电动机驱动。

The major maintenance problems of this briquetting machine are due to the wear of the screw.
这种压块机的主要维护问题是由于螺钉的磨损。

The biomass pre-heater is essentially a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Biomass is passed through the “tube” by a mo-tor-driven screw feeder, while hot flue gases from a biomass gasifier pass through the “shell”. The temperature of the flue gases could be controlled by mixing cold air with the hot gases. Rice-husk was fed to the pre-heater when the gas temperature reached about ${650}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$${650}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$650^(@)C650^{\circ} \mathrm{C}.
生物质预热器本质上是一个管壳式换热器。生物质通过电机驱动的螺旋给料机通过“管”，而来自生物质气化炉的热烟气则通过“壳”。烟气的温度可以通过将冷空气与热气体混合来控制。当气体温度达到约 ${650}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$${650}^{\circ }\mathrm{C}$650^(@)C650^{\circ} \mathrm{C} 时，稻壳被送入预热器。

The raw material pre-heating system consisted of a gasifier, a gas combustion chamber, an air-flue gas-mixing chamber and the pre-heater. The gas from the gasifier was burned in the combustion chamber. The hot flue gas from the combustion chamber, diluted/cooled by mixing with fresh air if necessary, was used to heat the raw material in the pre-heater.
原料预热系统由气化炉、气体燃烧室、空气烟气混合室和预热器组成。气化炉的气体在燃烧室中燃烧。来自燃烧室的热烟气，必要时通过与新鲜空气混合进行稀释/冷却，用于加热预热器中的原料。

The gasifier was of downdraft type and used charcoal as fuel. It was 1.4 m tall and around 15 kg of charcoal could be loaded for one batch, which could run for about 10 hours continuously. The gasifier consisted of a hopper for fuel storage, a reactor zone, a grate and an ash-pit. The reactor part of the gasifier was made of stainless steel and was insulated by ceramic fibre insulation to reduce heat loss. A blower was used to supply air to the gasifier. A suction blower was connected to the outlet side of the gasifier for start-up. The producer gas leaves the gasifier through a pipe connected below the grate. The producer gas and air were supplied to a combustion chamber.
气化炉是下吸式的，使用木炭作为燃料。它有 1.4 m 高，一个批次可以装载约 15 公斤的木炭，可以连续运行约 10 小时。气化炉由一个用于储存燃料的料斗、一个反应器区、一个炉排和一个灰坑组成。气化炉的反应器部分由不锈钢制成，并采用陶瓷纤维绝缘材料进行绝缘，以减少热量损失。鼓风机用于向气化炉供应空气。将吸风机连接到气化炉的出口侧以用于启动。制造气体通过连接在炉排下方的管道离开气化炉。发生气体和空气被供应到燃烧室。

The combustion chamber was located between the gasifier and pre-heater to burn the producer gas. It was insulated internally by fireclay and externally by ceramic fibre insulation. A sight glass was provided to watch the combustion process. Air was supplied to the combustion
燃烧室位于气化炉和预热器之间，用于燃烧发生炉气体。它的内部用耐火粘土绝缘，外部用陶瓷纤维绝缘材料绝缘。提供了一个观察镜来观察燃烧过程。向燃烧提供空气
chamber by a blower to burn the producer gas. An electrical heater placed inside the combustion chamber was used to ignite the producer gas. A mixing chamber was used to cool down the flue gas if necessary before its entry into the pre-heater. This was achieved by mixing fresh air with the hot flue gas in this chamber. Fresh air was supplied to the mixing chamber by a blower.
室通过鼓风机燃烧产生器气体。放置在燃烧室内的电加热器用于点燃发生炉气体。如有必要，在烟气进入预热器之前，使用混合室对烟气进行冷却。这是通过将新鲜空气与该腔室中的热烟气混合来实现的。新鲜空气由鼓风机供应到混合室。
The pre-heater was designed and constructed to heat the raw material before feeding to the briquetting machine. The pre-heater (Figure 2) was 2.3 m long and 40 cm wide and consisted of an outer shell and an inner pipe (feeder drum). The raw material was pre-heated while being conveyed through the feeder drum by means of a conveyor screw. The pre-heater screw was rotated by a variable-speed motor. The hot flue gas from the combustion chamber was passed through the space between the feeder drum and the shell and discharged to the atmosphere. Thus, the feeder drum was heated by the flue gas at the bottom. The outer shell was insulated by a $5-\mathrm{cm}$$5-\mathrm{cm}$5-cm5-\mathrm{cm} thick layer of rock-wool to reduce heat loss to the surroundings. The pre-heater exit point was so adjusted that raw material was fed directly to the briquetting machine.
预热器的设计和制造是为了在进料到压块机之前加热原材料。预热器（图 2）长 2.3 m，宽 40 cm，由外壳和内管（进料桶）组成。原料在通过输送螺杆通过进料桶输送的同时进行预热。预热器螺杆由变速电机旋转。来自燃烧室的热烟气通过进料桶和壳体之间的空间并排放到大气中。因此，给料机滚筒被底部的烟气加热。外壳由一 $5-\mathrm{cm}$$5-\mathrm{cm}$5-cm5-\mathrm{cm} 层厚厚的岩棉绝缘，以减少对周围环境的热量损失。预热器出口点经过调整，原材料直接送入压块机。

The speed of the pre-heater screw feeder was selected on the basis of the required biomass flow rate into the briquetting machine. Electrical energy consumption by briquetting machine, die-heaters and pre-heater motor was recorded using watt-hour meters. Total mass of briquette produced during each experiment was weighed to calculate the production rate.
预热器螺旋给料机的速度是根据进入压块机所需的生物质流速来选择的。使用电能表记录压块机、模具加热器和预热器电机的电能消耗量。称量每个实验期间产生的煤球总质量以计算生产率。

The electricity consumption for die-heating of the briquetting machine constitutes a significant portion, around $25\mathrm{\%}$$25\mathrm{\%}$25%25 \%, of the total electricity consumption [Aqa, 1990]. Substitution of the electrical die-heaters by a biomassfired stove is therefore expected to reduce briquette production cost by cutting down electricity cost.
压块机模具加热的耗电量占总耗电量的很大一部分 $25\mathrm{\%}$$25\mathrm{\%}$25%25 \% [Aqa， 1990]。因此，用生物质燃烧炉取代电模加热器有望通过降低电力成本来降低煤球生产成本。

After conducting extensive studies with a biomass gasifier
在使用生物质气化炉进行广泛研究后