Buying Dynamics of Consumers and Businesses 消费者和企业的购买动态
In this chapter, we will address the following questions: 在本章中，我们将讨论以下问题：
How do cultural, social, and personal factors influence consumer buying behavior? (Page 93) 文化、社会和个人因素如何影响消费者购买行为？（第 93 页）
What major psychological processes influence consumer buying behavior? (Page 96) 影响消费者购买行为的主要心理过程是什么？（第 96 页）
How do consumers make purchasing decisions? (Page 99) 消费者如何做出购买决策？（第 99 页）
What is the business market, and how does it differ from the consumer market? (Page 104) 商业市场是什么，它与消费者市场有何不同？（第 104 页）
Who participates in the business buying process, and how are buying decisions made? (Page 106) 谁参与商业采购过程，购买决策是如何做出的？（第 106 页）
How can companies build strong relationships with business customers? (Page 110) 公司如何与商业客户建立牢固的关系？（第 110 页）
Marketing Management at Cisco 思科的市场管理
At the height of the dot-com boom, Cisco Systems was briefly the most valuable company in the world, with a valuation of $500\$ 500 billion. Since those heady days, Cisco has faced a number of challenges to its market leadership-but it has also taken bold steps to reinvent itself, reflecting shifts in the global marketing environment. The company prides itself on staying close to its business customers and sees its core competency as helping them get through big transitions by breaking down their corporate silos. Its CEO cites compact and efficient blade servers as a good example of how Cisco helps companies form a common technological vision, noting that Cisco’s is the only computing technology that can handle data, voice, and video. The firm spends $6\$ 6 billion annually on research and development, and it generates 55 percent of its revenue and 70 percent of its growth from overseas. ^(1){ }^{1} 在互联网泡沫的巅峰时期，思科系统公司曾短暂成为全球最有价值的公司，估值达到 $500\$ 500 十亿美元。自那段辉煌的日子以来，思科面临了许多挑战以维持其市场领导地位，但它也采取了大胆的措施来重塑自身，反映出全球市场环境的变化。该公司以与其商业客户保持紧密联系而自豪，并将其核心竞争力视为通过打破企业的孤岛来帮助客户度过重大转型。其首席执行官引用紧凑高效的刀片服务器作为思科如何帮助公司形成共同技术愿景的良好例子，并指出思科是唯一能够处理数据、语音和视频的计算技术。该公司每年在研发上投入 $6\$ 6 十亿美元，55%的收入和 70%的增长来自海外。 ^(1){ }^{1}
Adopting a holistic marketing orientation requires fully understanding customers, whether Athey’re consumers or organizational buyers. Cisco, like other smart marketers, puts a high priority on building strong loyalty relationships with its customers. It is also a buyer of goods and 采用整体营销导向需要充分理解客户，无论他们是消费者还是组织买家。思科与其他聪明的营销者一样，非常重视与客户建立强大的忠诚关系。它也是商品的买家。
services, not just a seller to other businesses. This chapter looks at the buying dynamics of individual consumers and of businesses, government agencies, and institutions. 服务，不仅仅是向其他企业销售的卖方。本章探讨了个人消费者以及企业、政府机构和其他组织的购买动态。
What Influences Consumer Behavior? 影响消费者行为的因素是什么？
Consumer behavior is the study of how individuals, groups, and organizations select, buy, use, and dispose of goods, services, ideas, or experiences to satisfy their needs and wants. ^(2){ }^{2} Marketers must fully understand both the theory and the reality of consumer behavior. A consumer’s buying behavior is influenced by cultural, social, and personal factors. Of these, cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence. 消费者行为是研究个人、群体和组织如何选择、购买、使用和处理商品、服务、思想或体验以满足其需求和欲望的学科。 ^(2){ }^{2} 市场营销人员必须充分理解消费者行为的理论和现实。消费者的购买行为受到文化、社会和个人因素的影响。其中，文化因素的影响最为广泛和深远。
Cultural Factors 文化因素
Culture, subculture, and social class are particularly important influences on consumer buying behavior. Culture is the fundamental determinant of a person’s wants and behavior. Through family and other key institutions, a child growing up in the United States is exposed to values such as achievement and success, activity, efficiency and practicality, progress, material comfort, individualism, freedom, external comfort, humanitarianism, and youthfulness. ^(3){ }^{3} A child growing up in another country might have a different view of self, relationship to others, and rituals. 文化、亚文化和社会阶层对消费者购买行为的影响尤为重要。文化是一个人欲望和行为的基本决定因素。通过家庭和其他关键机构，在美国成长的孩子接触到诸如成就和成功、活动、效率和实用性、进步、物质舒适、个人主义、自由、外部舒适、人道主义和年轻化等价值观。 ^(3){ }^{3} 在其他国家成长的孩子可能对自我、与他人的关系和仪式有不同的看法。
Each culture consists of smaller subcultures that provide more specific identification and socialization for their members. Subcultures include nationalities, religions, racial groups, and geographic regions. When subcultures grow large and affluent enough, companies often design specialized marketing programs to serve them. 每种文化都由更小的亚文化组成，这些亚文化为其成员提供更具体的认同和社会化。亚文化包括国籍、宗教、种族群体和地理区域。当亚文化发展到足够大且富裕时，公司通常会设计专门的营销方案来服务于它们。
Social classes are relatively homogeneous and enduring divisions in a society, hierarchically ordered and with members who share similar values, interests, and behavior. One classic depiction of social classes in the United States defined seven ascending levels: (1) lower lowers, (2) upper lowers, (3) working class, (4) middle class, (5) upper middles, (6) lower uppers, and (7) upper uppers. ^(4){ }^{4} Social class members show distinct product and brand preferences in many areas. 社会阶层是社会中相对同质且持久的分层，按等级排序，成员共享相似的价值观、兴趣和行为。美国社会阶层的一个经典描述将其定义为七个递增的层次：（1）下层下层，（2）上层下层，（3）工人阶级，（4）中产阶级，（5）上层中产，（6）下层上层，以及（7）上层上层。社会阶层成员在许多领域表现出明显的产品和品牌偏好。
Social Factors 社会因素
In addition to cultural factors, social factors such as reference groups, family, and social roles and statuses affect our buying behavior. 除了文化因素，参考群体、家庭以及社会角色和地位等社会因素也会影响我们的购买行为。
Reference Groups A person’s reference groups are all the groups that have a direct (face-toface) or indirect influence on his or her attitudes or behavior. Groups having a direct influence are called membership groups. Some of these are primary groups with whom the person interacts fairly continuously and informally, such as family, friends, neighbors, and coworkers. People also belong to secondary groups, such as religious, professional, and trade-union groups, which tend to be more formal and require less continuous interaction. 参考群体 一个人的参考群体是指所有对其态度或行为有直接（面对面）或间接影响的群体。对其有直接影响的群体称为成员群体。其中一些是与个人进行相对持续和非正式互动的主要群体，例如家庭、朋友、邻居和同事。人们还属于次要群体，例如宗教、专业和工会群体，这些群体往往更为正式，并且对持续互动的要求较少。
Reference groups influence members by exposing an individual to new behaviors and lifestyles, influencing attitudes and self-concept, and creating pressures for conformity that may affect product and brand choices. People are also influenced by groups to which they do not belong. Aspirational groups are those a person hopes to join; dissociative groups are those whose values or behavior an individual rejects. 参考群体通过让个体接触新的行为和生活方式、影响态度和自我概念，以及施加可能影响产品和品牌选择的从众压力来影响成员。人们也会受到他们不属于的群体的影响。向往群体是指一个人希望加入的群体；排斥群体是指个体拒绝其价值观或行为的群体。
Where reference group influence is strong, marketers must determine how to reach and influence the group’s opinion leader, the person who offers informal advice or information about a specific product or category, such as which of several brands is best or how a particular product may be used. ^(5){ }^{5} Marketers try to reach these individuals by identifying their demographic and psychographic characteristics, identifying the media they read, and directing messages to them. ^(6){ }^{6} 在参考群体影响力强的情况下，营销人员必须确定如何接触和影响该群体的意见领袖，即提供关于特定产品或类别的非正式建议或信息的人，例如哪几个品牌最好或某个特定产品的使用方法。营销人员通过识别这些个体的人口统计和心理特征，确定他们阅读的媒体，并将信息传递给他们来接触这些个体。
Cliques Communication researchers propose a social-structure view of interpersonal communication. ^(7){ }^{7} They see society as consisting of cliques, small groups whose members interact frequently. Clique members are similar, and their closeness facilitates effective communication but also insulates the clique from new ideas. The challenge is to create more openness so cliques exchange information with others in society. One team of viral marketing experts cautions that although influencers or “alphas” start trends, they are often too introspective and socially alienated to spread them. They advise marketers to cultivate “bees,” hyperdevoted customers who are not satisfied just knowing about the next trend but live to spread the word. ^(8){ }^{8} More firms are in fact finding ways to identify and actively engage passionate brand evangelists and potentially lucrative customers online. ^(9){ }^{9} 小团体 传播研究者提出了一种人际沟通的社会结构视角。他们认为社会由小团体组成，这些小团体的成员频繁互动。小团体成员相似，他们的亲密关系促进了有效沟通，但也使小团体对新思想产生隔离。挑战在于创造更多的开放性，以便小团体能够与社会中的其他人交换信息。一组病毒营销专家警告说，尽管影响者或“领袖”引领潮流，但他们往往过于内省和社会孤立，无法传播这些潮流。他们建议营销人员培养“蜜蜂”，即那些不仅仅满足于了解下一个潮流，而是热衷于传播信息的忠实客户。事实上，越来越多的公司正在寻找方法来识别并积极吸引在线的热情品牌传播者和潜在的有利可图的客户。
Family The family is society’s most important consumer buying organization, and family members constitute the most influential primary reference group. ^(10){ }^{10} There are two families in the buyer’s life. The family of orientation consists of parents and siblings. From parents a person acquires an orientation toward religion, politics, and economics and a sense of personal ambition, self-worth, and love. ^(11){ }^{11} A more direct influence on everyday buying behavior is the family of procreation-namely, the person’s spouse and children. For expensive products and services such as cars, vacations, or housing, the vast majority of husbands and wives engage in joint decision making. ^(12){ }^{12} Men and women may respond differently to marketing messages, however. 家庭是社会中最重要的消费购买组织，家庭成员构成了最具影响力的主要参考群体。买方生活中有两个家庭。原生家庭由父母和兄弟姐妹组成。通过父母，一个人获得了对宗教、政治和经济的取向，以及个人抱负、自我价值感和爱的意识。对日常购买行为的更直接影响来自于生育家庭，即个人的配偶和孩子。对于汽车、度假或住房等昂贵的产品和服务，绝大多数夫妻会共同做出决策。然而，男性和女性可能对市场营销信息的反应不同。
Another shift in buying patterns is an increase in the influence wielded by children and teens. Research has shown that more than two-thirds of 13- to 21-year-olds make or influence family purchase decisions on audio/video equipment, software, and vacation destinations. ^(13){ }^{13} By the time children are about 2 years old, they can often recognize characters, logos, and specific brands. They can distinguish between advertising and programming by about ages 6 or 7 . A year or so later, they can understand the concept of persuasive intent on the part of advertisers. By 9 or 10 , they can perceive the discrepancies between message and product. ^(14){ }^{14} Teens and young adults watch what their friends say and do as much as what they see or hear in an ad or are told by a salesperson in a store. 另一个购买模式的变化是儿童和青少年影响力的增加。研究表明，超过三分之二的 13 至 21 岁年轻人参与或影响家庭在音频/视频设备、软件和度假目的地的购买决策。 ^(13){ }^{13} 当孩子大约 2 岁时，他们通常能够识别角色、标志和特定品牌。他们在大约 6 或 7 岁时能够区分广告和节目。一年左右后，他们能够理解广告商的说服意图。到 9 或 10 岁时，他们能够察觉信息与产品之间的差异。 ^(14){ }^{14} 青少年和年轻人关注朋友的言行，和他们在广告中看到或听到的内容，以及店员告诉他们的信息一样重要。
Roles and Status We each participate in many groups-family, clubs, organizations-and these are often an important source of information and help to define norms for behavior. We can define a person’s position in each group in terms of role and status. A role consists of the activities a person is expected to perform. Each role in turn connotes a status. A senior vice president of marketing may have more status than a sales manager, and a sales manager may have more status than an office clerk. People choose products that reflect and communicate their role and their actual or desired status in society. Marketers must be aware of the status-symbol potential of products and brands. 角色与地位 我们每个人都参与许多群体——家庭、俱乐部、组织——这些群体通常是信息的重要来源，并帮助定义行为规范。我们可以通过角色和地位来定义一个人在每个群体中的位置。角色由一个人预期执行的活动组成。每个角色又暗示着一种地位。市场营销的高级副总裁可能比销售经理拥有更高的地位，而销售经理可能比办公室文员拥有更高的地位。人们选择反映和传达他们的角色以及他们在社会中实际或期望地位的产品。营销人员必须意识到产品和品牌的地位象征潜力。
Personal Factors 个人因素
Personal characteristics that influence a buyer’s decision include age and stage in the life cycle, occupation and economic circumstances, personality and self-concept, and lifestyle and values. 影响买家决策的个人特征包括年龄和生命周期阶段、职业和经济状况、个性和自我概念，以及生活方式和价值观。
Age and Stage in the Life Cycle Our taste in food, clothes, furniture, and recreation is often related to our age. Consumption is also shaped by the family life cycle and the number, age, and gender of people in the household at any point in time. In addition, psychological life-cycle stages may matter. Adults experience certain passages or transformations as they go through life. ^(15){ }^{15} Their behavior during these intervals, such as when becoming a parent, is not necessarily fixed but changes with the times. Marketers should also consider critical life events or 年龄与生命周期阶段 我们对食物、衣物、家具和娱乐的品味往往与我们的年龄有关。消费也受到家庭生命周期以及家庭中人们的数量、年龄和性别在任何时刻的影响。此外，心理生命周期阶段也可能很重要。成年人在生活中经历某些阶段或转变。 ^(15){ }^{15} 在这些时期，他们的行为，例如成为父母时，并不一定是固定的，而是随着时代的变化而变化。市场营销人员还应考虑关键的生活事件或
transitions-marriage, childbirth, illness, relocation, divorce, first job, career change, retirement, death of a spouse-as giving rise to new needs. 过渡——婚姻、分娩、疾病、搬迁、离婚、第一份工作、职业变动、退休、配偶去世——引发新的需求。
Occupation and Economic Circumstances Occupation influences consumption patterns. Marketers try to identify the occupational groups that have above-average interest in their products and services and even tailor products for certain occupational groups: Software companies, for example, design different products for engineers, lawyers, and physicians. Both product and brand choice are greatly affected by economic circumstances like spendable income (level, stability, and pattern over time), savings and assets (including the percentage that is liquid), debts, borrowing power, and attitudes toward spending and saving. 职业与经济状况 职业影响消费模式。市场营销人员试图识别对其产品和服务有超出平均水平兴趣的职业群体，甚至为某些职业群体量身定制产品：例如，软件公司为工程师、律师和医生设计不同的产品。产品和品牌选择在很大程度上受到经济状况的影响，如可支配收入（水平、稳定性和时间模式）、储蓄和资产（包括流动资产的百分比）、债务、借贷能力以及对消费和储蓄的态度。
Personality and Self-Concept By personality, we mean a set of distinguishing human psychological traits that lead to relatively consistent and enduring responses to environmental stimuli including buying behavior. We often describe personality in terms of such traits as selfconfidence, dominance, autonomy, deference, sociability, defensiveness, and adaptability. ^(16){ }^{16} 个性与自我概念 我们所说的个性是指一组区分人类心理特征的集合，这些特征导致对环境刺激（包括购买行为）产生相对一致和持久的反应。我们通常用自信、主导性、自主性、顺从性、社交性、防御性和适应性等特征来描述个性。
Brands also have personalities, and consumers are likely to choose brands whose personalities match their own. We define brand personality as the specific mix of human traits that we can attribute to a particular brand. Stanford’s Jennifer Aaker researched brand personalities and identified the following traits: sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and ruggedness. ^(17){ }^{17} Cross-cultural studies have found that some but not all of these traits apply outside the United States. ^(18){ }^{18} 品牌也具有个性，消费者更可能选择与自己个性相匹配的品牌。我们将品牌个性定义为可以归因于特定品牌的人类特质的特定组合。斯坦福大学的詹妮弗·艾克研究了品牌个性，并确定了以下特质：真诚、兴奋、能力、复杂和坚韧。跨文化研究发现，这些特质中有些适用于美国以外的地区，但并非全部。
Consumers often choose and use brands with a brand personality consistent with their actual self-concept (how we view ourselves), though the match may instead be based on the consumer’s ideal self-concept (how we would like to view ourselves) or even on others’ self-concept (how we think others see us). ^(19){ }^{19} These effects may also be more pronounced for publicly consumed products than for privately consumed goods. ^(20){ }^{20} On the other hand, consumers who are high “self-monitors”-that is, sensitive to the way others see them-are more likely to choose brands whose personalities fit the consumption situation. ^(21){ }^{21} Finally, multiple aspects of self (serious professional, caring family member, active fun-lover) may often be evoked differently in different situations or around different types of people. 消费者通常选择和使用与他们实际自我概念（我们如何看待自己）一致的品牌个性，尽管这种匹配可能基于消费者的理想自我概念（我们希望如何看待自己）或甚至基于他人的自我概念（我们认为他人如何看待我们）。 ^(19){ }^{19} 这些影响在公开消费的产品中可能比在私下消费的商品中更为明显。 ^(20){ }^{20} 另一方面，高“自我监控”的消费者——即对他人如何看待自己敏感——更可能选择与消费情境相符的品牌个性。 ^(21){ }^{21} 最后，自我的多个方面（严肃的专业人士、关心家庭的成员、活泼的乐趣爱好者）在不同的情境或不同类型的人群中可能会被以不同的方式唤起。
Lifestyle and Values People from the same subculture, social class, and occupation may adopt quite different lifestyles. A lifestyle is a person’s pattern of living in the world as expressed in activities, interests, and opinions. It portrays the “whole person” interacting with his or her environment. Marketers search for relationships between their products and lifestyle groups. A computer manufacturer might find that most computer buyers are achievement-oriented and then aim the brand more clearly at the achiever lifestyle. 生活方式与价值观 同一亚文化、社会阶层和职业的人可能会采取截然不同的生活方式。生活方式是一个人在世界上生活的模式，体现在活动、兴趣和观点中。它描绘了“整体人”与其环境的互动。市场营销人员寻找他们的产品与生活方式群体之间的关系。一家计算机制造商可能会发现大多数计算机买家是以成就为导向的，然后更明确地将品牌定位于成就者的生活方式。
Lifestyles are shaped partly by whether consumers are money constrained or time constrained. Companies aiming to serve the money-constrained will create lower-cost products and services. By appealing to thrifty consumers, Walmart has become the largest company in the world. In some categories, notably food processing, companies targeting time-constrained consumers need to be aware that these very same people want to believe they’re not operating within time constraints. Marketers call those who seek both convenience and some involvement in the cooking process the “convenience involvement segment.” ^(22){ }^{22} 生活方式部分受到消费者是否受到金钱或时间限制的影响。旨在服务于金钱受限消费者的公司将会创造低成本的产品和服务。通过吸引节俭的消费者，沃尔玛已成为全球最大的公司。在某些类别中，特别是食品加工，针对时间受限消费者的公司需要意识到，这些人希望相信自己并不受时间限制。市场营销人员将那些寻求便利同时又希望参与烹饪过程的人称为“便利参与细分市场”。
Consumer decisions are also influenced by core values, the belief systems that underlie attitudes and behaviors. Core values go much deeper than behavior or attitude and at a basic level guide people’s choices and desires over the long term. Marketers who target consumers on the basis of their values believe that with appeals to people’s inner selves, it is possible to influence their outer selves-their purchase behavior. 消费者的决策也受到核心价值观的影响，这些价值观是支撑态度和行为的信念体系。核心价值观比行为或态度更深层次，从根本上指导人们的选择和长期愿望。以消费者的价值观为基础进行营销的营销人员相信，通过对人们内心的呼唤，可以影响他们的外在表现——即购买行为。
Key Psychological Processes 关键心理过程
The starting point for understanding consumer behavior is the stimulus-response model shown in Figure 5.1. Marketing and environmental stimuli enter the consumer’s consciousness, and a set of psychological processes combine with certain consumer characteristics to result in decision processes and purchase decisions. The marketer’s task is to understand what happens in the consumer’s consciousness between the arrival of the outside marketing stimuli and the ultimate purchase decisions. Four key psychological processes-motivation, perception, learning, and memory-fundamentally influence consumer responses. 理解消费者行为的起点是图 5.1 所示的刺激-反应模型。市场营销和环境刺激进入消费者的意识，一系列心理过程与某些消费者特征相结合，导致决策过程和购买决策。营销人员的任务是理解在外部市场刺激到达与最终购买决策之间，消费者意识中发生了什么。四个关键的心理过程——动机、感知、学习和记忆——根本上影响消费者的反应。
Motivation 动机
We all have many needs at any given time. Some needs are biogenic; they arise from physiological states of tension such as hunger, thirst, or discomfort. Other needs are psychogenic; they arise from psychological states of tension such as the need for recognition, esteem, or belonging. A need becomes a motive when it is aroused to a sufficient level of intensity to drive us to act. Motivation has both direction-we select one goal over another-and intensity-we pursue the goal with more or less vigor. 我们在任何给定时刻都有许多需求。一些需求是生物性的；它们源于生理紧张状态，如饥饿、口渴或不适。其他需求是心理性的；它们源于心理紧张状态，如对认可、尊重或归属感的需求。当需求被激发到足够的强度以驱使我们行动时，它就成为动机。动机具有方向性——我们选择一个目标而非另一个——以及强度——我们以不同的精力追求目标。
Well-known theories of human motivation carry different implications for consumer analysis and marketing strategy. Sigmund Freud assumed the psychological forces shaping people’s behavior are largely unconscious and that people cannot fully understand their own motivations. Someone who examines specific brands will react not only to the brands’ stated capabilities but also to less conscious cues such as shape, size, weight, and brand name. A technique called laddering lets us trace a person’s motivations from the stated instrumental ones to the more terminal ones. Then the marketer can decide at what level to develop the message and appeal. ^(23){ }^{23} 著名的人类动机理论对消费者分析和营销策略有不同的影响。西格蒙德·弗洛伊德认为，塑造人类行为的心理力量在很大程度上是无意识的，人们无法完全理解自己的动机。研究特定品牌的人不仅会对品牌所声明的能力做出反应，还会对形状、大小、重量和品牌名称等不太意识到的线索做出反应。一种称为“阶梯法”的技术可以让我们追踪一个人的动机，从表面上的工具性动机到更终极的动机。然后，营销人员可以决定在什么层面上开发信息和吸引力。
Cultural anthropologist Clotaire Rapaille works on breaking the “code” behind product behavior-the unconscious meaning people give to a particular market offering. Rapaille worked with Boeing to identify features in the 787 Dreamliner’s interior that would have universal appeal. Based in part on his research, the Dreamliner has a spacious foyer; larger, 文化人类学家克劳泰尔·拉帕伊致力于破解产品行为背后的“密码”——人们对特定市场产品所赋予的无意识意义。拉帕伊与波音公司合作，识别出 787 梦想飞机内部具有普遍吸引力的特征。部分基于他的研究，梦想飞机设有宽敞的前厅；更大，
FIGURE 5.1 Model of Consumer Behavior 图 5.1 消费者行为模型
curved luggage bins closer to the ceiling; larger, electronically dimmed windows; and a ceiling discreetly lit by hidden LEDs. ^(24){ }^{24} 靠近天花板的弯曲行李舱；更大、电子调光的窗户；以及由隐藏的 LED 灯光巧妙照明的天花板。
Abraham Maslow sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times. ^(25){ }^{25} His answer was that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy from most to least pressing from physiological needs to safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs. People will try to satisfy their most important need first and then move to the next. 亚伯拉罕·马斯洛试图解释为什么人们在特定时间受到特定需求的驱动。他的答案是，人类需求按照从最紧迫到最不紧迫的层次排列，从生理需求到安全需求、社会需求、自尊需求和自我实现需求。人们会首先尝试满足他们最重要的需求，然后再转向下一个需求。
Frederick Herzberg developed a two-factor theory that distinguishes dissatisfiers (factors that cause dissatisfaction) from satisfiers (factors that cause satisfaction). ^(26){ }^{26} The absence of dissatisfiers is not enough to motivate a purchase; satisfiers must be present. For example, a computer that does not come with a warranty is a dissatisfier. Yet the presence of a product warranty does not act as a satisfier or motivator of a purchase because it is not a source of intrinsic satisfaction. Ease of use is a satisfier. In line with this theory, sellers should do their best to avoid dissatisfiers that might unsell a product and supply the major motivators (satisfiers) of purchase. 弗雷德里克·赫茨伯格提出了一种双因素理论，该理论将导致不满的因素（不满因素）与导致满意的因素（满意因素）区分开来。仅仅没有不满因素并不足以激励购买；满意因素必须存在。例如，未附带保修的计算机就是一个不满因素。然而，产品保修的存在并不会作为满意因素或购买的激励，因为它不是内在满意的来源。易用性是一个满意因素。根据这一理论，卖方应尽力避免可能导致产品不受欢迎的不满因素，并提供购买的主要激励（满意因素）。
Perception 感知
A motivated person is ready to act-how is influenced by his or her perception of the situation. In marketing, perceptions are more important than reality because they affect consumers’ actual behavior. Perception is the process by which we select, organize, and interpret information inputs to create a meaningful picture of the world. ^(27){ }^{27} Consumers perceive many different kinds of information through sight, sound, smell, taste, and feel. 一个有动力的人准备采取行动——这种行动受到他或她对情况的感知的影响。在市场营销中，感知比现实更重要，因为它们影响消费者的实际行为。感知是我们选择、组织和解释信息输入以创建对世界的有意义的图像的过程。消费者通过视觉、听觉、嗅觉、味觉和触觉感知许多不同种类的信息。
Sensory marketing has been defined as “marketing that engages the consumers’ senses and affects their perception, judgment and behavior.” Aradhna Krishna argues that sensory marketing’s effects can be manifested in two main ways. One, sensory marketing can be used subconsciously to shape consumer perceptions of more abstract qualities of a product or service (say, different aspects of its brand personality). Two, sensory marketing can also be used to affect the perceptions of specific product or service attributes (such as color, taste, or shape). ^(28){ }^{28} 感官营销被定义为“能够吸引消费者感官并影响他们的感知、判断和行为的营销。”阿拉德娜·克里希纳认为，感官营销的效果可以通过两种主要方式表现出来。一方面，感官营销可以在潜意识中用于塑造消费者对产品或服务更抽象特质的感知（例如，品牌个性的不同方面）。另一方面，感官营销也可以用于影响对特定产品或服务属性的感知（例如颜色、味道或形状）。
People can emerge with different perceptions of the same object because of three perceptual processes: selective attention, selective distortion, and selective retention. Although we’re exposed to thousands of marketing stimuli every day, we screen most stimuli out-a process called selective attention. Therefore, marketers must work hard to attract consumers’ notice. Research shows that people are more likely to notice stimuli that relate to a current need; this is why car shoppers notice car ads but not appliance ads. Also, people are more likely to notice stimuli they anticipate, such as laptops displayed in a computer store. And people are more likely to notice stimuli whose deviations are large in relationship to the normal size of the stimuli. You are more likely to notice an ad offering $100\$ 100 off than one offering $5\$ 5 off a product’s price. 人们对同一对象的感知可能会有所不同，这源于三种感知过程：选择性注意、选择性扭曲和选择性保留。尽管我们每天接触到成千上万的营销刺激，但我们会筛选掉大多数刺激——这一过程称为选择性注意。因此，营销人员必须努力吸引消费者的注意。研究表明，人们更容易注意到与当前需求相关的刺激；这就是为什么购车者会注意到汽车广告而不是家电广告。此外，人们更容易注意到他们预期的刺激，例如在电脑商店展示的笔记本电脑。而且，人们更容易注意到与刺激的正常大小相比偏差较大的刺激。你更可能注意到一则提供 $100\$ 100 折扣的广告，而不是一则提供 $5\$ 5 折扣的产品价格广告。
Even noticed stimuli don’t always come across in the way the senders intend. Selective distortion is the tendency to interpret information in a way that fits our preconceptions. Consumers will often distort information to be consistent with prior brand and product beliefs and expectations. Selective distortion can work to the advantage of marketers with strong brands when consumers distort neutral or ambiguous brand information to make it more positive. In other words, coffee may seem to taste better and the wait in a bank line may seem shorter, depending on the brand. Moreover, because of selective retention, we’re likely to remember good points about a product we like and forget good points about competing products. Selective retention again works to the advantage of strong brands. It also explains why marketers need to use repetition-to make sure their message is not overlooked. 即使是注意到的刺激也不总是以发送者所意图的方式传达。选择性扭曲是指以符合我们先入之见的方式解读信息的倾向。消费者往往会扭曲信息，以与先前的品牌和产品信念及期望保持一致。选择性扭曲在消费者将中性或模糊的品牌信息扭曲为更积极的情况下，可以为强势品牌的营销者带来优势。换句话说，咖啡的味道可能看起来更好，银行排队的等待时间可能看起来更短，这取决于品牌。此外，由于选择性保留，我们更可能记住我们喜欢的产品的优点，而忘记竞争产品的优点。选择性保留再次为强势品牌带来优势。这也解释了为什么营销者需要使用重复，以确保他们的信息不会被忽视。
Learning 学习
When we act, we learn. Learning induces changes in our behavior arising from experience. Most human behavior is learned, though much learning is incidental. Learning theorists believe learning is produced through the interplay of drives, stimuli, cues, responses, and reinforcement. A drive is a strong internal stimulus impelling action. Cues are minor stimuli that determine when, where, and how a person responds. 当我们行动时，我们学习。学习引发了基于经验的行为变化。大多数人类行为是通过学习获得的，尽管许多学习是偶然的。学习理论家认为，学习是通过驱动、刺激、线索、反应和强化的相互作用产生的。驱动是一种强烈的内部刺激，促使行动。线索是决定一个人何时、何地以及如何反应的次要刺激。
Suppose you buy a laptop computer. If your experience is rewarding, your response to the laptop and the brand will be positively reinforced. When you want to buy a printer, you may assume that because the company makes good laptops, it also makes good printers, generalizing your response to similar stimuli. A countertendency to generalization is discrimination, in which we learn to recognize differences in sets of similar stimuli and adjust our responses accordingly. Learning theory teaches marketers that they can build demand for a product by associating it with strong drives, using motivating cues, and providing positive reinforcement. 假设你购买了一台笔记本电脑。如果你的体验令人满意，你对这台笔记本电脑和品牌的反应将得到积极强化。当你想购买打印机时，你可能会假设因为该公司生产优质的笔记本电脑，它也会生产优质的打印机，从而将你的反应推广到类似的刺激。与概括相对的倾向是区分，在这种情况下，我们学会识别一组相似刺激之间的差异，并相应地调整我们的反应。学习理论教导市场营销人员，他们可以通过将产品与强烈的驱动因素联系起来，使用激励线索，并提供积极的强化来建立对产品的需求。
Emotions 情感
Consumer response is not all cognitive and rational; much may be emotional and invoke different kinds of feelings. A brand or product may make a consumer feel proud, excited, or confident. An ad may create feelings of amusement, disgust, or wonder. Marketers are increasingly recognizing the power of emotional appeals-especially if rooted in some functional or rational aspects of the brand. An emotion-filled brand story has been shown to trigger’s people desire to pass along things they hear about brands, through either word of mouth or online sharing. Firms are therefore giving their communications a stronger human appeal to engage consumers in their brand stories. ^(29){ }^{29} 消费者的反应并非全是认知和理性的；其中许多可能是情感上的，并引发不同种类的感受。一个品牌或产品可能让消费者感到自豪、兴奋或自信。广告可能会产生愉悦、厌恶或惊奇的情感。市场营销人员越来越认识到情感诉求的力量——尤其是当这种诉求根植于品牌的一些功能性或理性方面时。充满情感的品牌故事已被证明能够激发人们传递他们听到的关于品牌的信息，无论是通过口碑还是在线分享。因此，企业正在赋予其传播更强的人性化吸引力，以吸引消费者参与他们的品牌故事。
Memory 记忆
Cognitive psychologists distinguish between short-term memory (STM) - a temporary and limited repository of information-and long-term memory (LTM)-a more permanent, essentially unlimited repository. Most widely accepted views of long-term memory structure assume we form some kind of associative model. For example, the associative network memory model views LTM as a set of nodes and links. Nodes are stored information connected by links that vary in strength. Any type of information can be stored in the memory network, including verbal, visual, abstract, and contextual. A spreading activation process from node to node determines how much we retrieve and what information we can actually recall in any given situation. When a node becomes activated because we’re encoding external information (when we read or hear a word or phrase) or retrieving internal information from LTM (when we think about some concept), other nodes are also activated if they’re associated strongly enough with that node. 认知心理学家区分短期记忆（STM）——一个临时且有限的信息存储库——和长期记忆（LTM）——一个更持久、基本上无限的存储库。对长期记忆结构的广泛接受的观点假设我们形成某种关联模型。例如，关联网络记忆模型将 LTM 视为一组节点和链接。节点是通过强度不同的链接连接的存储信息。任何类型的信息都可以存储在记忆网络中，包括语言、视觉、抽象和上下文信息。从一个节点到另一个节点的扩散激活过程决定了我们在任何给定情况下能够检索多少信息以及我们实际上能够回忆起什么。当一个节点因我们编码外部信息（当我们阅读或听到一个词或短语时）或从 LTM 中检索内部信息（当我们思考某个概念时）而被激活时，如果其他节点与该节点的关联足够强，它们也会被激活。
Brand associations consist of all brand-related thoughts, feelings, perceptions, images, experiences, beliefs, attitudes, and so on, that become linked to the brand node. Companies sometimes create mental maps of consumers that depict their knowledge of a particular brand in terms of the key associations likely to be triggered in a marketing setting and their relative strength, favorability, and uniqueness to consumers. Figure 5.2 displays a very simple mental map highlighting some brand beliefs for a hypothetical consumer for State Farm insurance. 品牌联想包括与品牌节点相关的所有品牌相关的想法、感受、认知、形象、经历、信念、态度等。公司有时会创建消费者的心理地图，描绘他们对特定品牌的知识，包括在营销环境中可能被触发的关键联想及其相对强度、偏好和独特性。图 5.2 展示了一个非常简单的心理地图，突出了一个假设消费者对 State Farm 保险的一些品牌信念。
Memory encoding describes how and where information gets into memory. The strength of the resulting association depends on how much we process the information at encoding (how much we think about it, for instance) and in what way. The more attention we pay to the meaning of information during encoding, the stronger the resulting associations in memory will be. ^(30){ }^{30} Memory retrieval is the way information gets out of memory. The presence of other product 记忆编码描述了信息如何以及在何处进入记忆。由此产生的联结强度取决于我们在编码时对信息的处理程度（例如，我们思考它的多少）以及处理方式。在编码过程中，我们对信息意义的关注越多，记忆中产生的联结就会越强。 ^(30){ }^{30} 记忆提取是信息从记忆中取出的方式。其他产品的存在
FIGURE 5.2 Hypothetical Mental Map 图 5.2 假设的心理地图
information in memory can produce interference effects and cause us to either overlook or confuse new data. One marketing challenge in a category crowded with competitors is that consumers may mix up brands. Also, once information becomes stored in memory, its strength of association decays very slowly. 记忆中的信息可以产生干扰效应，使我们忽视或混淆新数据。在竞争对手众多的类别中，一个营销挑战是消费者可能会混淆品牌。此外，一旦信息存储在记忆中，其关联强度衰减非常缓慢。
Information may be available in memory but not be accessible for recall without the proper retrieval cues or reminders. The effectiveness of retrieval cues is one reason marketing inside a store is so critical-product packaging and displays remind us of information already conveyed outside the store and become prime determinants of consumer decision making. Accessibility of a brand in memory is important for another reason: People talk about a brand when it is top-of-mind. ^(31){ }^{31} 信息可能在记忆中存在，但如果没有适当的检索线索或提示，就无法被提取。检索线索的有效性是商店内部营销如此关键的一个原因——产品包装和展示提醒我们已经在商店外传达的信息，并成为消费者决策的主要因素。品牌在记忆中的可及性还有另一个重要原因：当一个品牌在脑海中占据首位时，人们会谈论它。
The Consumer Buying Decision Process 消费者购买决策过程
Smart companies try to fully understand customers’ buying decision process-all the experiences in learning, choosing, using, and even disposing of a product. Figure 5.3 shows the five stages of the process: problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and postpurchase behavior. Note that consumers don’t always pass through all five stagesthey may skip or reverse some. The model provides a good frame of reference because it captures the full range of considerations that arise when a consumer faces a highly involving new purchase. 聪明的公司努力全面理解客户的购买决策过程——包括学习、选择、使用甚至处理产品的所有体验。图 5.3 展示了该过程的五个阶段：问题识别、信息搜索、替代方案评估、购买决策和购买后行为。请注意，消费者并不总是经历所有五个阶段——他们可能会跳过或逆转某些阶段。该模型提供了一个良好的参考框架，因为它捕捉了消费者在面临高度参与的新购买时所产生的所有考虑因素。
Problem Recognition 问题识别
The buying process starts when the buyer recognizes a problem or need triggered by internal or external stimuli. With an internal stimulus, one of the person’s normal needs-hunger or thirstrises to a threshold level and becomes a drive. A need can also be aroused by an external stimulus, such as seeing an ad. Marketers want to identify the circumstances that trigger a particular 购买过程始于买方识别出由内部或外部刺激引发的问题或需求。当内部刺激出现时，个人的正常需求之一——饥饿或口渴——上升到一个阈值水平并成为驱动力。需求也可以通过外部刺激引发，例如看到广告。市场营销人员希望识别出触发特定需求的情况。
FIGURE 5.3 Five-Stage Model of the Consumer Buying Process 图 5.3 消费者购买过程的五阶段模型
need by gathering information from a number of consumers. They can then develop marketing strategies that spark consumer interest. 通过收集多个消费者的信息，他们可以制定激发消费者兴趣的营销策略。
Information Search 信息搜索
We can distinguish between two levels of engagement in the information search. The milder search state is called heightened attention, in which a person becomes more receptive to information about a product. At the next level, the person may enter an active information search: looking for reading material, asking friends, going online, and visiting stores to learn about the product. 我们可以区分信息搜索中的两个参与层次。较轻的搜索状态称为高度关注，在这种状态下，个人对产品信息变得更加敏感。在下一个层次，个人可能进入主动信息搜索：寻找阅读材料、询问朋友、上网以及访问商店以了解产品。
Marketers must understand what type of information consumers seek-or are at least receptive to-at different times and places. ^(32){ }^{32} Information sources for consumers can be categorized as personal (family, friends) commercial (ads, Web sites, salespeople, packaging, displays), public (mass media, social media), and experiential (handling, using the product). Although consumers receive the greatest amount of information about a product from commercial (marketer-dominated) sources, the most effective information often comes from personal or experiential sources or public sources that are independent authorities. ^(33){ }^{33} 营销人员必须了解消费者在不同时间和地点寻求或至少愿意接受何种类型的信息。消费者的信息来源可以分为个人（家庭、朋友）、商业（广告、网站、销售人员、包装、展示）、公共（大众媒体、社交媒体）和体验（处理、使用产品）。尽管消费者从商业（以营销者为主导）来源获得关于产品的最大信息量，但最有效的信息通常来自个人或体验来源，或来自独立权威的公共来源。
By gathering information, the consumer learns about competing brands and their features. The first box in Figure 5.4 shows the total set of brands available. The individual consumer will come to know a subset of these, the awareness set. Only some, the consideration set, will meet initial buying criteria. As the consumer gathers more information, just the choice set will remain strong contenders. The consumer makes a final choice from these. ^(34){ }^{34} Figure 5.4 shows that a 通过收集信息，消费者了解竞争品牌及其特征。图 5.4 中的第一个框显示了可用品牌的总集合。个别消费者将了解这些品牌的一个子集，即认知集合。只有一些品牌，即考虑集合，符合初步购买标准。随着消费者收集更多信息，只有选择集合将成为强有力的竞争者。消费者从中做出最终选择。
FIGURE 5.4 Successive Sets Involved in Consumer Decision Making 图 5.4 消费者决策中涉及的连续集合
company must get its brand into the prospect’s awareness, consideration, and choice sets and identify the other brands in the choice set to plan appropriate competitive appeals. In addition, it should identify the consumer’s information sources and evaluate their relative importance so it can prepare effective communications. 公司必须将其品牌纳入潜在客户的认知、考虑和选择集合中，并识别选择集合中的其他品牌，以规划适当的竞争吸引力。此外，还应识别消费者的信息来源并评估其相对重要性，以便准备有效的沟通。
Be aware that search behavior can vary online, in part because of the manner in which product information is presented. For example, product alternatives may be presented in order of their predicted attractiveness for the consumer. Consumers may then choose not to search as extensively as they would otherwise. ^(35){ }^{35} 请注意，在线搜索行为可能会有所不同，部分原因在于产品信息的呈现方式。例如，产品替代品可能会根据其对消费者的预测吸引力进行排序。消费者可能因此选择不进行如往常一样广泛的搜索。
Evaluation of Alternatives 替代方案评估
How does the consumer process competitive brand information and make a final value judgment? There are several processes, and the most current models see the consumer forming judgments largely on a conscious and rational basis. 消费者如何处理竞争品牌信息并做出最终的价值判断？这个过程有几个步骤，目前的模型认为消费者主要基于意识和理性形成判断。
Some basic concepts will help us understand consumer evaluation processes. First, the consumer is trying to satisfy a need. Second, the consumer is looking for certain benefits. Third, the consumer sees each product as a bundle of attributes with varying abilities to deliver the benefits. The attributes of interest vary by product-for example, the attributes buyers seek in a hotel might be location, atmosphere, and price. Consumers will pay the most attention to attributes that deliver the sought-after benefits. We can often segment the market according to attributes and benefits important to different consumer groups. 一些基本概念将帮助我们理解消费者评估过程。首先，消费者试图满足某种需求。其次，消费者在寻找某些利益。第三，消费者将每个产品视为一组属性，这些属性在提供利益方面的能力各不相同。感兴趣的属性因产品而异——例如，买家在选择酒店时可能关注的位置、氛围和价格。消费者会最关注能够提供所需利益的属性。我们通常可以根据不同消费者群体所重视的属性和利益对市场进行细分。
Through experience and learning, people acquire beliefs and attitudes, which in turn influence buying behavior. A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something. Just as important are attitudes, a person’s enduring favorable or unfavorable evaluations, emotional feelings, and action tendencies toward some object or idea. People have attitudes toward almost everything: religion, clothes, music, or food. Because attitudes economize on energy and thought, they can be very difficult to change, which is why firms should try to fit their products into existing attitudes rather than try to change attitudes. 通过经验和学习，人们获得信念和态度，这反过来又影响购买行为。信念是一个人对某事物持有的描述性想法。同样重要的是态度，即一个人对某个对象或理念的持久的积极或消极评估、情感感受和行动倾向。人们对几乎所有事物都有态度：宗教、衣服、音乐或食物。由于态度节省了能量和思考，因此它们可能非常难以改变，这就是为什么公司应该努力将其产品融入现有态度，而不是试图改变态度的原因。
The consumer arrives at attitudes toward various brands through an attribute-evaluation procedure, developing a set of beliefs about where each brand stands on each attribute. ^(36){ }^{36} The 消费者通过属性评估程序形成对各种品牌的态度，发展出一套关于每个品牌在每个属性上的立场的信念。
expectancy-value model of attitude formation posits that consumers evaluate products and services by combining their brand beliefs-the positives and negatives-according to importance. 期望-价值态度形成模型认为，消费者通过根据重要性结合品牌信念（正面和负面）来评估产品和服务。
Suppose Linda has narrowed her choice set to four laptops (A, B, C, and D) and is interested in four attributes: memory capacity, graphics capability, size and weight, and price. If one computer dominated the others on all the criteria, we could predict that Linda would choose it. But, as is often the case, her choice set consists of brands that vary in their appeal. One brand offers the best memory capacity, another has the best graphics capability, and so on. 假设琳达将她的选择范围缩小到四款笔记本电脑（A、B、C 和 D），并对四个属性感兴趣：内存容量、图形性能、大小和重量，以及价格。如果有一款电脑在所有标准上都优于其他电脑，我们可以预测琳达会选择它。但正如常常发生的情况一样，她的选择范围包含了在吸引力上各不相同的品牌。一款品牌提供最佳的内存容量，另一款则具有最佳的图形性能，等等。
If we knew the weights Linda attaches to the four attributes, we could more reliably predict her choice. Suppose she assigned 40 percent of the importance to the laptop’s memory capacity, 30 percent to graphics capability, 20 percent to size and weight, and 10 percent to price. To find Linda’s perceived value for each laptop according to the expectancy-value model, we multiply her weights by her beliefs about each computer’s attributes. So for brand A, if she assigns a score of 8 for memory capacity, 9 for graphics capability, 6 for size, and 9 for price, the overall score for A would be: 如果我们知道琳达对这四个属性的权重，我们就可以更可靠地预测她的选择。假设她将 40%的重要性分配给笔记本电脑的内存容量，30%给图形能力，20%给大小和重量，10%给价格。为了根据期望价值模型找到琳达对每台笔记本电脑的感知价值，我们将她的权重与她对每台电脑属性的信念相乘。因此，对于品牌 A，如果她对内存容量评分为 8，对图形能力评分为 9，对大小评分为 6，对价格评分为 9，那么 A 的总体评分将是：
Calculating the scores for all of the other laptops being considered shows which has the highest perceived value. When a marketer knows how buyers form their preferences, it can take steps to influence consumer decisions, such as to redesign the laptop (real repositioning), alter beliefs about the brand (psychological repositioning), alter beliefs about competitors (competitive depositioning), alter the importance weights (persuading buyers to attach more importance to attributes in which the brand excels), call attention to neglected attributes (such as styling), or shift the buyer’s ideals (persuading buyers to change their ideal levels for one or more attributes. ^(37){ }^{37} 计算所有其他被考虑的笔记本电脑的分数可以显示出哪个具有最高的感知价值。当营销人员了解买家如何形成他们的偏好时，可以采取措施影响消费者的决策，例如重新设计笔记本电脑（真正的重新定位）、改变对品牌的信念（心理重新定位）、改变对竞争对手的信念（竞争去定位）、改变重要性权重（说服买家更加重视品牌在某些属性上的优势）、引起对被忽视属性的关注（例如造型），或改变买家的理想（说服买家改变一个或多个属性的理想水平）。
Purchase Decision 购买决策
In the evaluation stage, the consumer forms preferences among the brands in the choice set and may also form an intention to buy the most preferred brand. Even if consumers form brand evaluations, two general factors can intervene between the purchase intention and the purchase decision. The first factor is the attitudes of others. The influence of another person’s attitude depends on (1) the intensity of the other person’s negative attitude toward our preferred alternative and (2) our motivation to comply with the other person’s wishes. ^(38){ }^{38} The more intense the other person’s negativism and the closer he or she is to us, the more we will adjust our purchase intention. The converse is also true. 在评估阶段，消费者在选择集中形成对品牌的偏好，并可能形成购买最偏好的品牌的意图。即使消费者形成了品牌评估，购买意图与购买决策之间仍可能受到两个一般因素的干扰。第一个因素是他人的态度。另一个人态度的影响取决于（1）他人对我们偏好选择的负面态度的强度，以及（2）我们遵从他人愿望的动机。其他人的负面情绪越强烈，与我们越亲近，我们的购买意图就会调整得越多。反之亦然。
The second factor is unanticipated situational factors that may erupt to change the purchase intention. Linda might lose her job, some other purchase might become more urgent, or a store salesperson may turn her off. Preferences and even purchase intentions are not completely reliable predictors of purchase behavior. 第二个因素是可能突然出现的情境因素，这些因素可能会改变购买意图。琳达可能会失去工作，其他购买可能变得更加紧迫，或者商店的销售人员可能会让她失去兴趣。偏好甚至购买意图并不是完全可靠的购买行为预测指标。
A consumer’s decision to modify, postpone, or avoid a purchase decision is heavily influenced by one or more types of perceived risk. ^(39){ }^{39} For example, functional risk entails the product not performing to expectations; social risk entails embarrassment in front of others. The degree of perceived risk varies with the amount of money at stake, the amount of attribute uncertainty, and the level of consumer self-confidence. Marketers must understand the factors that provoke a feeling of risk in consumers and provide information and support to reduce it. 消费者决定修改、推迟或避免购买决策受到一种或多种感知风险的重大影响。例如，功能风险涉及产品未能达到预期的表现；社会风险则涉及在他人面前的尴尬。感知风险的程度因所涉及的金钱数额、属性不确定性以及消费者自信心的水平而异。营销人员必须了解引发消费者风险感的因素，并提供信息和支持以减少这种风险。
Postpurchase Behavior 购买后行为
After the purchase, the consumer might experience dissonance from noticing certain disquieting features or hearing favorable things about other brands and will be alert to information that supports his or her decision. Marketers must therefore monitor postpurchase satisfaction, 在购买后，消费者可能会因注意到某些令人不安的特征或听到关于其他品牌的积极评价而感到不安，并会对支持其决策的信息保持警觉。因此，营销人员必须监测购买后的满意度。
postpurchase actions, and postpurchase product uses and disposal. A satisfied consumer is more likely to purchase the product again and will also tend to say good things about the brand to others. Dissatisfied consumers may abandon or return the product, take public action (by complaining to the company or complaining to others online), or take private actions (not buying the product or warning friends). ^(40){ }^{40} 购买后的行为，以及购买后的产品使用和处理。满意的消费者更有可能再次购买该产品，并且也倾向于对他人说该品牌的好话。对产品不满意的消费者可能会放弃或退回产品，采取公开行动（向公司投诉或在网上向他人投诉），或采取私下行动（不再购买该产品或警告朋友）。
Postpurchase communications to buyers have been shown to result in fewer product returns and order cancellations. Marketers should also monitor how buyers use and dispose of the product. A key driver of sales frequency is product consumption rate-the more quickly buyers consume a product, the sooner they may repurchase it. One strategy to speed replacement is to tie the act of replacing the product to a certain holiday, event, or time of year. Another strategy is to provide consumers with better information about (1) the time they first used the product or need to replace it or (2) its current level of performance. If consumers throw the product away, the marketer needs to know how they dispose of it, especially if-like electronic equipment-it can damage the environment. 购买后的沟通已被证明可以减少产品退货和订单取消。营销人员还应监测买家如何使用和处理产品。销售频率的一个关键驱动因素是产品消费率——买家消费产品的速度越快，他们可能重新购买的时间就越早。一种加快更换的策略是将更换产品的行为与特定的节日、事件或季节联系起来。另一种策略是向消费者提供更好的信息，关于（1）他们首次使用产品的时间或需要更换的时间，或（2）产品当前的性能水平。如果消费者将产品丢弃，营销人员需要了解他们如何处理这些产品，特别是如果这些产品像电子设备一样可能对环境造成损害。
Behavioral Decision Theory and Behavioral Economics 行为决策理论与行为经济学
Consumers don’t always process information or make decisions in a deliberate, rational manner. One of the most active academic research areas in marketing over the past three decades has been behavioral decision theory (BDT). Behavioral decision theorists have identified many situations in which consumers make seemingly irrational choices. What such studies reinforce is that consumer behavior is very constructive and the context of decisions really matters. The work of researchers has also challenged predictions from economic theory and assumptions about rationality, leading to the emergence of the field of behavioral economics. ^(41){ }^{41} Here, we review some issues in two key areas: decision heuristics and framing. 消费者并不总是以深思熟虑、理性的方式处理信息或做出决策。在过去三十年中，市场营销领域最活跃的学术研究领域之一是行为决策理论（BDT）。行为决策理论家已经识别出许多消费者做出看似不理性选择的情况。这些研究强化了消费者行为是非常具有建设性的，决策的背景确实很重要。研究人员的工作也挑战了经济理论的预测和关于理性的假设，导致了行为经济学领域的出现。在这里，我们回顾了两个关键领域的一些问题：决策启发式和框架效应。
Decision Heuristics Consumers often take “mental shortcuts” called heuristics or rules of thumb in the decision process. In everyday decision making, when they forecast the likelihood of future outcomes or events, consumers may use one of these heuristics. 决策启发式 消费者在决策过程中常常采取被称为启发式或经验法则的“心理捷径”。在日常决策中，当他们预测未来结果或事件的可能性时，消费者可能会使用其中一种启发式。
The availability heuristic-Consumers base their predictions on the quickness and ease with which a particular example of an outcome comes to mind. If an example comes to mind too easily, consumers might overestimate the likelihood of its happening. For example, a recent product failure may lead consumers to inflate the likelihood of a future product failure and make them more inclined to purchase a product warranty. 可得性启发式——消费者根据某一特定结果的例子浮现在脑海中的速度和容易程度来进行预测。如果一个例子过于容易地浮现在脑海中，消费者可能会高估其发生的可能性。例如，最近的产品失败可能会导致消费者夸大未来产品失败的可能性，从而使他们更倾向于购买产品保修。
The representativeness heuristic-Consumers base their predictions on how representative or similar the outcome is to other examples. One reason package appearances may be so similar for different brands in the same product category is that marketers want their products to be seen as representative of the category as a whole. 代表性启发式——消费者根据结果与其他例子的代表性或相似性来进行预测。不同品牌在同一产品类别中包装外观如此相似的一个原因是，市场营销人员希望他们的产品被视为该类别整体的代表。
The anchoring and adjustment heuristic-Consumers arrive at an initial judgment and then adjust it-sometimes only reluctantly-based on additional information. For services marketers, a strong first impression is critical to establishing a favorable anchor so subsequent experiences will be interpreted in a more favorable light. 锚定与调整启发式——消费者首先形成初步判断，然后根据额外信息进行调整——有时只是勉强调整。对于服务营销人员来说，强烈的第一印象对于建立有利的锚定至关重要，以便后续体验能够以更有利的视角进行解读。
Framing Decision framing is the manner in which choices are presented to and seen by a decision maker. A $200\$ 200 cell phone may not seem that expensive in the context of a set of $400\$ 400 phones but may seem very expensive if other phones cost $50\$ 50. Researchers have found that consumers use a form of framing called mental accounting when they handle their money, as a way of coding, categorizing, and evaluating financial outcomes of choices. ^(42){ }^{42} The principles of mental accounting are derived in part from prospect theory, which maintains that consumers 决策框架 决策框架是指选择呈现给决策者的方式以及决策者对选择的看法。在一组 $400\$ 400 手机的背景下，一部 $200\$ 200 手机可能看起来并不那么昂贵，但如果其他手机的价格是 $50\$ 50 ，它可能看起来非常昂贵。研究人员发现，消费者在处理金钱时使用一种称为心理账户的框架形式，以对选择的财务结果进行编码、分类和评估。 ^(42){ }^{42} 心理账户的原则部分源于前景理论，该理论认为消费者
frame their decision alternatives in terms of gains and losses according to a value function. Consumers are generally loss-averse. They tend to overweight very low probabilities and underweight very high probabilities. 根据价值函数，框定他们的决策备选方案为收益和损失。消费者通常对损失具有厌恶倾向。他们倾向于高估非常低的概率，而低估非常高的概率。
What is Organizational Buying? 什么是组织购买？
Many marketers sell not to consumers but to organizational buyers. Frederick E. Webster Jr. and Yoram Wind define organizational buying as the decision-making process by which formal organizations establish the need for purchased products and services and identify, evaluate, and choose among alternative brands and suppliers. ^(43){ }^{43} The business market differs from the consumer market in a number of ways. 许多营销人员的销售对象不是消费者，而是组织买家。弗雷德里克·E·韦伯斯特二世和约拉姆·温德将组织购买定义为正式组织确定购买产品和服务的需求，并在替代品牌和供应商之间识别、评估和选择的决策过程。商业市场与消费者市场在多个方面存在差异。
The Business Market versus the Consumer Market 商业市场与消费者市场
The business market consists of all the organizations that acquire goods and services used in the production of other products or services that are sold, rented, or supplied to others. Some of the major industries making up the business market are aerospace; agriculture, forestry, and fisheries; chemical; computer; construction; defense; energy; mining; manufacturing; construction; transportation; communication; public utilities; banking, finance, and insurance; distribution; and services. Table 5.1 shows 10 unique characteristics of business markets. 商业市场由所有获取用于生产其他产品或服务的商品和服务的组织组成，这些产品或服务被销售、租赁或提供给他人。构成商业市场的一些主要行业包括航空航天；农业、林业和渔业；化学；计算机；建筑；国防；能源；采矿；制造；运输；通信；公共事业；银行、金融和保险；分销；以及服务。表 5.1 显示了商业市场的 10 个独特特征。
TABLE 5.1 Characteristics of Business Markets 表 5.1 商业市场的特征
Characteristic 特征
Description 描述
Fewer, larger buyers 更少的、更大的买家
Business marketers normally deal with far fewer, much larger buyers than consumer marketers. 商业营销人员通常与比消费者营销人员少得多、规模更大的买家打交道。
Close supplier-customer relationships 紧密的供应商与客户关系
Because of the smaller customer base and the importance and power of larger customers, suppliers are frequently expected to customize offerings to individual customer needs. 由于客户基础较小以及大客户的重要性和影响力，供应商通常被期望根据个别客户的需求定制产品。
Professional purchasing 专业采购
Trained purchasing agents follow formal purchasing policies, constraints, and requirements. Many of the buying instruments, such as proposals and purchase contracts, are not typically part of consumer buying. 受过培训的采购人员遵循正式的采购政策、限制和要求。许多采购工具，如提案和采购合同，通常不属于消费者购买的范畴。
Multiple buying influences 多重购买影响因素
More people influence business buying decisions. Business marketers must send well-trained sales representatives and teams to deal with well-trained buyers and with buying committees. 越来越多的人影响商业购买决策。商业营销人员必须派遣训练有素的销售代表和团队，以应对训练有素的买家和采购委员会。
Multiple sales calls 多次销售电话
Because more people are involved, it takes multiple sales calls to win most business orders during a sales cycle often measured in years. 由于涉及更多人，在销售周期通常以年为单位的情况下，赢得大多数商业订单需要多次销售电话。
Derived demand 衍生需求
Demand for business goods is ultimately derived from the demand for consumer goods, so business marketers must monitor the buying patterns of end users. 商业商品的需求最终源于消费品的需求，因此商业营销人员必须监测最终用户的购买模式。
Inelastic demand 非弹性需求
Total demand for many business offerings is inelastic-that is, not much affected by price changes, especially in the short run, because producers cannot make quick production changes. 许多商业产品的总需求是缺乏弹性的——也就是说，不太受价格变化的影响，特别是在短期内，因为生产者无法迅速调整生产。
Fluctuating demand 波动需求
Demand for business offerings tends to be more volatile than demand for consumer offerings. An increase in consumer demand can lead to a much larger increase in demand for plant and equipment necessary to produce the additional output, 商业产品的需求往往比消费品的需求更为波动。消费需求的增加可能导致对生产额外产出的植物和设备需求的大幅增加。
Geographically concentrated buyers 地理集中买家
More than half of U.S. business buyers are concentrated in seven states: New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, New Jersey, and Michigan. The geographical concentration of producers helps to reduce selling costs. 美国商业买家的超过一半集中在七个州：纽约、加利福尼亚、宾夕法尼亚、伊利诺伊、俄亥俄、新泽西和密歇根。生产者的地理集中有助于降低销售成本。
Direct purchasing 直接采购
Business buyers often buy directly from manufacturers rather than through intermediaries, especially items that are technically complex or expensive. 商业买家通常直接从制造商那里购买，而不是通过中介，尤其是那些技术复杂或价格昂贵的商品。
TABLE 5.1 Characteristics of Business Markets
Characteristic Description
Fewer, larger buyers Business marketers normally deal with far fewer, much larger buyers than consumer marketers.
Close supplier-customer relationships Because of the smaller customer base and the importance and power of larger customers, suppliers are frequently expected to customize offerings to individual customer needs.
Professional purchasing Trained purchasing agents follow formal purchasing policies, constraints, and requirements. Many of the buying instruments, such as proposals and purchase contracts, are not typically part of consumer buying.
Multiple buying influences More people influence business buying decisions. Business marketers must send well-trained sales representatives and teams to deal with well-trained buyers and with buying committees.
Multiple sales calls Because more people are involved, it takes multiple sales calls to win most business orders during a sales cycle often measured in years.
Derived demand Demand for business goods is ultimately derived from the demand for consumer goods, so business marketers must monitor the buying patterns of end users.
Inelastic demand Total demand for many business offerings is inelastic-that is, not much affected by price changes, especially in the short run, because producers cannot make quick production changes.
Fluctuating demand Demand for business offerings tends to be more volatile than demand for consumer offerings. An increase in consumer demand can lead to a much larger increase in demand for plant and equipment necessary to produce the additional output,
Geographically concentrated buyers More than half of U.S. business buyers are concentrated in seven states: New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, New Jersey, and Michigan. The geographical concentration of producers helps to reduce selling costs.
Direct purchasing Business buyers often buy directly from manufacturers rather than through intermediaries, especially items that are technically complex or expensive.| TABLE 5.1 Characteristics of Business Markets | |
| :---: | :---: |
| Characteristic | Description |
| Fewer, larger buyers | Business marketers normally deal with far fewer, much larger buyers than consumer marketers. |
| Close supplier-customer relationships | Because of the smaller customer base and the importance and power of larger customers, suppliers are frequently expected to customize offerings to individual customer needs. |
| Professional purchasing | Trained purchasing agents follow formal purchasing policies, constraints, and requirements. Many of the buying instruments, such as proposals and purchase contracts, are not typically part of consumer buying. |
| Multiple buying influences | More people influence business buying decisions. Business marketers must send well-trained sales representatives and teams to deal with well-trained buyers and with buying committees. |
| Multiple sales calls | Because more people are involved, it takes multiple sales calls to win most business orders during a sales cycle often measured in years. |
| Derived demand | Demand for business goods is ultimately derived from the demand for consumer goods, so business marketers must monitor the buying patterns of end users. |
| Inelastic demand | Total demand for many business offerings is inelastic-that is, not much affected by price changes, especially in the short run, because producers cannot make quick production changes. |
| Fluctuating demand | Demand for business offerings tends to be more volatile than demand for consumer offerings. An increase in consumer demand can lead to a much larger increase in demand for plant and equipment necessary to produce the additional output, |
| Geographically concentrated buyers | More than half of U.S. business buyers are concentrated in seven states: New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, New Jersey, and Michigan. The geographical concentration of producers helps to reduce selling costs. |
| Direct purchasing | Business buyers often buy directly from manufacturers rather than through intermediaries, especially items that are technically complex or expensive. |
As an example of the business market, consider the process of producing and selling a simple pair of shoes. ^(44){ }^{44} Hide dealers must sell hides to tanners, who sell leather to shoe manufacturers, who in turn sell shoes to wholesalers. Wholesalers sell shoes to retailers, who finally sell them to consumers. Each party in the supply chain also buys other goods and services to support its operations. 作为商业市场的一个例子，考虑生产和销售一双简单鞋子的过程。皮革商必须将皮革出售给制革商，制革商再将皮革出售给鞋制造商，鞋制造商则将鞋子出售给批发商。批发商将鞋子出售给零售商，零售商最终将其出售给消费者。供应链中的每一方还会购买其他商品和服务以支持其运营。
Institutional and Government Markets 机构和政府市场
The overall business market includes institutional and government organizations in addition to profit-seeking companies. The institutional market consists of schools, hospitals, and other institutions that provide goods and services to people in their care. Many of these organizations have low budgets and captive clienteles. For example, hospitals must decide what quality of food to buy for patients. The objective is not profit because the food is part of the total service package; nor is cost minimization the sole objective because poor food will draw complaints and hurt the hospital’s reputation. The hospital must search for vendors whose quality meets or exceeds a certain minimum standard and whose prices are low. 整体商业市场包括机构和政府组织，以及追求利润的公司。机构市场由学校、医院和其他向其照顾的人提供商品和服务的机构组成。许多这些组织预算有限且客户群体固定。例如，医院必须决定为患者购买什么质量的食物。目标不是利润，因为食物是整体服务包的一部分；成本最小化也不是唯一目标，因为劣质食物会引发投诉并损害医院的声誉。医院必须寻找质量达到或超过某一最低标准且价格低廉的供应商。
In most countries, government organizations are major buyers of goods and services. The U.S. government now spends more than $500\$ 500 billion a year-or roughly 14 percent of the federal budget-on private-sector contractors, making it the largest customer in the world. ^(45){ }^{45} Government buyers typically require suppliers to submit bids and often award the contract to the low bidder, sometimes making allowance for superior quality or a reputation for on-time performance. Governments will also buy on a negotiated-contract basis, primarily in complex projects with major R&D costs and risks and those where there is little competition. 在大多数国家，政府组织是商品和服务的主要买家。美国政府现在每年花费超过 $500\$ 500 十亿美元——大约占联邦预算的 14%——在私营部门的承包商身上，使其成为世界上最大的客户。 ^(45){ }^{45} 政府买家通常要求供应商提交投标，并经常将合同授予最低投标者，有时会考虑到更高的质量或按时履约的声誉。政府还会在谈判合同的基础上进行采购，主要针对具有重大研发成本和风险的复杂项目，以及竞争较少的项目。
Business Buying Situations 商业购买情境
The business buyer faces many decisions in making a purchase. How many depends on the complexity of the problem being solved, newness of the buying requirement, number of people involved, and time required. Three types of buying situations are the straight rebuy, modified rebuy, and new task. ^(46){ }^{46} 商业买家在进行采购时面临许多决策。这些决策的数量取决于所解决问题的复杂性、购买需求的新颖性、参与人数以及所需时间。购买情境有三种类型：直接重购、修改重购和新任务。
Straight rebuy. In a straight rebuy, the purchasing department reorders items like office supplies and bulk chemicals on a routine basis and chooses from suppliers on an approved list. The suppliers make an effort to maintain quality and often propose automatic reordering systems to save time. “Out-suppliers” attempt to offer something new or exploit dissatisfaction with a current supplier. Their goal is to get a small order and then enlarge their purchase share over time. 直接回购。在直接回购中，采购部门定期重新订购办公用品和大宗化学品，并从批准的供应商名单中选择。供应商努力保持质量，并经常提出自动重新订购系统以节省时间。“外部供应商”试图提供新产品或利用对当前供应商的不满。他们的目标是获得小额订单，然后随着时间的推移扩大他们的采购份额。
Modified rebuy. The buyer in a modified rebuy wants to change product specifications, prices, delivery requirements, or other terms. This usually requires additional participants on both sides. The in-suppliers become nervous and want to protect the account. The out-suppliers see an opportunity to propose a better offer to gain some business. 修改后的再购买。修改后的再购买中的买方希望更改产品规格、价格、交货要求或其他条款。这通常需要双方增加额外的参与者。现有供应商变得紧张，想要保护账户。外部供应商则看到机会，提出更好的报价以争取一些业务。
New task. A new-task purchaser buys a product or service for the first time (an office building, a new security system). The greater the cost or risk, the larger the number of participants, and the greater their information gathering-the longer the time to a decision. ^(47){ }^{47} 新任务。新任务购买者首次购买产品或服务（如办公楼、新的安全系统）。成本或风险越大，参与者的数量越多，他们的信息收集越多，决策所需的时间就越长。
The business buyer makes the fewest decisions in the straight rebuy situation and the most in the new-task situation. Over time, new-buy situations become straight rebuys and routine purchase behavior. The buying process passes through several stages: awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and adoption. Mass media can be most important during the awareness stage; 商业买家在直接重购情况下做出的决策最少，而在新任务情况下做出的决策最多。随着时间的推移，新购情况会变成直接重购和常规购买行为。购买过程经历几个阶段：意识、兴趣、评估、试用和采纳。在意识阶段，大众媒体可能是最重要的。
salespeople often have the greatest impact at the interest stage; and technical sources can be most important during evaluation. Online selling efforts may be useful at all stages. 销售人员在兴趣阶段往往具有最大的影响力；而技术来源在评估阶段可能是最重要的。在线销售努力在所有阶段都可能是有用的。
Many business buyers prefer to buy a total problem solution from one seller. Called systems buying, this practice originated with government purchases. In response, many sellers have adopted systems selling or a variant, systems contracting, in which one supplier provides the buyer with all MRO (maintenance, repair, and operating) supplies. This lowers procurement costs and allows the seller steady demand and reduced paperwork. 许多商业买家更倾向于从一个卖方那里购买整体问题解决方案。这种被称为系统采购的做法起源于政府采购。作为回应，许多卖方采用了系统销售或其变体——系统合同，其中一个供应商为买方提供所有的 MRO（维护、修理和运营）供应。这降低了采购成本，并使卖方获得稳定的需求和减少的文书工作。
Participants in the Business Buying Process 商业采购过程中的参与者
Who buys the trillions of dollars’ worth of goods and services needed by business organizations? Purchasing agents are influential in straight-rebuy and modified-rebuy situations, whereas other employees are more influential in new-buy situations. Engineers are usually influential in selecting product components, and purchasing agents dominate in selecting suppliers. ^(48){ }^{48} 谁购买商业组织所需的数万亿美元的商品和服务？在直接重购和修改重购的情况下，采购代理具有影响力，而在新购情况下，其他员工的影响力更大。工程师通常在选择产品组件时具有影响力，而采购代理在选择供应商时占主导地位。
The Buying Center 购买中心
Webster and Wind call the decision-making unit of a buying organization the buying center. It consists of “all those individuals and groups who participate in the purchasing decisionmaking process, who share some common goals and the risks arising from the decisions.” ^(39){ }^{39} The buying center includes all organizational members who play any of these roles in the purchase decision process. 韦伯斯特和温德将购买组织的决策单位称为购买中心。它由“所有参与采购决策过程的个人和团体组成，他们共享一些共同目标以及由决策产生的风险。”购买中心包括在采购决策过程中扮演任何这些角色的所有组织成员。
Initiators-Users or others in the organization who request that something be purchased. 发起者-组织中请求购买某物的用户或其他人员。
Users-Those who will use the product or service. In many cases, the users initiate the buying proposal and help define the product requirements. 用户-那些将使用产品或服务的人。在许多情况下，用户会发起购买提案并帮助定义产品需求。
Influencers-People who influence the buying decision, often by helping define specifications and providing information for evaluating alternatives. 影响者 - 影响购买决策的人，通常通过帮助定义规格和提供评估替代方案的信息来实现。
Deciders-People who decide on product requirements or on suppliers. 决策者-决定产品需求或供应商的人。
Approvers-People who authorize the proposed actions of deciders or buyers. 批准者-授权决策者或买方提议行动的人。
Buyers-People who have formal authority to select the supplier and arrange the purchase terms. Buyers may help shape product specifications, but they play their major role in selecting vendors and negotiating. In more complex purchases, buyers might include high-level managers. 买方 - 拥有正式权力选择供应商并安排采购条款的人。买方可能会帮助制定产品规格，但他们的主要角色在于选择供应商和进行谈判。在更复杂的采购中，买方可能包括高级管理人员。
Gatekeepers-People such as purchasing agents and receptionists who have the power to prevent sellers or information from reaching members of the buying center. 门卫——如采购代理和接待员等人，他们有权阻止卖方或信息到达购买中心的成员。
Several people can occupy a given role such as user or influencer, and one person may play multiple roles. ^(50){ }^{50} A purchasing manager, for example, is often buyer, influencer, and gatekeeper simultaneously, deciding which sales reps can call on others in the organization, what budget and other constraints to place on the purchase, and which firm will actually get the business. 多个角色可以由几个人担任，例如用户或影响者，一个人可能扮演多个角色。例如，采购经理通常同时是买方、影响者和守门人，决定哪些销售代表可以联系组织中的其他人，给采购设定什么预算和其他限制，以及哪家公司最终会获得业务。
Buying Center Influences 购买中心影响因素
Buying centers usually include participants with differing interests, authority, status, susceptibility to persuasion, and sometimes very different decision criteria. Engineers may want to maximize product performance; production people may want ease of use and reliability of supply; financial staff focus on the economics of the purchase; purchasing may be concerned with operating and replacement costs. 购买中心通常包括具有不同利益、权威、地位、说服能力和有时非常不同的决策标准的参与者。工程师可能希望最大化产品性能；生产人员可能关注使用的便利性和供应的可靠性；财务人员则关注购买的经济性；采购部门可能关心运营和更换成本。
Business buyers also have personal motivations, perceptions, and preferences influenced by their age, income, education, job position, personality, attitudes toward risk, and culture. Webster 商业买家也有个人动机、认知和偏好，这些因素受到他们的年龄、收入、教育、职位、个性、对风险的态度和文化的影响。 韦伯斯特
cautions that ultimately individuals, not organizations, make purchasing decisions. ^(51){ }^{51} Individuals are motivated by their own needs and perceptions in attempting to maximize the organizational rewards they earn. But organizational needs legitimate the buying process and its outcomes. 警告说，最终做出购买决策的是个人，而不是组织。个人在试图最大化他们所获得的组织奖励时，是由自身的需求和认知所驱动的。但组织的需求使购买过程及其结果合法化。
Targeting Firms and Buying Centers 目标公司与采购中心
Successful business-to-business marketing requires that business marketers know which types of companies to focus on in their selling efforts, as well as whom to concentrate on within the buying centers in those organizations. Finding the market segments with the greatest growth prospects, most profitable customers, and most promising opportunities for the firm is crucial. A slow-growing economy has put a stranglehold on large corporations’ purchasing, making small and midsize business markets more attractive for suppliers, as discussed in “Marketing Insight: Big Sales to Small Businesses.” 成功的企业对企业营销要求商业营销人员了解在销售努力中应关注哪些类型的公司，以及在这些组织的采购中心中应集中关注谁。找到具有最大增长前景、最有利可图的客户和对公司最有前景的机会的市场细分至关重要。缓慢增长的经济对大型公司的采购施加了压力，使得中小型企业市场对供应商更具吸引力，正如“市场洞察：向小企业的大销售”中所讨论的那样。
marketing insight 市场洞察
Big Sales to Small Businesses 大宗销售给小型企业
TThe Small Business Administration (SBA) defines small businesses as those with fewer than 500 employees for most mining and manufacturing industries and $7\$ 7 million in annual receipts for most nonmanufacturing industries. Small and midsize businesses present huge marketing opportunities and huge challenges. The market is large but fragmented by industry, size, and number of years in operation. Here are some guidelines for marketing to small businesses: 小企业管理局（SBA）将小企业定义为在大多数采矿和制造业中员工少于 500 人，以及在大多数非制造业中年收入少于 $7\$ 7 百万的企业。中小型企业提供了巨大的市场机会和巨大的挑战。市场规模庞大，但因行业、规模和运营年限而高度分散。以下是针对小企业营销的一些指导原则：
Don’t lump small and midsize businesses together. There’s a big gap between $1\$ 1 million in revenue and $50\$ 50 million or between a start-up with 10 employees and a mature business with 100 employees. IBM distinguishes its offerings to small and medium-sized businesses on its common Web site for the two. 不要将小型和中型企业混为一谈。 $1\$ 1 百万收入与 $50\$ 50 百万之间存在很大差距，或者 10 名员工的初创企业与 100 名员工的成熟企业之间也存在差距。IBM 在其针对这两类企业的公共网站上区分了其产品。
Do keep it simple. Offer one supplier point of contact for all service problems or one bill for all services and products. AT&T serves millions of businesses with fewer than 100 employees with bundles that include Internet, local phone, longdistance phone, data management, business networking, Web hosting, and teleconferencing. 保持简单。为所有服务问题提供一个供应商联系点，或为所有服务和产品提供一张账单。AT&T 为数百万名员工少于 100 人的企业提供包括互联网、本地电话、长途电话、数据管理、商业网络、网站托管和电话会议在内的套餐。
Do use the Internet. Hewlett-Packard found that time-strapped small-business decision makers prefer to buy, or at least research, purchases online. Its site therefore features extensive advertising, direct mail, e-mail campaigns, catalogs, and events. 确实要使用互联网。惠普发现，时间紧迫的小企业决策者更倾向于在线购买或至少进行购买研究。因此，其网站上有大量的广告、直邮、电子邮件活动、目录和活动。
Don’t forget about direct contact. Even if a small business owner’s first point of contact is via the Internet, you still need to be available by phone or in person. 不要忘记直接联系。即使小企业主的第一接触点是通过互联网，您仍然需要通过电话或亲自提供服务。
Do provide support after the sale. Small businesses want partners, not pitchmen, and expect service and commitment. 在销售后提供支持。小企业希望有合作伙伴，而不是推销员，并期待服务和承诺。
Do your homework. The realities of small or midsize business management are different from those of a large corporation, so understand what target customers need and how they prefer to buy. 做作业。小型或中型企业管理的现实与大型公司的不同，因此要了解目标客户的需求以及他们的购买偏好。
Sources: Based on Barnaby J. Feder, “When Goliath Comes Knocking on David’s Door,” New York Times, May 6, 2003; Jennifer Gilbert, “Small but Mighty,” Sales & Marketing Management (January 2004), pp. 30-35; Kate Maddox, “Driving Engagement with Small Business,” Advertising Age, November 7, 2011; Christine Birkner, “Big Business Think Small,” Marketing News, May 15, 2012, pp. 12-16; “IBM Luring SMBs with Expanded Finance Options,” Network World, September 12, 2011; www.sba.gov; www.openforum.com; www-304.ibm.com /businesscenter/smb/us/en, all accessed May 20, 2014. 来源：基于 Barnaby J. Feder 的文章“当巨人敲响大卫的门”，《纽约时报》，2003 年 5 月 6 日；Jennifer Gilbert 的文章“小而强大”，《销售与市场管理》（2004 年 1 月），第 30-35 页；Kate Maddox 的文章“通过小企业推动参与度”，《广告时代》，2011 年 11 月 7 日；Christine Birkner 的文章“大企业思考小”，《市场新闻》，2012 年 5 月 15 日，第 12-16 页；“IBM 通过扩展融资选项吸引中小企业”，《网络世界》，2011 年 9 月 12 日；www.sba.gov；www.openforum.com；www-304.ibm.com/businesscenter/smb/us/en，均于 2014 年 5 月 20 日访问。
Business marketers must figure out: Who are the major decision participants? What decisions do they influence? What evaluation criteria do they use? Small sellers concentrate on reaching the key buying influencers. Larger sellers go for multilevel in-depth selling to reach as many participants as possible. Business marketers should periodically review their assumptions about buying center participants. Traditionally, SAP sold its software to CIOs at large companies. Then a shift to focus on selling to individual corporate units lower down the organizational chart raised the percentage of software sales going to new customers to 40 percent. ^(52){ }^{52} 商业营销人员必须弄清楚：主要的决策参与者是谁？他们影响哪些决策？他们使用什么评估标准？小型卖家专注于接触关键的购买影响者。大型卖家则采用多层次的深入销售，以接触尽可能多的参与者。商业营销人员应定期审查他们对购买中心参与者的假设。传统上，SAP 将其软件销售给大型公司的首席信息官。随后，转向专注于向组织结构较低的单个企业单位销售，使得新客户的软件销售比例提高到 40%。
Stages in the Business Buying Process 商业采购过程的阶段
The business buying-decision process includes eight stages called buyphases, as identified by Patrick J. Robinson and his associates, in the buygrid framework (see Table 5.2). ^(53){ }^{53} In modified-rebuy or straight-rebuy situations, some stages are compressed or bypassed. For example, the buyer normally has a favorite supplier or a ranked list of suppliers and can skip the search and proposal solicitation stages. Here are some important considerations in each of the eight stages. 商业购买决策过程包括八个阶段，称为购买阶段，这是由帕特里克·J·罗宾逊及其同事在购买网格框架中识别的（见表 5.2）。在修改再购买或直接再购买的情况下，一些阶段会被压缩或跳过。例如，买方通常有一个首选供应商或一个供应商排名列表，可以跳过搜索和提案征求阶段。以下是每个八个阶段中的一些重要考虑因素。
Problem Recognition 问题识别
The buying process begins when someone in the company recognizes a problem or need that can be met by acquiring a good or service. The recognition can be triggered by internal or external stimuli. The internal stimulus might be a decision to develop a new product that requires new equipment and materials or a machine that requires new parts. Externally, the buyer may get new ideas at a trade show, see an ad, receive an e-mail, read a blog, or receive a call from a sales representative who offers a better product or a lower price. Business marketers can stimulate problem recognition by direct marketing in many different ways. 购买过程始于公司内有人识别出一个可以通过获取商品或服务来满足的问题或需求。这种识别可以由内部或外部刺激引发。内部刺激可能是决定开发一种新产品，这需要新的设备和材料，或者一台需要新零件的机器。外部方面，买方可能在贸易展上获得新想法，看到广告，收到电子邮件，阅读博客，或接到销售代表的电话，后者提供更好的产品或更低的价格。商业营销人员可以通过多种不同方式的直接营销来刺激问题识别。
TABLE 5.2 表 5.2
Buygrid Framework: Major Stages (Buyphases) of the Industrial Buying Process in Relation to Major Buying Situations (Buyclasses) 购买网格框架：与主要购买情境（购买类别）相关的工业购买过程的主要阶段（购买阶段）
Buyclasses 购买类别
New Task 新任务
Modified Rebuy 修改后的再购买
Straight Rebuy 直接重购
1. Problem recognition 问题识别
Yes 是的
Maybe 也许
No 不
2. General need description 2. 一般需求描述
Yes 是的
Maybe 也许
No 不
3. Product specification 3. 产品规格
Yes 是的
Yes 是的
Yes 是的
Buyphases 购买阶段
4. Supplier search 4. 供应商搜索
Yes 是的
Maybe 也许
No 不
5. Proposal solicitation 5. 提案征集
Yes 是的
Maybe 也许
No 不
6. Supplier selection 6. 供应商选择
Yes 是的
Maybe 也许
No 不
7. Order-routine specification 7. 订单常规规范
Yes 是的
Maybe 也许
No 不
8. Performance review 8. 绩效评估
Yes 是的
Yes 是的
Yes 是的
TABLE 5.2 Buygrid Framework: Major Stages (Buyphases) of the Industrial Buying Process in Relation to Major Buying Situations (Buyclasses)
Buyclasses
New Task Modified Rebuy Straight Rebuy
1. Problem recognition Yes Maybe No
2. General need description Yes Maybe No
3. Product specification Yes Yes Yes
Buyphases 4. Supplier search Yes Maybe No
5. Proposal solicitation Yes Maybe No
6. Supplier selection Yes Maybe No
7. Order-routine specification Yes Maybe No
8. Performance review Yes Yes Yes| TABLE 5.2 | Buygrid Framework: Major Stages (Buyphases) of the Industrial Buying Process in Relation to Major Buying Situations (Buyclasses) | | | |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| | | Buyclasses | | |
| | | New Task | Modified Rebuy | Straight Rebuy |
| | 1. Problem recognition | Yes | Maybe | No |
| | 2. General need description | Yes | Maybe | No |
| | 3. Product specification | Yes | Yes | Yes |
| Buyphases | 4. Supplier search | Yes | Maybe | No |
| | 5. Proposal solicitation | Yes | Maybe | No |
| | 6. Supplier selection | Yes | Maybe | No |
| | 7. Order-routine specification | Yes | Maybe | No |
| | 8. Performance review | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Source: Adapted from Patrick J. Johnson, Charles W. Farris, and Yoram Wind, Industrial Buying and Creative Marketing (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1967), p. 14. 来源：改编自帕特里克·J·约翰逊、查尔斯·W·法里斯和约拉姆·温德，《工业采购与创造性营销》（波士顿：阿林与贝肯，1967 年），第 14 页。
General Need Description and Product Specification 一般需求描述和产品规格
Next, the buyer determines the needed item’s general characteristics and required quantity. For standard items, this is simple. For complex items, the buyer will work with others to define characteristics such as reliability, durability, or price. Business marketers can help by describing how their products meet or even exceed the buyer’s needs. 接下来，买方确定所需物品的一般特征和所需数量。对于标准物品，这很简单。对于复杂物品，买方将与他人合作定义特征，例如可靠性、耐用性或价格。商业营销人员可以通过描述他们的产品如何满足甚至超出买方的需求来提供帮助。
The buying organization now develops the item’s technical specifications. Often, the company will assign a product-value-analysis engineering team to the project. Product value analysis ( PVAP V A ) is an approach to cost reduction that studies whether components can be redesigned, standardized, or made by cheaper methods of production without adversely affecting product performance. The PVA team will identify overdesigned components, for instance, that last longer than the product itself. Suppliers can use PVA as a tool for positioning themselves to win an account. 采购组织现在制定该项目的技术规格。通常，公司会将一个产品价值分析工程团队分配到该项目中。产品价值分析（ PVAP V A ）是一种成本降低的方法，研究组件是否可以重新设计、标准化或通过更便宜的生产方法制造，而不会对产品性能产生不利影响。PVA 团队将识别出过度设计的组件，例如，使用寿命超过产品本身的组件。供应商可以利用 PVA 作为定位自己的工具，以赢得客户。
Supplier Search 供应商搜索
The buyer next tries to identify the most appropriate suppliers through trade directories, contacts with other companies, trade advertisements, trade shows, and the Internet. Companies that purchase online are utilizing electronic marketplaces in several forms (see Table 5.3). Web sites are organized around two types of e-hubs: vertical hubs centered on industries (plastics, steel, chemicals, paper) and functional hubs (logistics, media buying, advertising, energy management). 买方接下来尝试通过贸易目录、与其他公司的联系、贸易广告、贸易展览和互联网来识别最合适的供应商。在线采购的公司正在以多种形式利用电子市场（见表 5.3）。网站围绕两种类型的电子中心组织：以行业为中心的垂直中心（塑料、钢铁、化学品、纸张）和功能中心（物流、媒体购买、广告、能源管理）。
Moving into e-procurement means more than acquiring software; it requires changing purchasing strategy and structure. However, the benefits are many. Aggregating purchasing across multiple departments yields larger, centrally negotiated volume discounts, a smaller purchasing staff, and less buying of substandard goods from outside the approved list of suppliers. 进入电子采购不仅仅是获取软件；它还需要改变采购策略和结构。然而，收益是显而易见的。跨多个部门聚合采购可以获得更大、集中谈判的批量折扣，减少采购人员数量，并减少从未获批准供应商名单外购买劣质商品的情况。
The supplier’s task is to ensure it is considered when customers are-or could be-in the market and searching for a supplier. Marketing must work with sales to define what makes a “sales ready” prospect and send the right messages via sales calls, trade shows, online activities, PR, events, direct mail, and referrals. After evaluating each company, the buyer will end up with a short list of qualified suppliers. 供应商的任务是确保在客户进入市场并寻找供应商时被考虑。市场营销必须与销售合作，定义什么是“销售准备好的”潜在客户，并通过销售电话、贸易展览、在线活动、公共关系、活动、直接邮件和推荐发送正确的信息。在评估每家公司后，买方将最终得到一份合格供应商的短名单。
TABLE 5.3 Electronic Marketplaces for Business Buying 表 5.3 商业采购的电子市场
Catalog sites. Companies can order thousands of items through electronic catalogs, such as W. W. Grainger’s, distributed by e-procurement software. 目录网站。公司可以通过电子目录（如 W. W. Grainger 的目录）通过电子采购软件订购成千上万的商品。
Vertical markets. Companies buying industrial products such as plastics or services such as media can go to specialized Web sites called e-hubs, including Plastics.com. 垂直市场。购买工业产品如塑料或服务如媒体的公司可以访问称为电子集散中心的专业网站，包括 Plastics.com。
“Pure Play” auction sites. Online auctions can serve business buyers and sellers worldwide, Ritchie Bros, operates the multilingual rbauction.com site, enabling businesses in many nations to buy or sell. “纯粹玩法”拍卖网站。在线拍卖可以为全球的商业买家和卖家提供服务，Ritchie Bros. 运营着多语言的 rbauction.com 网站，使许多国家的企业能够进行买卖。
Spot (or exchange) markets. On spot electronic markets, prices change by the minute. IntercontinentalExchange (ICE) is an electronic energy marketplace and soft commodity exchange, for example. 现货（或交易）市场。在现货电子市场上，价格每分钟都会变化。例如，洲际交易所（ICE）是一个电子能源市场和软商品交易所。
Private exchanges. Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and Walmart operate private online exchanges to link with specially invited groups of suppliers and partners. 私人交易所。惠普、IBM 和沃尔玛运营私人在线交易所，以便与特别邀请的供应商和合作伙伴群体建立联系。
Barter markets. In barter markets, participants offer to trade goods or services. 以物易物市场。在以物易物市场中，参与者提供商品或服务进行交易。
Buying alliances. Several companies buying the same goods can join together to form purchasing consortia and gain deeper discounts on volume purchases. TopSource is an alliance of firms in food-related businesses. 购买联盟。几家公司购买相同的商品可以联合起来形成采购联盟，从而在大宗采购中获得更深的折扣。TopSource 是一个与食品相关业务的公司联盟。
Proposal Solicitation 提案征集
The buyer next invites qualified suppliers to submit written proposals. After evaluating them, the buyer will invite a few suppliers to make formal presentations. Business marketers must be skilled in researching, writing, and presenting proposals as marketing documents that describe value and benefits in customer terms. Oral presentations must inspire confidence and position the company’s capabilities and resources so they stand out from the competition. 买方接下来邀请合格的供应商提交书面提案。在评估后，买方将邀请一些供应商进行正式演示。商业营销人员必须擅长研究、撰写和展示提案，将其作为描述客户价值和利益的营销文件。口头演示必须激发信心，并展示公司的能力和资源，使其在竞争中脱颖而出。
Supplier Selection 供应商选择
Before selecting a supplier, members of the buying center will specify and rank desired supplier attributes. To develop compelling value propositions, business marketers need to better understand how these business buyers arrive at their valuations. ^(54){ }^{54} Further, despite moves toward strategic sourcing and partnering, business buyers still spend a lot of time negotiating price. Suppliers can counter requests for lower price in a number of ways. They may be able to show that their product’s life-cycle cost is lower than for competitors’ products or cite the value of the services the buyer now receives, especially if it is superior to that offered by competitors. ^(55){ }^{55} Service support and personal interactions, as well as a supplier’s know-how and ability to improve customers’ time to market, can be useful differentiators in achieving key-supplier status. ^(56){ }^{56} 在选择供应商之前，采购中心的成员将明确并排名所需的供应商属性。为了制定有吸引力的价值主张，商业营销人员需要更好地理解这些商业买家如何得出他们的评估。此外，尽管在战略采购和合作方面有所进展，商业买家仍然花费大量时间进行价格谈判。供应商可以通过多种方式应对降低价格的请求。他们可能能够证明其产品的生命周期成本低于竞争对手的产品，或者引用买方目前所获得服务的价值，特别是如果这些服务优于竞争对手提供的服务。服务支持和个人互动，以及供应商的专业知识和提高客户市场响应时间的能力，可以成为实现关键供应商地位的有用差异化因素。
Order-Routine Specification 订单-常规规范
After selecting suppliers, the buyer negotiates the final order, listing the technical specifications, the quantity needed, the delivery time, warranties, and so on. For maintenance, repair, and operating items, buyers are moving toward blanket contracts under which the supplier promises to resupply the buyer as needed, at agreed-upon prices, over a specified period. Because the seller holds the stock, blanket contracts are sometimes called stockless purchase plans. These long-term relationships make it difficult for out-suppliers to break in unless the buyer becomes dissatisfied. 在选择供应商后，买方会协商最终订单，列出技术规格、所需数量、交货时间、保修等。对于维护、修理和运营物品，买方正逐渐转向框架合同，供应商承诺在约定的价格下，在指定的时间内根据需要向买方重新供货。由于卖方持有库存，框架合同有时被称为无库存采购计划。这种长期关系使得外部供应商很难介入，除非买方感到不满意。
Companies that fear a shortage of key materials are willing to buy and hold large inventories. They will sign long-term contracts with suppliers to ensure a steady flow of materials. Some companies go further and shift the ordering responsibility to their suppliers, using systems called vendor-managed inventory. These suppliers are privy to the customer’s inventory levels and take responsibility for continuous replenishment programs. 担心关键材料短缺的公司愿意购买并持有大量库存。他们会与供应商签订长期合同，以确保材料的稳定供应。一些公司更进一步，将订货责任转移给供应商，使用称为供应商管理库存的系统。这些供应商了解客户的库存水平，并负责持续补货计划。
Performance Review 绩效评估
The business buyer periodically reviews the performance of the chosen supplier(s) using one of three methods. The buyer may contact end users and ask for their evaluations, rate the supplier on several criteria using a weighted-score method, or aggregate the cost of poor performance to come up with adjusted costs of purchase, including price. This performance review may lead the buyer to continue, modify, or end a supplier relationship. 商业买家定期使用三种方法之一来评估所选供应商的表现。买家可以联系最终用户并询问他们的评价，使用加权评分法对供应商在多个标准上进行评分，或者汇总不良表现的成本以得出调整后的采购成本，包括价格。这种绩效评估可能会导致买家继续、修改或终止与供应商的关系。
Business suppliers and customers are exploring different ways to manage their relationships. ^(57){ }^{57} One key aspect of strong customer relationships between businesses is the concept of vertical coordination. 商业供应商和客户正在探索管理其关系的不同方式。强大的客户关系的一个关键方面是垂直协调的概念。
The Benefits of Vertical Coordination 垂直协调的好处
Much research has advocated greater vertical coordination between buying partners and sellers so they can transcend merely transacting and instead create more value for both parties. ^(58){ }^{58} 许多研究提倡买方合作伙伴与卖方之间加强纵向协调，以便他们能够超越单纯的交易，而是为双方创造更多的价值。
Building trust is a prerequisite to enjoying healthy long-term relationships. A number of forces influence the development of a relationship between business partners, including availability of alternatives, importance of supply, complexity of supply, and supply market dynamism. Based on these we can classify buyer-supplier relationships into eight categories: ^(59){ }^{59} 建立信任是享受健康长期关系的前提。多种因素影响商业伙伴之间关系的发展，包括替代品的可用性、供应的重要性、供应的复杂性以及供应市场的动态性。基于这些因素，我们可以将买卖关系分为八类： ^(59){ }^{59}
Basic buying and selling-Simple, routine exchanges with moderate levels of cooperation and information exchange. 基本买卖 - 简单、常规的交易，具有适度的合作和信息交流。
Bare bones-These relationships require more adaptation by the seller and less cooperation and information exchange. 基本关系——这些关系需要卖方更多的适应，而合作和信息交流较少。
Contractual transaction-Defined by contract, these generally have low levels of trust, cooperation, and interaction. 合同交易 - 由合同定义，这些通常具有较低的信任、合作和互动水平。
Customer supply-In this traditional supply situation, competition rather than cooperation is the dominant form of governance. 客户供应——在这种传统的供应情况下，竞争而非合作是主导的治理形式。
Cooperative systems-Participants are united in operational ways, but neither demonstrates structural commitment through legal means or adaptation. 合作系统-参与者在操作方式上团结一致，但都没有通过法律手段或适应表现出结构上的承诺。
Collaborative-Much trust and commitment through collaboration can lead to true partnership. 协作-通过协作建立的信任和承诺可以导致真正的伙伴关系。
Mutually adaptive-Buyers and sellers make many relationship-specific adaptations, but without necessarily achieving strong trust or cooperation. 相互适应-买卖双方进行许多特定于关系的调整，但不一定能实现强信任或合作。
Customer is king-In this close, cooperative relationship, the seller adapts to meet the customer’s needs without expecting much adaptation or change in exchange. 顾客是上帝——在这种紧密合作的关系中，卖方适应以满足顾客的需求，而不期望在交换中有太多的适应或变化。
Risks and Opportunism in Business Relationships 商业关系中的风险与机会主义
Establishing a customer-supplier relationship creates tension between safeguarding (ensuring predictable solutions) and adapting (allowing for flexibility for unanticipated events). Vertical coordination can facilitate stronger customer-seller ties but may also increase the risk to the customer’s and supplier’s specific investments. ^(60){ }^{60} Specific investments are expenditures tailored to a particular company and value chain partner (investments in company-specific training, equipment, and operating procedures or systems). ^(61){ }^{61} They help firms grow profits and achieve their positioning. ^(62){ }^{62} 建立客户与供应商关系会在保障（确保可预测的解决方案）和适应（允许对意外事件的灵活应对）之间产生紧张关系。垂直协调可以促进更强的客户与卖方之间的联系，但也可能增加客户和供应商特定投资的风险。特定投资是针对特定公司和价值链合作伙伴的支出（例如公司特定的培训、设备和操作程序或系统的投资）。它们帮助公司增加利润并实现其定位。
When buyers cannot easily monitor supplier performance, the supplier might not deliver the expected value. Opportunism is “some form of cheating or undersupply relative to an implicit or explicit contract.” ^(16){ }^{16} It may entail self-serving violation of contractual agreements or an unwillingness to adapt to changing circumstances in satisfying contractual obligations. Opportunism is a concern because firms must devote resources to control and monitoring that would otherwise be allocated to more productive purposes. Contracts may become inadequate to govern supplier transactions when supplier opportunism becomes difficult to detect, when firms make specific investments in assets they cannot use elsewhere, and when contingencies are harder to anticipate. When a supplier has a good reputation, it is more likely to avoid opportunism to protect this valuable intangible asset. 当买方无法轻松监控供应商的表现时，供应商可能无法提供预期的价值。机会主义是“相对于隐含或明确合同的某种形式的欺诈或供给不足。” ^(16){ }^{16} 这可能涉及自利地违反合同协议或不愿意适应变化的情况以满足合同义务。机会主义是一个令人担忧的问题，因为公司必须投入资源进行控制和监控，而这些资源本可以用于更具生产性的目的。当供应商的机会主义变得难以察觉时，合同可能不足以管理供应商交易，尤其是在公司对无法在其他地方使用的资产进行特定投资时，以及当不可预见的情况更难以预测时。当供应商声誉良好时，它更有可能避免机会主义，以保护这一宝贵的无形资产。
Executive Summary 执行摘要
Consumer behavior is influenced by cultural, social, and personal factors and by four psychological processes: motivation, perception, learning, and memory. The typical consumer buying process follows this sequence: problem recognition, information search, evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, and postpurchase behavior. The attitudes of others, unanticipated situational factors, and perceived risk may all affect the decision to buy, as will consumers’ postpurchase product satisfaction, use and disposal, and the company’s actions. Behavioral decision theory helps marketers understand situations in which consumers make seemingly irrational choices. 消费者行为受到文化、社会和个人因素的影响，以及四个心理过程的影响：动机、感知、学习和记忆。典型的消费者购买过程遵循以下顺序：问题识别、信息搜索、替代方案评估、购买决策和购买后行为。其他人的态度、意外的情境因素和感知风险都可能影响购买决策，消费者的购买后产品满意度、使用和处置以及公司的行为也会产生影响。行为决策理论帮助营销人员理解消费者在看似不理性的选择中所处的情境。
Organizational buying is the process by which formal organizations establish a need for purchased goods and services, then identify, evaluate, and choose among alternative brands and suppliers. The business market consists of all the organizations that acquire goods and services used in the production of goods or services that are sold, rented, or supplied to others. The institutional market includes schools and other institutions that provide goods and services to people in their care. Governments are also major buyers of goods and services. 组织采购是正式组织建立对购买商品和服务需求的过程，随后识别、评估并在替代品牌和供应商中进行选择。商业市场包括所有获取用于生产出售、租赁或提供给他人的商品或服务的组织。机构市场包括学校和其他向其照顾的人提供商品和服务的机构。政府也是商品和服务的重要买家。
Compared to consumer markets, business markets have fewer and larger buyers, closer relationships with suppliers, and more geographically concentrated buyers. Demand in the business market is derived from demand in the consumer market and fluctuates with the business cycle. Three types of buying situations are the straight rebuy, modified rebuy, and new task. The buying center consists of initiators, users, influencers, deciders, approvers, buyers, and gatekeepers. The business buying process consists of eight buyphases: (1) problem recognition, (2) general need description, (3) product specification, (4) supplier search, (5) proposal solicitation, (6) supplier selection, (7) order-routine specification, and (8) performance review. Business marketers seek to form strong relationships with their customers, considering the benefits of vertical coordination and the challenges of opportunism. 与消费者市场相比，商业市场的买家数量较少且规模较大，与供应商的关系更为紧密，买家地理分布更为集中。商业市场的需求源于消费者市场的需求，并随着商业周期波动。购买情境有三种类型：直接重购、修改重购和新任务。购买中心由发起者、用户、影响者、决策者、批准者、买家和守门人组成。商业购买过程包括八个购买阶段：（1）问题识别，（2）一般需求描述，（3）产品规格，（4）供应商搜索，（5）提案征求，（6）供应商选择，（7）订单常规规格，以及（8）绩效评估。商业营销人员寻求与客户建立强有力的关系，考虑到垂直协调的好处和机会主义的挑战。
Notes 注释
Quentin Hardy, “Chambers Challenged,” Forbes, March 14, 2011, pp. 30-32; Rich Karlgaard, “Cisco’s Disruptive (and Cooler) Rival,” Forbes, July 18, 2011, p. 21; Rich Karlgaard, “Driving Change: Cisco’s Chambers,” Forbes, February 13, 2012; “Charlie Rose Talks to Cisco’s John Chambers,” Bloomberg Businessweek, April 23, 2012, p. 41; Don Clark, “Cisco Makes Like Apple in Push for App Developers,” Wall Street Journal blogs, July 21, 2014. 昆廷·哈迪，《挑战钱伯斯》，《福布斯》，2011 年 3 月 14 日，第 30-32 页；里奇·卡尔高德，《思科的颠覆性（更酷的）竞争对手》，《福布斯》，2011 年 7 月 18 日，第 21 页；里奇·卡尔高德，《推动变革：思科的钱伯斯》，《福布斯》，2012 年 2 月 13 日；《查理·罗斯与思科的约翰·钱伯斯对话》，《彭博商业周刊》，2012 年 4 月 23 日，第 41 页；唐·克拉克，《思科在推动应用开发者方面模仿苹果》，《华尔街日报》博客，2014 年 7 月 21 日。
Michael R. Solomon, Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having, and Being, 10th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2013). 迈克尔·R·所罗门，《消费者行为：购买、拥有与存在》，第 10 版（新泽西州上萨德尔河：普伦蒂斯霍尔，2013 年）。
Leon G. Schiffman and Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Consumer Behavior, 10th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010). 莱昂·G·希夫曼和莱斯利·拉扎尔·卡努克，《消费者行为》，第 10 版（新泽西州上萨德尔河：普伦蒂斯霍尔，2010 年）。
For some classic perspectives, see Richard P. Coleman, “The Continuing Significance of Social Class to Marketing,” Journal of Consumer Research 10 (December 1983), pp. 265-80; Richard P. Coleman and Lee P. Rainwater, Social Standing in America: New Dimension of Class (New York: Basic Books, 1978). 对于一些经典观点，参见理查德·P·科尔曼，《社会阶层对市场营销的持续重要性》，《消费者研究杂志》10（1983 年 12 月），第 265-280 页；理查德·P·科尔曼和李·P·雷因沃特，《美国的社会地位：阶级的新维度》（纽约：基础书籍，1978 年）。
Leon G. Schiffman and Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Consumer Behavior, 10th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2010). 莱昂·G·希夫曼和莱斯利·拉扎尔·卡努克，《消费者行为》，第 10 版（新泽西州上萨德尔河：普伦蒂斯霍尔，2010 年）。
Michael Trusov, Anand Bodapati, and Randolph E. Bucklin, “Determining Influential Users in Internet Social Networks,” Journal of Marketing Research 47 (August 2010), pp. 643-58. 迈克尔·特鲁索夫、阿南德·博达帕提和兰道夫·E·巴克林，“确定互联网社交网络中的影响用户，”《市场营销研究》47（2010 年 8 月），第 643-658 页。
Jacqueline Johnson Brown, Peter M. Reingen, and Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 4th ed. (New York: Free Press, 1995); Peter H. Riengen and Jerome B. Kernan, “Analysis of Referral Networks in Marketing: Methods and Illustration,” Journal of Marketing Research 23 (November 1986), pp. 37-78; Laura J. Kornish and Qiuping Li, “Optimal Referral Bonuses with Asymmetric Information: Firm-Offered and Interpersonal Incentives,” Marketing Science 29 (January-February 2010), pp. 108-21. 杰奎琳·约翰逊·布朗、彼得·M·瑞根和埃弗雷特·M·罗杰斯，《创新扩散》，第 4 版（纽约：自由出版社，1995 年）；彼得·H·瑞根和杰罗姆·B·科尔南，“市场营销中的推荐网络分析：方法与实例”，《市场营销研究杂志》23（1986 年 11 月），第 37-78 页；劳拉·J·科尔尼什和李秋平，“具有不对称信息的最佳推荐奖金：公司提供的和人际激励”，《营销科学》29（2010 年 1-2 月），第 108-121 页。
Douglas Atkin, The Culting of Brands: When Customers Become True Believers (New York: Penguin, 2004); Marian Salzman, Ira Matathia, and Ann O’Reilly, Buzz: Harness the Power of Influence and Create Demand (New York: Wiley, 2003). 道格拉斯·阿特金，《品牌的崇拜：当顾客成为真正的信徒》（纽约：企鹅出版社，2004 年）；玛丽安·萨尔茨曼、伊拉·马塔西亚和安·奥赖利，《嗡嗡声：利用影响力创造需求》（纽约：威利出版社，2003 年）。
Natasha Singer, “Secret E-Scores Chart Consumers’ Buying Power,” New York Times, August 18, 2012; Erin Griffin, “A Million Little Klouts,” Adweek, December 12, 2011, p. 18; Jon Swartz, “Klout Says Scoring Parameters Enhanced,” USA Today, August 15, 2012. 娜塔莎·辛格，《秘密电子评分图表消费者的购买力》，《纽约时报》，2012 年 8 月 18 日；艾琳·格里芬，《百万个小克劳特》，《广告周刊》，2011 年 12 月 12 日，第 18 页；乔恩·斯沃茨，《克劳特表示评分参数已增强》，《今日美国》，2012 年 8 月 15 日。
Elizabeth S. Moore, William L. Wilkie, and Richard J. Lutz, “Passing the Torch: Intergenerational Influences as a Source of Brand Equity,” Journal of Marketing 66 (April 2002), pp. 17-37. 伊丽莎白·S·摩尔，威廉·L·威尔基，理查德·J·卢茨，“传递火炬：代际影响作为品牌资产的来源，”《市场营销杂志》66（2002 年 4 月），第 17-37 页。
Kay M. Palan and Robert E. Wilkes, “Adolescent-Parent Interaction in Family Decision Making,” Journal of Consumer Research 24 (March 1997), pp. 159-69; Sharon E. Beatty and Salil Talpade, "Adolescent 凯·M·帕兰和罗伯特·E·威尔克斯，“家庭决策中的青少年与父母互动，”消费者研究杂志 24 (1997 年 3 月)，第 159-169 页；香农·E·比蒂和萨利尔·塔尔帕德，“青少年
