According to George Knight-who borrowed the term from Charles Silberman, “Mindlessness is the most pertinent and accurate criticism of American education” (Knight, 2008, p. 3). Essentially, educators have been more concerned with motion rather than with progress, that is, with means more than ends. As a result, they have failed to raise the bigger question of purpose in education; instead their focus has been on methodology. Indeed, the cart should be methodology, and, more importantly, the horse is purpose.
George Knight 從 Charles Silberman 那裡借用了這個詞，他說：「Mindlessness 是對美國教育最貼切且準確的批評」（Knight, 2008, p.3）。基本上，教育者更關心的是動作而非進步，也就是手段多於目的。因此，他們沒有提出教育目的這個更大的問題；相反地，他們的重點一直放在方法上。事實上，本車應該是方法論，而更重要的是，馬才是目的。

What education needs today is a clear vision of “why all this education” and “for/to what purpose” (Knight, 2008, p. 4). To obtain this vision, one needs to ask the fundamental questions that are encased in a study of philosophy: questions about reality (metaphysics), knowledge or truth (epistemology), and values (axiology). Without this awareness of the major dimensions of philosophy-especially as applied to education-“mindlessness” will prevail.
今天的教育需要的是一個清楚的願景：「為什麼要這麼教育」以及「為了什麼目的」（Knight, 2008, p.4）。為了獲得這個願景，我們需要提出哲學研究中所包含的基本問題：關於現實（形而上學）、知識或真理（認識論）以及價值（公理論）的問題。如果沒有這種對哲學主要層面的認知，尤其是應用在教育上，「無心」將會盛行。

Every teacher or educator has a philosophy of life that one carries into the classroom. This means each one has notions about the world, the meaning of life, and what is both morally and ethically right. From this comes a philosophy of education that is exhibited each day. Knight reminds and encourages us as follows:
每位教師或教育工作者都有自己的人生哲學，並將其帶入課堂。這意味著每個人都對世界、生命的意義以及道德和倫理上的正確性有自己的看法。由此產生的教育哲學會在每一天展現出來。Knight 提醒並鼓勵我們：

To say that each of us has a philosophy of education and life that we daily act upon does not mean that we have a good (or bad) philosophy, or even a philosophy that we have thought through. Our philosophy may exist at the subliminal level. The plea . . . is that all educators need a consciously examined and thoroughly considered philosophy of education if they are to make the most efficient use of both their own time and their students’ energy. (Knight, 2008, p. 160)
如果說我們每個人都有一套日常奉行的教育和生活哲學，這並不代表我們有一套好（或壞）的哲學，甚至不代表我們有一套經過深思熟慮的哲學。我們的哲學可能存在於潛意識層面。懇求......是所有的教育者都需要有意識地審視和徹底考慮的教育哲學，這樣他們才能最有效地利用自己的時間和學生的精力。(Knight, 2008, p. 160)

When one does this, then an educator is better (read consciously) prepared to consider key educational issues and practices.
當一個人做到這一點，那麼教育者就能更好地（有意識地）準備考慮關鍵的教育問題和實踐。

Today, for many reasons, many educators see a close correlation between curriculum, methods, and assessment. At times this scheme is depicted in the form of a three-legged stool or an equilateral triangle, denoting the importance of and emphasis on each leg or side. Curriculum includes content, standards, and essentially “the what” of teaching and learning. Methods, techniques, and strategies form the essence of pedagogy; these methods consider “the how” and “the why.” Assessment is evaluation or measurement; it investigates “to what degree” something has occurred either in a formative or summative fashion. Each one of these three components must be connectedthat is aligned-to an overarching whole or there is an imbalance present.
今天，基於許多原因，許多教育者認為課程、方法和評估之間有密切的關係。有時，這個方案被描繪成三腳凳或等邊三角形的形式，表示每條腿或每條邊的重要性和重點。課程包括教學內容、標準，基本上是教與學的 「內容」。方法、技巧和策略構成了教學法的精髓；這些方法考慮了 「如何 」和 「為什麼」。評估是評價或測量；它以形成性或總結性的方式調查某件事情發生的 「程度」。這三個部分中的每一個都必須與一個總體相連接，也就是與總體相結合，否則就會出現不平衡的現象。

When a teacher or educator embarks on a study, review, or application of curriculum, the lenses worn should be realized. Why? The preferred lens will lead one to naturally follow a particular curricular and instructional path that has a history and undoubtedly a philosophical basis connected to it. Indeed, it is important for educational practitioners to know and to implement a desired or preferred curriculum. Such a focus helps in avoiding “mindlessness” that again is frequently found in education today.
當教師或教育工作者開始研究、檢討或應用課程時，應該瞭解所戴的鏡片。為什麼？偏好的鏡頭會讓人自然而然地跟隨特定的課程與教學路徑，而這條路徑有其歷史，無疑也有其相關的哲學基礎。事實上，對教育實踐者來說，了解並實施理想或偏好的課程是很重要的。這樣的專注有助於避免現今教育中經常出現的 「漫無目的」。

The chief philosophies of education that one could/should examine in the twenty-first century include the following four prominent theories: progressivism, perennialism, essentialism or neo-essentialism, and behaviorism. Each one is grounded in at least one major philosophy or way of thinking about life, and some of these theories incorporate more than one way of thinking or highlights an important focus. Therefore, it is relevant to review each of these theories because the theory embraced will ultimately result in a given set of educational practices that consider the social function of schools, the nature of the student, the role of the teacher, particular teaching methods, and particular curricular designs and emphases (Knight, 2008, p. 35).
在二十一世紀，人們可以/應該檢視的主要教育哲學包括以下四種著名的理論：進步主義、常恆主義、本質主義或新本質主義，以及行為主義。每一種都至少以一種主要的哲學或生命思考方式為基礎，其中有些理論包含了一種以上的思考方式或突顯了一個重要的重點。因此，檢視這些理論中的每一種都是相關的，因為所擁抱的理論最終會形成一套特定的教育實踐，而這套教育實踐會考慮到學校的社會功能、學生的性質、教師的角色、特定的教學方法，以及特定的課程設計與重點（Knight, 2008, p.35）。

Progressivism is a late nineteenth, early twentieth-century educational theory that was founded or best articulated by John Dewey, who at times is referred to as the “father of progressivism.” Dewey was influenced by major philosophers (G.W.F. Hegel), psychologists (William James and Charles Peirce),
進步主義(Progressivism)是十九世紀末、二十世紀初的一種教育理論，由約翰‧杜威(John Dewey)所創立或闡述，他有時被稱為「進步主義之父」。杜威受到主要哲學家 (G.W.F. 黑格爾)、心理學家 (William James 和 Charles Peirce) 的影響、
and scientists/writers (Charles Darwin). As a result, he became an advocate of pragmatism that serves as the major grounding of progressive educational thought.
和科學家/作家（查爾斯-達爾文）。因此，他成為了實用主義的提倡者，而實用主義則是進步教育思想的主要基礎。

Pragmatism, as a philosophical base, was critical of the older or earlier systems of philosophy (namely idealism, realism, and theistic realism or neo-Scholasticism), which pragmatists say made the mistake of looking for absolutes, universals, or eternals in reality (metaphysics). Pragmatists focused on change (i.e., they viewed the world as a changing entity with its myriad problems) and on the empirical sciences. In other words, pragmatism stresses knowledge or truth (epistemology), not metaphysics, and this knowledge is rooted in experience. Thus, pragmatists assert that individuals do not simply receive knowledge; they make it as they interact with or experience an environment (Dewey, 1938). To a pragmatist, truth is what works. From this base, comes progressivism. “Pragmatism, therefore, may be seen as a central influence in progressive educational theory” (Knight, 2008, p. 102).
實用主義作為一種哲學基礎，批判了較舊或較早的哲學體系（即理想主義、現實主義和有神論現實主義或新學術主義），實用主義者說這些體系犯了在現實中尋找絕對、普遍或永恆（形而上學）的錯誤。實用主義者著重於變化（即他們將世界視為一個不斷變化的實體，其中存在著無數的問題）和實證科學。換句話說，實用主義強調知識或真理（認識論），而非形而上學，而這種知識植根於經驗。因此，實用主義者斷言個人不只是簡單地接受知識；他們是在與環境互動或經驗的過程中製造知識的（Dewey, 1938）。對實用主義者來說，真理就是有效的東西。從這個基礎上，就產生了進步主義。"因此，實用主義可被視為進步教育理論的核心影響力」（Knight, 2008, p.102）。

Progressive education was a part of a larger political-social movement of general reform that characterized life in the United States in the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries as the country tried to adjust to the three major issues of immigration, urbanization, and industrialization. This educational theory began as a definite reaction against traditional education ways such as formal methods of instruction, authoritarian teaching, and rote learning. To progressive educators, education is not a preparation for life but rather life itself, and thus should represent life as authentically as possible.
進步教育是十九世紀末、二十世紀初美國為了適應移民、都市化、工業化三大問題而進行的政治社會改革運動的一部分。這種教育理論一開始肯定是對傳統教育方式的反動，例如正式的教學方法、專制的教學和死記硬背的學習。在進步教育家看來，教育不是為生活做準備，而是生活本身，因此應該盡可能真實地呈現生活。

There is no central dogma to progressivism, but there are some major tenets that most progressive educators espouse. Some progressive principles include the following: (1) the focus should be on the child, and the child should be able to develop naturally; (2) interest is the best stimulus; (3) the teacher is a resource, guide, and facilitator; (4) school should be a lab that encourages cooperation and democratic ways; and (5) close cooperation should exist between school and home. In addition, the aim of progressive education is to educate the individual according to their interests and needs, but this assumes the child knows the basics; the curriculum centers on activities and projects (see William H. Kilpatrick for details on the method); and the educational implications include instruction that features problem solving and group activities.
進步主義並沒有核心教條，但大多數進步教育家都信奉一些主要原則。一些進步原則包括以下幾點：(1) 重點應放在孩子身上，讓孩子自然發展；(2) 興趣是最好的刺激；(3) 老師是資源、引導者和促進者；(4) 學校應是鼓勵合作和民主方式的實驗室；(5) 學校和家庭之間應有緊密的合作。此外，漸進式教育的目的是根據個人的興趣和需求進行教育，但這必須假定孩子知道基本知識；課程以活動和專案為中心（有關此方法的詳細資訊，請參閱 William H. Kilpatrick）；教育意義包括以解決問題和團體活動為特色的教學。

A more recent contributor to and disciple of progressive education is Theodore R. Sizer (and his wife, Nancy). In 1984, Sizer, a professor of education at Brown University, and several of his colleagues published results from “A Study of High Schools,” a five-year investigation of teaching and learning that found that American high schools generally were remarkably similar and quite inadequate. Sizer’s contribution, Horace’s Compromise: The Dilemma of the American High School-and two subsequent works comprising a
西澤(Theodore R. Sizer)(和他的妻子南希(Nancy))是進步教育較近期的貢獻者和弟子。1984 年，布朗大學的教育學教授 Sizer 和他的幾位同事發表了「高中研究」的結果，這是一項為期五年的教學調查，發現美國的高中普遍非常相似，而且相當不足。
trilogy-considered how schools might be designed more wisely. From this evolved a set of beliefs about the purpose and practice of schooling that formed Sizer’s Coalition of Essential Schools’ (CES) ten common principles:
三部曲 - 考慮如何更明智地設計學校。從中演化出一套關於學校教育的目的和實踐的信念，形成了 Sizer 的基本學校聯盟 (CES) 的十項共同原則：

Perennialism, another educational theory, is frequently depicted as a major reaction to progressive education. It first appeared during the 1930s at the University of Chicago. This theory is directly rooted in neo-Scholasticism and indirectly in idealism and realism. Some major proponents of perennialism were Robert. M. Hutchins (a former president at the University of Chicago), Mortimer Adler, Jacques Maritain, and Allan Bloom.
Perennialism 是另一種教育理論，經常被描述為對進步教育的重大反動。它最早出現於 1930 年代的芝加哥大學。此理論直接植根於新學術主義，間接植根於理想主義與現實主義。perennialism 的一些主要支持者是 Robert.M. Hutchins（芝加哥大學前校長）、Mortimer Adler、Jacques Maritain 和 Allan Bloom。

Some major principles of perennialism are as follows: (1) people are rational animals; (2) human nature is universally consistent, and therefore, education should be universally consistent; (3) knowledge is universally consistent, and, as a result, there are certain basic subjects that should be taught to all people; (4) the subject matter, not the child, should stand at the center of the educational endeavor; (5) the great works of the past-found especially in Western literature and history-are a repository of knowledge and wisdom that has stood the test of time and is still quite relevant today; and (6) education is a preparation for life, not life itself. Furthermore, the aim here is to educate the rational person (read the intellect); relative to curriculum, the subject matter is hierarchically arranged to cultivate the intellect; and a major
常年主義的一些主要原則如下：(1)人是理性的動物；(2)人性是普遍一致的，因此，教育也應該是普遍一致的；(3)知識是普遍一致的，因此，有些基本科目應該教給所有人；(4)教育工作的中心應該是學科，而不是孩子；(5)過去的偉大作品，尤其是西方文學和歷史中的偉大作品，是知識和智慧的寶庫，經得起時間的考驗，而且在今天仍然相當重要；(6)教育是為生活做準備，而不是生活本身。此外，這裡的目標是教育有理性的人（讀成「智力」）；相對於課程而言，學科的層次安排是為了培養智力；而一個主要的目標是教育有理性的人（讀成「智慧」）。
implication is to focus on enduring human concerns as revealed in the great works or books of the West.
這意味著要專注於西方偉大作品或書籍中所揭示的人類持久的關注。

Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler assembled the list of the Great Books that are still present in many educational and community settings today. Adler (1982) also led the effort to reform K-12 education by way of The Paideia Proposal that highlighted the same objectives and course of study for all students. Today there are numerous examples of Paideia schools that span grades $\mathrm{K}-8$$\mathrm{K}-8$K-8\mathrm{K}-8 and $\mathrm{K}-12$$\mathrm{K}-12$K-12\mathrm{K}-12 institutions.
Robert Hutchins 和 Mortimer Adler 彙集了名著清單，這些名著至今仍存在於許多教育和社區環境中。Adler (1982)還通過《Paideia 提案》帶領了改革 K-12 教育的努力，該提案強調了所有學生的相同目標和學習課程。今天有許多 Paideia 學校的例子，跨越 $\mathrm{K}-8$$\mathrm{K}-8$K-8\mathrm{K}-8 年級和 $\mathrm{K}-12$$\mathrm{K}-12$K-12\mathrm{K}-12 院校。

This is also an educational theory that first appears during the 1930s in the United States. Essentialism emphasizes the basics, that is, subjects, disciplines, or skills, found in the content of education. It is rooted or grounded in the ancient philosophical orientations of idealism and realism. Essentialism focuses on or adheres to the major idea that there are core (essential) subjects or disciplines that should be studied, and the teacher is the primary authority in the classroom.
這也是 1930 年代在美國首次出現的一種教育理論。本質主義強調基本，也就是教育內容中的科目、學科或技能。它植根於理想主義與現實主義這兩種古老的哲學取向。本質主義著重於或堅持的主要觀點是：有一些核心（基本）科目或學科是應該學習的，而教師是課堂上的主要權威。

The aim of essentialism is to educate a useful and competent individual. Its content includes the three Rs, liberal arts and science, academic disciplines, and academic excellence, and basic skills. Testing is approved for determining mastery of these subjects along with support for vigorous national standards. The essentialist tradition maintains that there are concerned citizens who believe the public schools have declined and that they need to return to stricter discipline and to a study of the “basics.” Since the 1930s, the essentialists have advanced efforts to warn the American public of progressive notions (e.g., “life-adjustment education” and child-centered education) and the continuing erosion of education or learning in the United States (Kessinger, 2010).
本質主義的目的是教育一個有用且有能力的人。其內容包括三 R、文科和理科、學科、學術卓越和基本技能。測驗被認可用來決定學生對這些科目的掌握程度，同時也支持嚴格的國家標準。基礎主義傳統認為，有一些關心的公民認為公立學校已經衰落，他們需要回到更嚴格的紀律和對 「基礎 」的研究。自 1930 年代以來，基礎主義者一直致力於警告美國大眾有關進步的觀念（例如，「生活適應教育」和以兒童為中心的教育），以及美國教育或學習的持續侵蝕（Kessinger, 2010）。

Proponents of essentialism have included William C. Bagley, Isaac L. Kandel, Arthur Bestor, Admiral Hyman Rickover, James Bryant Conant, E. D. Hirsch Jr., Diane Ravitch, and various levels of government in the United States.
本質主義的支持者包括 William C. Bagley、Isaac L. Kandel、Arthur Bestor、Admiral Hyman Rickover、James Bryant Conant、E. D. Hirsch Jr.、Diane Ravitch，以及美國各級政府。

According to Ravitch (as noted by Gutek [2009]]), “The term essentialism is attributed to Michael Demiashkevich, who contrasted two competing theories, essentialism and individual-pragmatism, or progressivism in his Introduction to the Philosophy of Education (1935).” In 1938 a group of prominent educators led by William C. Bagley (1874-1946) began a movement that called for intellectual training in schools instead of “child growth and development.” In An Essentialist’s Platform for the Advancement of American Education (1938), Bagley stated that education requires hard work
根據 Ravitch 的說法 (如 Gutek [2009]] 所指出)，「本質主義一詞歸功於 Michael Demiashkevich，他在他的《教育哲學導論》(Introduction to the Philosophy of Education, 1935) 中對比了兩種互相競爭的理論，本質主義與個人實用主義，或進步主義」。1938 年，由 William C. Bagley (1874-1946)領導的一群知名教育家開始了一場運動，要求在學校進行智力訓練，而非 「兒童成長與發展」。在 An Essentialist's Platform for the Advancement of American Education (1938) 一書中，Bagley 指出教育需要努力工作
and attention as well as respect for genuine authority. He stressed the logical sequence of subjects and called for a “back to basics” movement to combat the lowering of academic standards. His disciples argued that progressive educational tendencies and practices were too soft and placed less emphasis on dealing with educational basics such as mastery of the three Rs and established facts.
和注意力，以及尊重真正的權威。他強調科目的邏輯順序，並呼籲「回歸基本」運動來對抗學術水準的降低。他的門徒認為，進步的教育趨勢和實踐太軟弱，較少強調處理教育的基本要素，例如掌握三個 R 和既定的事實。

During the 1950s, essentialists returned in force and again exerted antiprogressive sentiments via the Council for Basic Education under the leadership of Arthur Bestor and others. Bestor wrote Educational Wastelands: The Retreat from Learning in our Public Schools-a work that is also considered an essentialist manifesto. Joining Bestor in the attack on progressive ideas in public schools was Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, who deplored the lack of developed minds in the United States. He favored a European-type of education that focused on the basics and would lead students to be better prepared to enter an intensive and rigorous professional or technological program of study. With greater emphasis on the basics, many believed schools in the United States could produce the kinds of minds capable of matching those of the Soviets who had launched Sputnik in 1957. As a result of this event and these educational concerns, the federal government passed the National Defense Education Act in 1958.
在 1950 年代，本位主義者大舉回歸，並透過 Arthur Bestor 等人領導的基礎教育委員會（Council for Basic Education）再次發揮反進步的情緒。Bestor 寫了 Educational Wastelands：The Retreat from Learning in our Public Schools》，這本著作也被認為是本質主義的宣言。與 Bestor 一起抨擊公立學校中的進步思想的是 Hyman G. Rickover 海軍上將，他對美國缺乏發達的思想深表遺憾。他傾向於歐洲式的教育，著重於基礎知識，使學生能為進入密集而嚴格的專業或技術課程學習做好更充分的準備。隨著對基礎知識的重視，許多人相信美國的學校可以培養出與 1957 年發射人造衛星的蘇聯人相匹配的人才。由於這個事件和對教育的關注，聯邦政府在 1958 年通過了國防教育法案。

The watershed event that brought the national government into the arena of public education in the United States was the issuance of A Nation at Risk (1983). This seminal government report-based on a study conducted at the direction of the president-noted that the “Federal Government has the primary responsibility to identify the national interest in education” (ANAR, 1983, p. 33). The report warned “the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people.” Essentialists believe the essentials or core of education should be the “basics” of education. This report encouraged reform and suggested both higher standards and improved content. It called for a renewed emphasis or a neo-essentialist perspective on the “Five New Basics” that would include as a minimum standard for high school graduation: four years of English, three years each of mathematics, science, and social studies, and one-half year of computer science. In addition, two years of a foreign language were recommended for the college-bound student. In effect, this neo-essentialist movement that began in the 1980s revisited the ideas of the earlier essentialist movements and advocates of this position are frequently associated with political and cultural conservatives.
將國家政府帶入美國公共教育領域的分水嶺事件是《危機中的國家》(A Nation at Risk, 1983)的發行。這份開創性的政府報告是在總統的指示下進行的一項研究的基礎上，指出「聯邦政府在確定教育的國家利益方面負有主要責任」（ANAR, 1983, p.33）。該報告警告「我們社會的教育基礎目前正被不斷上升的平庸浪潮所侵蝕，威脅到我們國家和民族的未來」。基礎主義者相信教育的要點或核心應該是教育的「基礎」。這份報告鼓勵改革，並建議提高標準和改善內容。它呼籲重新強調或以新基本教義派的觀點來看待「五項新基本教 育」，其中包括高中畢業的最低標準：四年英語，數學、科學和社會科學各 三年，以及二分之一年的電腦科學。此外，還建議大學生學習兩年外語。實際上，這個在 1980 年代開始的新本質主義運動重新檢視了早期本質主義運動的觀點，而這個立場的倡導者經常與政治和文化保守派聯繫在一起。

The recent legislations of No Child Left Behind (2001), The Race to the Top (2009), and Every Student Succeeds Act (2015) have continued the impetus for reform by the federal government. Indeed, the national government has increased its requirements on the states and, therefore, has
最近的《不放棄任何一個孩子》(No Child Left Behind, 2001)、《力爭上游》(The Race to the Top, 2009)和《每個學生成功法》(Every Student Succeeds Act, 2015)等立法繼續推動聯邦政府的改革。事實上，國家政府增加了對各州的要求，也因此
continued its role as a dominant influence on public education. As a result of these laws, states are obligated to increase standards, insure achievement by means of tests, expect highly qualified teachers, and give evidence of greater accountability. These requirements are essentialist in design.
繼續在公共教育上扮演主導的角色。由於這些法律的緣故，各州有義務提高標準、透過測驗來確保成績、期待高素質的教師，並提供更多的責任證明。這些要求在設計上是基本主義的。

Another force in education since the middle of the twentieth century is behaviorism. This theory of education is rooted in realism (with an emphasis on natural laws), positivism, and materialism. Some proponents of behaviorism were Auguste Comte, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner. Comte sought to attain “positive” knowledge or that which can be verified empirically; in other words, the focus is on the observable and measurable. Watson is frequently referred to as the “father of modern behaviorism.” Skinner, who authored Beyond Freedom and Dignity, was perhaps the most influential behaviorist of the twentieth century.
二十世紀中葉以來，教育界的另一股力量是行為主義。這種教育理論植根於現實主義（強調自然法則）、實證主義和唯物主義。行為主義的一些支持者包括 Auguste Comte、Ivan Pavlov、John B. Watson 和 B. F. Skinner。孔德（Comte）尋求的是「正面」的知識，或是可以經驗驗證的知識；換句話說，焦點在於可觀察和可測量的事物。華生經常被稱為「現代行為主義之父」。斯金納（Skinner）著有《超越自由與尊嚴》（Beyond Freedom and Dignity）一書，他也許是二十世紀最具影響力的行為學家。

Behaviorism began to be applied to education in the 1950s, both to help understand student learning and to guide teaching. According to Drasgow (2010), the application of behaviorism to education was based on using principles that had been developed in the laboratory and on improving and thus reforming the educational system (Drasgow, 2010, p. 87).
行為主義在二十世紀五十年代開始應用於教育，既幫助理解學生的學習，也指導教學。根據 Drasgow (2010)，將行為主義應用於教育是基於使用在實驗室中發展的原則，以及改善進而改革教育制度 (Drasgow, 2010, p. 87)。

Four major principles of behaviorism are as follows: (1) human beings are highly developed animals who learn in the same way that other animals learn; (2) education is a process of behavioral engineering; (3) the teacher’s role is to create an effective learning environment; and (4) efficiency, economy, precision, and objectivity are central aspects of value in education (Knight, 2008).
行為主義的四大原則如下：(1) 人類是高度發展的動物，其學習方式與其他動物的學習方式相同；(2) 教育是行為工程的過程；(3) 教師的角色是創造有效的學習環境；(4) 效率、經濟、精確和客觀是教育價值的核心層面 (Knight, 2008)。

An offshoot of behaviorism as well as progressivism is constructivism. Vygotsky’s work, The Mind in Society (1938), is often cited as major treatise for this way of thinking. According to Kinnucan-Welsch (2010),
行為主義與進步主義的一個分支是建構主義。Vygotsky 的著作《社會中的心智》（The Mind in Society，1938 年）經常被引述為這種思考方式的主要論文。根據 Kinnucan-Welsch (2010)、

Constructivism is a theory of knowing, with roots in psychology, philosophy and biology. It was introduced as a theory into a Western world dominated by a Western philosophical tradition including the foundation of realism which promulgated a theory of knowledge in which true knowledge represents an objective reality independent of observers of that reality and that individuals seek knowledge through a representation of that objective reality. (p. 215)
建構主義是一種知識理論，根源於心理學、哲學和生物學。它作為一種理論被引入西方世界，而西方世界是由西方哲學傳統（包括現實主義的基礎）所主導的，現實主義頒布了一種知識理論，在這種理論中，真正的知識代表了一種客觀現實，獨立於該現實的觀察者，而個人則通過對該客觀現實的表達來尋求知識。(p. 215)

Constructivism, as a theory of learning, has played an important role in educational reform, both in terms of how instruction is designed and implemented in schools and classrooms and in terms of educator preparation.
建構主義作為一種學習理論，在教育改革中扮演了重要的角色，無論是在學校和教室如何設計和實施教學，還是在教育工作者的準備方面。

Reflecting on the above four educational theories, one theory may relate or have greater relevancy to a given teacher, school, or school district in terms of its mission, vision, and available resources than the others. For this, the individual teacher and administrator (or leadership team) need to understand this as a given.
反思以上四種教育理論，其中一種理論可能與某位教師、學校或學區的使命、願景和 可用資源有關，或比其他理論更有關聯性。對於這一點，個別教 師和管理者（或領導團隊）必須明白這一點。

The key, though, decisions are made, and next steps considered are to avoid “mindlessness” and to develop a curriculum design or pattern or way of operating that is both consistent and meets the needs of a particular school or school district.
儘管如此，做出決定、考慮下一步，關鍵在於避免「漫無目的」，並發展出既一致又符合特定學校或學區需求的課程設計或模式或運作方式。

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