Processes of class reproduction operate during university. The discourse of the‘ideal’ student/graduate‘pathologises’those from non-traditional backgrounds for not having appropriate aspirations and attitudes for the future (Moreau and Leathwood2006). However, graduates have differential access to social capital. For continuing-generation students (i.e., who are not the first in their close family to go to university),the availability and quality of networks through family/social ties may provide access to information about jobs and influence over employers, which are crucial to finding the first graduate job (Macmillan, Tyler, and Vignoles 2015). Thus, the importance given to the development of social capital through networks, as well as soft skills and competencies through participation in extra-curricular activities and internships places first-generation, and other non-traditional, students at a disadvantage if they do not have access to such opportunities (Bathmaker, Ingram, and Waller 2013).
阶级再生产的过程在大学期间也在进行。理想 "学生/毕业生的论述将非传统背景的学生归咎为对未来没有适当的抱负和态度(Moreau 和 Leathwood,2006 年)。然而,毕业生在获得社会资本方面存在差异。对于连续一代的学生(即在其近亲家庭中不是第一个上大学的人)来说,通过家庭/社会关系建立的网络的可用性和质量可以提供就业信息和对雇主的影响力,这对找到第一份毕业生工作至关重要(Macmillan, Tyler, and Vignoles 2015 年)。因此,重视通过网络发展社会资本,以及通过参加课外活动和实习发展软技能和能力,会使第一代学生和其他非传统学生处于不利地位,如果他们无法获得这些机会的话(Bathmaker、Ingram 和 Waller,2013 年)。
Particularly for performance and persistence in STEM fields, the crucial role played by role models for encouraging STEM careers and formation of professional identity has been demonstrated (Shin, Levy, and London 2016). First-generation students are unlikely to have such role models, as entry into most STEM careers require a university degree. In contrast, family achievement guilt, referring to the guilt associated with surpassing the educational achievements of close others in family, has been reported among first-generation students (Covarrubias and Fryberg 2015).
特别是在 STEM 领域的表现和坚持方面,榜样在鼓励 STEM 职业发展和形成职业认同方面所起的关键作用已得到证实(Shin、Levy 和 London,2016 年)。第一代学生不太可能有这样的榜样,因为进入大多数 STEM 职业都需要大学学位。与此相反,第一代学生中出现了家庭成就负罪感,指的是与超越家庭中关系密切的其他人的教育成就相关的负罪感(Covarrubias 和 Fryberg,2015 年)。
While it is likely that university experience may alter and develop ‘graduate identity’, our first set of hypotheses focuses broadly on social background as an obstacle to becoming employable. The hypotheses contrast the experiences of first- and continuing-generation students:
虽然大学经历可能会改变和发展 "毕业生身份",但我们的第一组假设广泛地侧重于社会背景对就业的阻碍。这些假设对比了第一代和第二代学生的经历:
Hypothesis 1: First-generation students will report: (a) lower perceived employability; (b) higher anxiety; and (c) lower participation in proactive career behaviours, compared to continuing-generation students.
假设 1:第一代学生将报告:(a) 较低的就业能力感知;(b) 较高的焦虑;(c) 与连续一代的学生相比,较少参与积极的职业行为。
The rapid expansion of HE in the UK is argued to have reinforced a ‘two-tier’ university system reflecting varying degrees of university prestige (Boden and Nedeva 2010). Institutions perceived as more prestigious tend to have lower staff/student ratios, higher entry requirements and lower participation rates from less affluent social groups; this status divide in the UK is reflected in the differentiation between ‘old’ (pre-1992) versus ‘new’ (post-1992) HEIs (Boliver 2016).
有人认为,英国高等教育的迅速发展强化了 "两级 "大学体系,反映了大学声望的不同程度(Boden 和 Nedeva,2010 年)。被认为更有声望的院校往往教职员工/学生比例较低,入学要求较高,较不富裕社会群体的参与率较低;英国的这种地位鸿沟反映在 "老"(1992 年前)与 "新"(1992 年后)高等院校之间的区别上(Boliver,2016 年)。
HEI environment may shape students’ experiences during UtWT in several ways. First, elite employers tend to focus recruitment resources on a select group of institutions (Ashley et al. 2015). Students in more prestigious HEIs tend to benefit from elite employers’ attention, e.g., in exposure to career opportunities and networking with gatekeepers, than those from other HEIs (Papafilippou and Bathmaker 2018). Second, HEI employability programmes provide students with positional advantage in the graduate labour market. Opportunities to interact with professionals through internships, meeting employers or alumni, and acquiring and practicing skills through volunteer opportunities are examples of such activities (Farenga and Quinlan 2016). These opportunities can raise expectations and reduce anxiety regarding an unknown transition, and allow opportunities for proactive career engagement, e.g., networking.
高校环境可能会从几个方面影响学生在 UtWT 期间的经历。首先,精英雇主倾向于将招聘资源集中于特定的院校群体(Ashley et al.)与其他高等院校的学生相比,更有声望的高等院校的学生往往能从精英雇主的关注中获益,例如在接触职业机会和与守门人建立联系方面(Papafilippou 和 Bathmaker,2018 年)。其次,高等院校的就业能力课程为学生提供了在毕业生劳动力市场上的定位优势。通过实习与专业人士互动、与雇主或校友会面、通过志愿者机会获得和锻炼技能等机会都是此类活动的例子(Farenga 和 Quinlan,2016 年)。这些机会可以提高学生的期望值,减少他们对未知过渡的焦虑,并为他们提供主动参与职业生涯的机会,例如建立人际网络。
Finally, the reputation of the university attended can influence students’ perceptions of fit into certain jobs, career expectations (Scholarios, Lockyer, and Johnson 2003) and their perceived barriers to employability (Rothwell, Herbert, and Rothwell 2008). For instance, Boden and Neveda’s (2010) examination of the employability-related information provided on websites of two universities operating within the same geographical area suggest contrasting expectations: the HEI with lower proportions of socially disadvantaged students emphasised creating the employers’ of the future, while the HEI with a greater proportion of socially disadvantaged students focused on producing the “re‐trainable flexible workforce with very specific skills” (p. 49).
最后,就读大学的声誉会影响学生对某些工作的适应程度、职业期望(Scholarios、Lockyer 和 Johnson,2003 年)以及他们对就业能力障碍的看法(Rothwell、Herbert 和 Rothwell,2008 年)。例如,Boden 和 Neveda(2010 年)对同一地理区域内两所大学网站上提供的与就业能力相关的信息进行了研究,结果表明,两所大学对就业能力的期望截然不同:社会处境不利学生比例较低的高等院校强调培养未来的雇主,而社会处境不利学生比例较高的高等院校则侧重于培养 "具有非常特殊技能的可再培训的灵活劳动力"(第 49 页)。
Such differences in career-related exposure, in turn, shape employability-related expectations. For the purposes of this article, we compare the experience of students attending pre- and post-1992 HEIs in the UK using this distinction as a proxy for two contrasting institutional employability contexts: the ‘older’, pre-1992 HEI, where students are more likely to be systematically socialised into an enterprising graduate identity compared to students in the ‘newer’, post-1992 HEI. Our second set of hypotheses contrasts graduate identity indicators of becoming employable across HEIs, controlling for the broader effects of social background.
这种与职业相关的接触方面的差异,反过来又影响了与就业能力相关的期望。在本文中,我们比较了英国 "1992 年前 "和 "1992 年后 "高等院校学生的经历,并将这种差异作为两种截然不同的院校就业能力背景的代表:"老 "的、"1992 年前 "高等院校的学生与 "新 "的、"1992 年后 "高等院校的学生相比,更有可能被系统地社会化为一种进取型毕业生身份。我们的第二组假设是,在控制社会背景的广泛影响的前提下,对比各高等院校毕业生就业能力的认同指标。
Hypothesis 2: Compared to students in a pre-1992 HEI, those in post-1992 HEIs will report: (a) lower perceived employability; (b) higher anxiety; and (c) lower participation in proactive career behaviours.
假设 2:与 "1992 年前 "高等院校的学生相比,"1992 年后 "高等院校的学生将报告: (a) 认为自己的就业能力较低;(b) 焦虑程度较高;(c) 参与积极的职业行为较少。
The final aspect of potential disadvantage for ‘becoming employable’ considered in this article is the individual’s perceived financial strain (the degree to which financial resources meet one’s personal needs (Ullah 1990)). Financial pressures, which are reported by a substantial proportion of students (Watson, Barber, and Dziurawiec 2016), can intensify job search and lead to less goal-directed career behaviour, focusing on securing any work available (Hausdorf 2007). Financial strain lowers one’s reservation wage, and graduates experiencing financial strain may lower their job search expectations, irrespective of qualifications match (Furlong 2015).
本文考虑的 "成为就业能手 "的潜在不利因素的最后一个方面是个人感知到的经济压力(经济资源满足个人需求的程度(Ullah,1990 年))。有相当一部分学生(Watson、Barber 和 Dziurawiec,2016 年)表示,经济压力会加剧求职,并导致职业行为的目标导向性降低,而将重点放在获得任何可用的工作上(Hausdorf,2007 年)。经济压力会降低一个人的保留工资,经历过经济压力的毕业生可能会降低他们的求职期望,无论学历是否匹配(Furlong,2015 年)。
Students who report experiencing financial difficulties are also more likely to report mental health issues, such as stress and anxiety (Richardson et al. 2017). Moreover, financial strain is a barrier for proactive career behaviour, e.g., extracurricular activities, engaging in career exploration or networking (Bathmaker, Ingram, and Waller 2013).
报告经历经济困难的学生也更有可能报告心理健康问题,如压力和焦虑(Richardson 等人,2017 年)。此外,经济压力也会阻碍积极主动的职业行为,如课外活动、参与职业探索或建立人际网络(Bathmaker、Ingram 和 Waller,2013 年)。
Our final set of hypotheses controls for the impact of social background and HEI-type to examine the influence of individual financial strain on becoming employable.
我们的最后一组假设控制了社会背景和高等院校类型的影响,以研究个人经济压力对就业的影响。
Hypothesis 3: The greater a student’s perceived financial strain: (a) the lower their perceived employability; (b) the higher their anxiety; and (c) the lower their participation in proactive career behaviours.
假设 3:学生感知到的经济压力越大:(a) 他们感知到的就业能力越低;(b) 他们的焦虑感越高;(c) 他们参与积极就业行为的程度越低。
Method 方法
The present study was part of a larger (as yet unpublished) research project on UtWT in Scotland. This larger study aimed to examine the role of career agency for securing graduate jobs. First, through snowball sampling, exploratory interviews were conducted with graduates in the first two years of post-graduation careers, focusing on the barriers graduates experienced in transition to work. Findings from interviews were then used to develop a longitudinal survey design which allowed testing conceptual models on the role of agency in UtWT success. The present study uses one of the survey instruments intended for final year students developed as part of the longitudinal design. Heads of schools/departments across subject areas in 10 purposely selected universities (from a total of 19 in Scotland, representing a balance of pre- and post-1992 universities and regional proximity) were invited to help disseminate the survey to final year students. Representatives from seven universities agreed to take part. Department heads/final year coordinators and/or career services in the seven participating universities sent an online survey link to graduating students (May-June 2016). This resulted in an initial sample size of 600 final year students. A follow-up survey was then administered to the 2016 cohort one year after graduation (June 2017).
本研究是苏格兰一项规模更大(尚未发表)的关于 UtWT 研究项目的一部分。这项更大规模的研究旨在考察职业中介机构在确保毕业生就业方面的作用。首先,通过 "滚雪球式 "抽样,对毕业后头两年的毕业生进行了探索性访谈,重点关注毕业生在向工作过渡时遇到的障碍。访谈结果随后被用于开发纵向调查设计,从而检验机构在UtWT成功中的作用的概念模型。本研究使用了纵向设计中针对毕业班学生开发的调查工具之一。我们邀请了 10 所特意挑选出来的大学(苏格兰共有 19 所大学,代表了 1992 年前和 1992 年后大学的平衡以及地区的接近性)各学科领域的学院/系主任,帮助向毕业班学生传播调查。七所大学的代表同意参与调查。七所参与大学的系主任/毕业班协调员和/或就业服务部门向即将毕业的学生发送了在线调查链接(2016 年 5 月至 6 月)。因此,最初的样本量为 600 名毕业班学生。然后在毕业一年后(2017 年 6 月)对 2016 届学生进行了后续调查。
The three graduate identity indicators relevant for becoming employable were operationalised as follows.
与就业相关的三项毕业生身份指标的操作方法如下。
Job search expectations: Seven items were generated through semi-structured interviews, which were conducted as part of the larger UtWT study, with 15 graduates from the 2014 cohort. Participants were asked to indicate which of the seven job-related scenarios they anticipated finding themselves in upon graduation. Principal component analyses showed that these seven items loaded on to two distinct factors. These factors correspond to the employment outcomes generally reported by graduates: accepting any job (e.g., ‘accept the first job that comes my way’) and securing a good/graduate job (e.g., ‘join a graduate trainee scheme with one of the large graduate employers’).
求职期望:作为 UtWT 大型研究的一部分,我们对 2014 届的 15 名毕业生进行了半结构化访谈,从中产生了七个项目。参与者被要求指出,他们预计毕业后会在七种与工作相关的情景中选择哪一种。主成分分析表明,这七个项目被加载到两个不同的因子上。这些因子与毕业生普遍报告的就业结果相对应:接受任何工作(例如,"接受我找到的第一份工作")和获得一份好工作/毕业生工作(例如,"加入某个大型毕业生雇主的毕业生实习计划")。
Perceived internal and external barriers to employment: Rothwell, Herbert and Rothwell’s (2008)’s self-perceived employability scale was adapted, where participants were asked to indicate whether each item was a barrier to labour market entry (1=yes, 0=no). Sample items for perceived internal (four items, α=.74) and external barriers (five items, α=.78) are ‘my awareness of opportunities in the graduate labour market’and ‘the strength of my university’s brand’, respectively. A total sum score was calculated for perceived internal and external barriers to employment.
认为存在的内部和外部就业障碍:对 Rothwell、Herbert 和 Rothwell(2008 年)的自我认知就业能力量表进行了改编,要求参与者指出每个项目是否是进入劳动力市场的障碍(1=是,0=否)。感知到的内部障碍(4 项,α=.74)和外部障碍(5 项,α=.78)的样本项目分别是 "我对毕业生劳动力市场机会的认识 "和 "我所在大学的品牌实力"。我们计算了所感知到的内部和外部就业障碍的总和得分。
University type: the two selected universities represented pre- and post-1992 universities, operating within the same geographical area.
大学类型:所选两所大学分别代表 1992 年前和 1992 年后的大学,在同一地理区域办学。
Hierarchical logistic regression analyses were conducted for the two binary job search expectation dependent variables (any job and good job). Hierarchical linear regression analyses were conducted for the remaining dependent variables (perceived internal and external barriers, anxiety and networking). The hierarchical models comprised four steps. Control variables (gender (female=1), nationality (Scottish=1, rest of the UK/rest of the EU/non-EU=0) and expected degree classification (2:1 or first =1)) were included in step 1. Social background, university type and financial strain were included in steps 2, 3 and 4 to test Hypotheses 1-3, respectively. Hypothesis testing was conducted by examination of the significant standardized Beta coefficients and the change in the variance explained (ΔR2) at each step.
对两个二元求职期望因变量(任何工作和好工作)进行了层次逻辑回归分析。对其余因变量(感知到的内部和外部障碍、焦虑和网络)进行了层次线性回归分析。层次模型包括四个步骤。第一步包括控制变量(性别(女性=1)、国籍(苏格兰=1,英国其他地区/欧盟其他地区/非欧盟=0)和预期学位分类(2:1 或第一学位=1))。社会背景、大学类型和经济压力分别被纳入第二、第三和第四步,以检验假设 1-3。假设检验是通过检验每个步骤中显著的标准化 Beta 系数和被解释方差的变化(ΔR2)来进行的。
Results of multiple hierarchical regression analyses are presented in Table 3. In comparison to the pre-1992 university, students from the post-1992 university reported significantly lower levels of pre-employment activities (β=-.47, p<.001), exploratory (β=-.30, p<.001) and focused job search (β=-.18, p<.05), networking (β=-.28, p<.001), perceived internal (β=-.29, p<.001) and external barriers to employability (β=-.36, p<.001), and higher haphazard job search (β=.28, p<.001) and job search anxiety (β=.37, p<.001). University type showed the greatest incremental variance on pre-employment activities (ΔR2=.16) and job search anxiety (ΔR2=.13). Moreover, first-generation students reported more exploratory job search (β=.20, p<.001) and less job search anxiety (β=-.15, p<.01) in comparison to continuing-generation counterparts. However, this only explained six and one per cent incremental variance, respectively. Financial strain was only associated with job search anxiety (β=.22, p<.001) and explained five per cent incremental variance.
表 3 列出了多元层次回归分析的结果。与 "1992 年前 "的大学相比,"1992 年后 "的大学学生在就业前活动(β=-.47,p<.001)、探索性(β=-.30,p<.001)和重点求职(β=-.18,p<.05)、网络(β=-.28,p<.001)、感知到的就业能力内部障碍(β=-.29,p<.001)和外部障碍(β=-.36,p<.001),以及较高的求职随意性(β=.28,p<.001)和求职焦虑(β=.37,p<.001)。大学类型对就业前活动(ΔR2=.16)和求职焦虑(ΔR2=.13)的增量差异最大。此外,与连续一代学生相比,第一代学生的求职探索性更强(β=.20,p<.001),求职焦虑更小(β=-.15,p<.01)。然而,这只能分别解释 6%和 1%的增量方差。经济压力只与求职焦虑有关(β=.22,p<.001),并能解释 5% 的增量方差。
Insert Table 3 about here
此处插入表 3
Discussion 讨论
The findings provide support for an institutional effect on becoming an ‘employable graduate’. Controlling for students’ own social background, those attending the pre-1992 HEI held more positive expectations, were less anxious, and engaged in more proactive career behaviours than those in the post-1992 HEI (supporting Hypothesis 2). There was weaker support for broader social background (Hypothesis 1) and individual financial strain explanations (Hypothesis 3). These findings allow us to contribute in two distinct ways to understanding the development of student employability during UtWTs.
研究结果支持了院校对成为 "可就业毕业生 "的影响。与 "1992 年后 "高等院校的学生相比,在 "1992 年前 "高等院校就读的学生对自己的社会背景抱有更积极的期望,焦虑程度更低,职业行为更积极主动(支持假设 2)。对更广泛的社会背景(假设 1)和个人经济压力(假设 3)的解释支持较弱。这些研究结果使我们能够从两个不同的方面来理解学生在 UtWTs 期间就业能力的发展。
Understanding social disadvantage during preparation for labour market entry
了解准备进入劳动力市场期间的社会不利条件
We framed the study around three interrelated sources of disadvantage: social background, HEI type and institutional context, and financial strain. The findings indicate that HEI type has the strongest and most substantial effect on indicators of ‘employable graduate’ identity measured in this study. Students in post-1992 HEIs reported poorer job search expectations and lower participation in proactive career behaviours than those in the pre-1992 HEIs. Underlying our hypothesis was an expectation that exposure to opportunities, such as access to elite employers, influential networks, and/or perceived ‘fit’ with such employers and networks, signals expectations for development of enterprising graduate identity. The strong HEI effect over and above social background suggests that students in pre-1992 HEIs, as represented by recent evidence (e.g., Boliver, 2016), may have benefited from these channels in constructing themselves as an ‘employable graduate’, in employability-related cognition, affect and behaviour.
我们围绕三个相互关联的不利条件来源展开研究:社会背景、高等院校类型和院校背景以及经济压力。研究结果表明,高等院校类型对本研究中衡量的 "可就业毕业生 "身份指标的影响最大、最实质。与 "1992 年 "之前的高等院校相比,"1992 年 "之后的高等院校的学生对求职的期望较低,参与积极主动的职业行为的程度也较低。我们的假设的基础是这样一种预期,即接触机会,如接触精英雇主、有影响力的网络,和/或与这些雇主和网络的 "契合度",预示着毕业生发展进取型身份的预期。除了社会背景之外,高等院校的强烈影响表明,"1992 年 "之前的高等院校的学生,正如最近的证据(如 Boliver,2016 年)所表明的那样,可能已经从这些渠道中获益,将自己构建为一名 "可就业的毕业生",并在与就业能力相关的认知、情感和行为中获益。
There were also some findings contrary to our expectations. Students in the post- 1992 HEI reported fewer barriers to employability. Post-hoc analyses, controlling for social background and financial disadvantage, show that HEI type is indirectly related to perceived internal and external barriers via job search expectations. We can argue, therefore, that students in the post-1992 university may perceive fewer barriers for graduate labour market entry partly because they have lower job search expectations.
也有一些结果与我们的预期相反。1992 年以后的高等院校的学生报告的就业障碍较少。在控制了社会背景和经济劣势之后进行的事后分析表明,高等院校类型通过求职期望与学生感知到的内部和外部障碍间接相关。因此,我们可以认为,"1992 年后 "大学的学生认为毕业生进入劳动力市场的障碍较少,部分原因是他们的求职期望值较低。
We expected that social background would negatively affect becoming employable, based on the incongruence of first-generation students and STEM education/employment habitus and on a lack of social and cultural capital compared to continuing-generation students, especially due to lack of STEM role models. However, social background had a negligible direct effect on most study variables. It showed highest incremental variance (ΔR2=.02) in explaining expectations of taking ‘any job’ on graduation and exploratory job search and was associated with lower anxiety. We can only speculate on first-generation students’ preferences for exploratory job search. As first-generation university students, it is less likely that they will receive informed advice and guidance from significant others in access to STEM fields compared to continuing-generation students. Exploratory job search may therefore help compensate for this lack of social capital. We also tested whether job search expectation was an explanatory factor, especially for first-generation students’ lower anxiety. These post-hoc analyses did not provide significant results. Research on school-to-university transitions shows that first-generation students have lower expectations of being successful and even of going to university, reflecting their habitus (Reay, 2018). These students’ lower anxiety may also be associated with feeling less pressure than their continuing-generation counterparts to secure high-skilled, graduate jobs from those around them, e.g., family and even university staff.
基于第一代学生与 STEM 教育/就业习惯的不一致,以及与连续一代学生相比缺乏社会和文化资本,特别是由于缺乏 STEM 榜样,我们预计社会背景会对就业能力产生负面影响。然而,社会背景对大多数研究变量的直接影响微乎其微。在解释毕业时 "任何工作 "的期望和探索性求职方面,社会背景显示出最大的增量方差(ΔR2=.02),并且与较低的焦虑相关。我们只能推测第一代学生对探索性求职的偏好。作为第一代大学生,与连续一代学生相比,他们在进入 STEM 领域时从重要他人那里获得明智建议和指导的可能性较小。因此,探索性求职可能有助于弥补这种社会资本的不足。我们还测试了求职期望是否是一个解释因素,尤其是第一代学生焦虑较低的原因。这些事后分析结果并不显著。关于从学校到大学过渡的研究表明,第一代学生对成功甚至上大学的期望较低,这反映了他们的习惯(Reay,2018)。这些学生较低的焦虑感也可能与他们在获得来自周围人(如家人甚至大学教职员工)的高技能、毕业生工作方面感受到的压力小于连续一代学生有关。
One explanation for the negligible overall incremental effect of social background on becoming employable could be that this effect is indirect (Blasko et al. 2002). In other words, first-generation students fare worse than continuing-generation counterparts because they are more likely to attend post-1992 HEIs (where their habitus is more closely aligned with the HEI than in a pre-1992 HEI) and/or experience more financial strain. It is difficult to observe such indirect causality effects within the confines of our small-size and cross-sectional dataset. In fact, our post-hoc analyses where we tested indirect and interaction effects between social background and HEI type as predictors of becoming employable, did not yield meaningful results. This remains an issue for further research.
社会背景对就业能力的总体递增效应微乎其微,一种解释是这种效应是间接的(Blasko 等人,2002 年)。换句话说,第一代学生的就业情况比第二代学生差,是因为他们更有可能就读于 "1992 年后 "的高等院校(与 "1992 年前 "的高等院校相比,他们的习惯与高等院校的关系更为密切)和/或经历更多的经济压力。在我们的小规模横截面数据集范围内,很难观察到这种间接因果效应。事实上,我们在事后分析中检验了社会背景与高校类型之间的间接效应和交互效应,作为预测就业能力的因素,这些分析并没有得出有意义的结果。这仍是一个有待进一步研究的问题。
Financial strain was not related to other measures of social disadvantage in this study. This might be due to the widespread experience of financial difficulties across the student population (Watson, Barber & Dziurawiec, 2016) and so may not be a meaningful indicator to differentiate social disadvantage among students. There was limited support for a direct effect of financial strain on cognitive and behavioural aspects of UtWTs, with the only significant association being between financial strain and higher anxiety, findings consistent with existing research (Richardson et al. 2017).
在本研究中,经济压力与其他社会弱势衡量指标无关。这可能是由于学生群体中普遍存在经济困难(Watson, Barber & Dziurawiec, 2016),因此可能不是区分学生社会弱势的一个有意义的指标。经济压力对 UtWTs 认知和行为方面的直接影响得到的支持有限,唯一显著的关联是经济压力与较高的焦虑之间的关联,这一结果与现有研究一致(Richardson 等,2017 年)。
Understanding the ‘employable graduate’ identity construction process
了解 "可就业毕业生 "的身份构建过程
The study’s second theoretical contribution is to broaden the concept of graduate employability beyond the likelihood of securing and maintaining a job (McQuaid and Lindsay 2005) and/or individual attributes associated with securing a graduate job (e.g., human capital, career behaviour) (Bridgstock 2009). The neoliberal discourse of graduate employability assumes that the experience of becoming an ‘ideal graduate’ is uniformly positive (Allen et al. 2013). Yet, the realities of the UtWT are varied and complex.
本研究的第二项理论贡献是,将毕业生就业能力的概念扩展到了获得并维持一份工作的可能性(McQuaid 和 Lindsay,2005 年)和/或与获得一份毕业生工作相关的个人属性(如人力资本、职业行为)(Bridgstock,2009 年)之外。新自由主义关于毕业生就业能力的论述假定,成为 "理想毕业生 "的经历都是积极的(Allen 等,2013 年)。然而,UtWT 的现实是多样而复杂的。
Student cognitions and affective states are rarely included in discussions of graduate employability. Our findings show that social disadvantage explained the greatest incremental variance on students’ job search expectations, perceived barriers to employability and job search-related anxiety, i.e., in their cognition and affect toward UtWT, in comparison to its effects on proactive career behaviours. There is already considerable research on perceived employability and proactive career behaviours among the student population. Our study contributes to this research by showing that each of the indicators of potential disadvantage considered (social background, HEI- type and financial strain) significantly explained levels of anxiety felt by students related to UtWT. The study, therefore, highlights a need for a broader approach to understanding student experience of ‘becoming employable’, to include not only proactive career behaviours but also students’ cognition and affect.
关于毕业生就业能力的讨论很少涉及学生的认知和情感状态。我们的研究结果表明,社会不利条件对学生的求职期望、就业能力障碍感知和求职焦虑(即对 UtWT 的认知和情感)的影响最大,相比之下,社会不利条件对学生主动职业行为的影响最小。有关学生就业能力感知和主动职业行为的研究已经相当多了。我们的研究表明,潜在不利条件的各项指标(社会背景、高等院校类型和经济压力)都能显著解释学生对 UtWT 的焦虑程度,从而为这项研究做出了贡献。因此,本研究强调,有必要采用更广泛的方法来理解学生 "成为适于就业者 "的经历,这不仅包括积极主动的职业行为,还包括学生的认知和情感。
Practical implications 实际影响
Findings suggest a key role for HEIs, employers and policymakers in the development of an employable graduate identity for STEM subjects. First, HEI staff and employers contribute to students’ employability-related expectations. Alumni can provide exemplars of the opportunities available to students and help reflect the students’ potential – especially when their own journey reflects a similar pattern to the students. Particularly for entry into STEM careers, availability of non-stereotypical role models is important (Shin et al 2016); for example, first-generation students or those from similar HEIs. STEM employers are encouraged to be more nuanced in their recruitment activities and make selection decisions based on subject strength rather than long- standing perceptions or university rankings. This could be achieved by adopting local HEIs and thereby forming deeper relationships to help shape the curricula and build trust in the quality of the graduates (Allison et al. 2018).
研究结果表明,高等院校、雇主和政策制定者在培养科学、技术、工程和数学学科毕业生的就业能力方面发挥着关键作用。首先,高等院校的教职员工和雇主可以帮助学生树立与就业相关的期望。校友们可以为学生提供机会,并帮助反映学生的潜能--尤其是当他们自己的成长历程与学生的成长历程有相似之处时。特别是对于进入 STEM 职业的学生来说,提供非陈规定型的榜样非常重要(Shin 等人,2016 年);例如,第一代学生或来自类似高等院校的学生。鼓励 STEM 雇主在招聘活动中更加细致入微,并根据学科优势而非长期认知或大学排名做出选择决定。这可以通过采用当地高等院校来实现,从而形成更深层次的关系,帮助塑造课程并建立对毕业生质量的信任(Allison 等,2018 年)。
Our second set of practice recommendations focuses on improving student experience and wellbeing beyond the degree programme. A key finding from this study concerns student wellbeing, as reflected in anxiety. Financial anxieties may be detrimental for academic and labour-market performance. Adopting the University Mental Health Charter, universities can proactively encourage student wellbeing throughout the university.
我们的第二套实践建议侧重于改善学位课程之外的学生体验和福祉。本研究的一个重要发现涉及学生的福祉,这体现在焦虑上。经济上的焦虑可能不利于学业和劳动力市场的表现。采用《大学心理健康宪章》,大学可以积极鼓励学生在整个大学期间保持身心健康。
Our third set of practical recommendations is for supporting more effective STEM career behaviours. Universities’ enhanced employment events could be better tailored to provide an understanding of career routes, develop a deeper awareness of the labour market and to overcome the challenges of accessing the market. For instance, entrepreneurship education has been suggested as a way of facilitating graduate identity development (Berglund 2013).
我们的第三套实用建议是支持更有效的 STEM 职业行为。大学的强化就业活动可以更有针对性地提供对就业途径的了解,培养对劳动力市场的深入认识,并克服进入市场所面临的挑战。例如,有人建议将创业教育作为促进毕业生身份发展的一种方式(Berglund,2013 年)。
Study limitations 研究局限性
We recognise that the study captures graduate identity at a particular stage of the UtWT and that graduate career identities evolve as they interact with the labour market (Holmes, 2013). Few studies, however, have attempted to apply a graduate identity perspective during the UtWT and specifically explore social disadvantage at this critical phase. The study, therefore, represents an original perspective on the construction of graduate employability.
我们认识到,本研究捕捉的是毕业生在UtWT特定阶段的身份认同,而毕业生的职业身份认同是随着他们与劳动力市场的互动而不断发展的(Holmes, 2013)。然而,很少有研究试图从毕业生身份认同的视角来探讨这一关键阶段的社会不利处境。因此,本研究为毕业生就业能力的构建提供了一个新的视角。
Our focus on STEM students was intended to narrow the labour markets being compared across HEI type, and hence potential explanatory variables impacting employability. However, there still exist subject-specific paths into employment for different STEM subjects which may impact graduates’ construction of employability. We were not able to differentiate between subjects at this level. Moreover, future research could study social disadvantage at the intersection of gender-based disadvantage, which remains an important issue for entry into STEM education and careers.
我们关注 STEM 学生的目的是缩小不同高校类型之间劳动力市场的比较范围,从而缩小影响就业能力的潜在解释变量。然而,不同的 STEM 学科仍然存在特定的就业途径,这可能会影响毕业生就业能力的构建。在这个层面上,我们无法区分不同的学科。此外,未来的研究可以从性别劣势的交叉点来研究社会劣势,这仍然是进入 STEM 教育和职业生涯的一个重要问题。
The cross-sectional survey design drawing from a single source (students) limits causal inferences regarding the relationships between study variables. Given also the relatively small sample size, our findings raise questions about which we can only speculate in this article.
从单一来源(学生)出发的横截面调查设计限制了对研究变量之间关系的因果推断。此外,由于样本量相对较小,我们的研究结果也提出了一些问题,而我们在本文中只能对这些问题进行推测。
Finally, it should also be recognised that the tuition-fee free Scottish HEI context is unique. Elsewhere, the existence of tuition fees and associated student debt may serve as an additional source of disadvantage for some students, with even greater implications for indicators of becoming employable, especially mental wellbeing (Richardson et al., 2017).
最后,还应认识到,免学费的苏格兰高等院校背景是独特的。在其他地方,学费和相关学生债务的存在可能会成为一些学生不利处境的额外来源,对就业能力指标,尤其是心理健康产生更大的影响(Richardson et al.)
Conclusions 结论
This article examined graduate employability from a graduate identity perspective, reflected not only in proactive career behaviours but also in students’ cognitions and affect related to UtWT. The findings show a substantial institutional effect on becoming employable, particularly on employability expectations and job search-related anxiety. Our findings are consistent with arguments that institution-type provides varying access to channels enabling more successful UtWTs, such as: elite employers, influential networks, and/or perceived ‘fit’ with such employers and networks. We attribute this to HEIs’ and employers’ expectations which shape students’ goals and behaviour in the labour market. In the present study, students in the post-1992 university may have felt less pressure to engage in entrepreneurial activities to improve employability.
本文从毕业生身份认同的角度研究了毕业生的就业能力,这不仅反映在积极主动的职业行为中,也反映在学生与 UtWT 相关的认知和情感中。研究结果表明,院校对就业能力的影响很大,尤其是对就业能力预期和求职焦虑的影响。我们的研究结果与以下论点是一致的:院校类型提供了不同的渠道,使学生能够更成功地进行实用职业技术培训,如:精英雇主、有影响力的网络和/或与这些雇主和网络的 "契合度"。我们将此归因于高等院校和雇主的期望,这些期望塑造了学生在劳动力市场上的目标和行为。在本研究中,"1992 年后 "大学的学生为提高就业能力而参与创业活动的压力可能较小。
The study also expands understanding of how disadvantage affects STEM UtWTs. Employability in STEM subjects has primarily examined gender or ethnicity as the focus of disadvantage (Smith and White 2019). Here, we focused on different facets of social disadvantage: social background, HEI type and financial strain. The findings have practical implications for universities, employers and policymakers in alleviating some of these pressures on disadvantaged students. Our recommendations focus on managing expectations, enabling students to gain the exposure and experiences required for successful UtWT, and reducing their anxiety and perceived barriers to achieving such transitions.
这项研究还拓展了人们对不利条件如何影响 STEM UtWTs 的认识。科学、技术、工程和数学学科的就业能力主要以性别或种族作为不利条件的焦点(Smith 和 White,2019 年)。在这里,我们关注社会不利条件的不同方面:社会背景、高校类型和经济压力。研究结果对大学、雇主和政策制定者减轻弱势学生的部分压力具有实际意义。我们的建议侧重于管理期望值,使学生能够获得成功实现实用工学转换所需的接触和经验,并减少他们的焦虑和实现这种转换的感知障碍。