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Introduction  导言

Contemporary accounts of what makes an employable job candidate promote an enterprising and constantly strategizing self (Smith 2010), especially for university graduates (Allen et al. 2013). The notion of an 'entrepreneurial self’, however, may reproduce and sustain social inequalities, such that students who do not possess the requisite economic, social and cultural capital are disadvantaged in the search for suitable employment (Bathmaker, Ingram, and Waller 2013).
当代关于如何成为适于就业的求职者的论述提倡积极进取、不断制定战略的自我（Smith，2010 年），尤其是对大学毕业生而言（Allen 等，2013 年）。然而，"创业型自我 "的概念可能会复制和维持社会不平等，从而使不具备必要的经济、社会和文化资本的学生在寻找合适工作时处于不利地位（Bathmaker、Ingram 和 Waller，2013 年）。
This article considers such potential inequality by examining how social disadvantage may impact students’ development of their ‘entrepreneurial self’ prior to entering the labour market. The specific focus of enquiry is the university-to-work transition (UtWT) experiences of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) students. Student experiences during the final year of university can be conceptualised in terms of a graduate identity perspective of employability (Holmes 2015) which focuses on individuals’ construction of identity as they prepare for employment. This is reflected in students’ cognition/patterns of thinking (i.e., perceived employability); affect/emotion (i.e., anxiety); and career-related behaviour (i.e., job search and networking). The aim of this article is to examine alternative explanations for how social disadvantage is related to these student experiences of the UtWT.
本文通过研究社会劣势如何影响学生在进入劳动力市场之前的 "创业自我 "发展，来探讨这种潜在的不平等。具体的探究重点是科学、技术、工程和数学（STEM）专业学生从大学到工作的过渡（UtWT）经历。学生在大学最后一年的经历可以从毕业生就业能力的身份视角（Holmes，2015 年）进行概念化，该视角关注个人在为就业做准备时的身份建构。这反映在学生的认知/思维模式（即感知就业能力）、情感/情绪（即焦虑）以及与职业相关的行为（即求职和网络）中。本文旨在研究社会弱势如何与学生的 UtWT 体验相关的其他解释。
A considerable body of evidence shows that social disadvantage impacts student experience in higher education (HE) and the graduate labour market (O’Sullivan, Robson, and Winters 2019). We explore three potential explanations for such effects. First, drawing on a Bourdieusian perspective, we propose that first-generation students’ preparation for UtWT will be further from the ‘ideal’ enterprising graduate than continuing-generation students. Second, building on notions of institutionalised social disadvantage in HE, we examine differences in student experiences across two contrasting universities reflecting the UK’s pre-and post-1992 distinction (SFC 2017). Finally, we consider the impact of individual students’ perceived financial strain on becoming employable.
大量证据表明，社会不利条件会影响学生在高等教育（HE）和毕业生劳动力市场中的体验（O'Sullivan、Robson 和 Winters，2019 年）。我们探讨了这种影响的三种潜在解释。首先，从布尔迪厄斯（Bourdieusian）的视角出发，我们认为第一代学生为 UtWT 所做的准备与连续一代学生相比，与 "理想的 "进取型毕业生相去甚远。其次，基于高等教育中制度化社会弱势的概念，我们考察了两所截然不同的大学中学生经历的差异，这反映了英国 1992 年前后的区别（SFC 2017）。最后，我们考虑了学生个人认为的经济压力对就业的影响。
The context for the study is STEM HE in the UK. Demand for STEM talent has risen dramatically in the last two decades and is expected to remain strong (Engineering UK 2018), driven by advances in digitalisation, automation and convergence of technologies often known as industry 4.0. Labour market needs are changing to reflect the technological, demographic and socio-economic pace of change. The proportion of STEM graduates entering professional level employment in the UK rose from 67 to 76 per cent between 2008 and 2014, compared to an average of 68 per cent of all graduates (Wakeham 2016). Focusing on a strong labour market context allows us to eliminate some explanations of graduate employment, e.g., visibility of career paths or demand for graduate skills. Nevertheless, there is also evidence that systematic barriers exist in access to STEM education and employment, especially for those from socially disadvantaged backgrounds, as well as women and ethnic minorities (DfE 2018). The present study also addresses challenges for entry into STEM employment.
本研究的背景是英国的 STEM 高等教育。在数字化、自动化和技术融合（通常称为工业 4.0）的推动下，对 STEM 人才的需求在过去二十年中急剧上升，并有望保持强劲势头（英国工程学院，2018 年）。劳动力市场的需求正在发生变化，以反映技术、人口和社会经济的变化速度。2008 年至 2014 年间，英国 STEM 专业毕业生的就业比例从 67% 上升到 76%，而所有毕业生的平均就业比例为 68%（Wakeham，2016 年）。专注于强大的劳动力市场背景，使我们可以排除对毕业生就业的某些解释，如职业道路的可见性或对毕业生技能的需求。然而，也有证据表明，在获得 STEM 教育和就业方面存在系统性障碍，尤其是对那些来自社会弱势背景的人以及妇女和少数民族而言（英国教育部，2018 年）。本研究还探讨了进入 STEM 就业所面临的挑战。
Our consideration of social disadvantage at the crucial labour market entry preparation stage broadens our understanding of UtWT for students from different backgrounds. The study also informs key policy aims of successive governments to widen participation in HE and enhance social mobility (Allen 2014). Skills policies tend to assume a meritocracy-based approach to employability, where demand is commensurate with the supply of graduate skills and graduates maximize their return on investment in the labour market. Such assumptions are misleading, however, not least due to the declining importance of a degree (Tomlinson 2008) and increasing heterogeneity in graduate attributes impacting employment outcomes, particularly those which are argued to be gendered, raced and classed (Handley 2018). Our study offers an expanded conceptualisation of graduate employability in examining the potential effects of social disadvantage.
在进入劳动力市场的关键准备阶段，我们对社会不利条件的考虑拓宽了我们对来自不同背景学生的 UtWT 的理解。这项研究还为历届政府扩大高等教育参与度和提高社会流动性的主要政策目标提供了参考（艾伦，2014 年）。技能政策倾向于假定就业能力是一种择优录取的方法，即毕业生技能的需求与供给相匹配，毕业生在劳动力市场上的投资回报最大化。然而，这种假设具有误导性，尤其是因为学位的重要性在下降（汤姆林森，2008 年），而且影响就业结果的毕业生特质的异质性在增加，特别是那些被认为是性别、种族和阶级的特质（汉德利，2018 年）。我们的研究在考察社会不利条件的潜在影响时，对毕业生就业能力的概念进行了扩展。
The article begins by introducing the graduate identity perspective on which our notion of employability is based. It then develops hypotheses related to each of the three explanations linking social disadvantage with the indicators of ‘becoming employable’. The methodology section provides a rationale for the selection of two higher education institutions (HEIs) as the focus of the study and details the survey design, measures and analytical strategy for hypothesis testing. The findings suggest support for an institutionalised explanation of social disadvantage in HE. We conclude by discussing implications for the ‘employable graduate’ discourse and policy/practice in HE and STEM disciplines.
文章首先介绍了我们的就业能力概念所依据的毕业生身份观点。然后，文章针对将社会不利条件与 "就业能力 "指标联系起来的三种解释中的每一种解释提出了假设。方法论部分介绍了选择两所高等教育机构（HEIs）作为研究重点的理由，并详细介绍了调查设计、措施和假设检验的分析策略。研究结果表明，对高等教育中的社会劣势进行制度化解释是可行的。最后，我们讨论了 "可就业毕业生 "的论述以及高等教育和 STEM 学科政策/实践的影响。

A graduate identity perspective to 'becoming employable'
从毕业生身份角度看 "成为适于就业的人

A graduate identity perspective is concerned with how students invest in their future career and their sense of worthiness to be considered suitable for graduate work (Holmes 2015). Based on the discourse of an enterprising self (Allen et al. 2013), we focus on three indicators of graduate identity relevant for UtWT: students’ (i) pattern of thinking/cognition; (ii) affect toward graduate job search; and (iii) engagement in proactive career preparation.
毕业生身份的视角关注的是学生如何投资于他们未来的职业生涯，以及他们被认为适合从事毕业生工作的价值感（Holmes，2015 年）。基于 "进取的自我 "这一论述（Allen 等人，2013 年），我们重点关注与 UtWT 相关的三个毕业生身份指标：学生的（i）思维/认知模式；（ii）对毕业生求职的影响；以及（iii）参与积极的职业准备。
The first two indicators reflect the notion that the ‘employable graduate’ displays a positive and optimistic attitude (CBI 2016). Relevant cognitions relate to job search expectations; i.e., the extent to which students expect to secure ‘good’ jobs and perceived barriers to securing ‘good’ jobs. Such expectations are often informed by one’s self-efficacy beliefs and influence the likelihood that one will pursue relevant behaviours (Gbadamosi et al. 2015). Students who display poorer job search expectations will therefore be less likely to show the ambitions described by the ‘employable graduate’ discourse.
前两个指标反映了 "可就业毕业生 "所表现出的积极乐观的态度（CBI，2016 年）。相关认知与求职预期有关，即学生对获得 "好 "工作的预期程度以及对获得 "好 "工作所面临障碍的认知程度。这种预期通常受个人自我效能信念的影响，并影响个人采取相关行为的可能性（Gbadamosi 等人，2015 年）。因此，对求职期望较低的学生不太可能表现出 "可就业毕业生 "论述中所描述的雄心壮志。
The inclusion of emotions/affect as an indicator acknowledges that job search is an emotionally charged process (Turban et al. 2013). New entrants into the graduate labour market face unprecedented uncertainty in their job search and they often lack the career-related experience to help them negotiate this complex terrain (Boswell, Zimmerman, and Swider 2011). Not surprisingly graduates report considerable levels of anxiety (Matthews 2017). Anxiety sets obstacles for individuals because it conveys and emphasises the belief that one is incapable of accomplishing the task and is associated with avoidance motivation (Spielberger 2010). Students who display higher levels of anxiety, therefore, are less likely to represent the ‘employable graduate’.
将情感/影响作为一项指标，是承认求职是一个充满情感的过程（Turban 等人，2013 年）。新进入毕业生劳动力市场的人在求职过程中面临着前所未有的不确定性，他们往往缺乏与职业相关的经验来帮助他们应对这一复杂的局面（Boswell、Zimmerman 和 Swider，2011 年）。毫不奇怪，毕业生们报告了相当程度的焦虑（Matthews，2017 年）。焦虑为个人设置了障碍，因为它传达并强调了一个人没有能力完成任务的信念，并与回避动机相关（Spielberger，2010 年）。因此，焦虑程度较高的学生不太可能成为 "可就业毕业生 "的代表。
Finally, proactive career behaviours, such as obtaining work placements, goaldirected job search and engaging in networking, increase the likelihood of employment success for university graduates. These behaviours have been shown to help position graduates in the competition for high-skilled vacancies and influence recruiters’ decision-making (Jackson and Wilton 2017).
最后，积极主动的职业行为，如获得工作实习机会、以目标为导向的求职和参与人际网络，增加了大学毕业生成功就业的可能性。事实证明，这些行为有助于毕业生在高技能职位空缺的竞争中占据有利位置，并影响招聘人员的决策（Jackson 和 Wilton，2017 年）。

Social disadvantage and 'becoming employable'
社会弱势和 "成为就业能手

An identity approach suggests that the ‘employable graduate’ identity is socially constructed and negotiated between the individual and gatekeepers of opportunities (Holmes 2015). Systematic differences in access to high-skilled jobs based on ethnicity, disability, and social and educational background (OFS 2019) suggest that social disadvantage plays a significant role in individual-employer negotiations of graduate employability. Students’ academic, social and professional capital influence how they prepare for UtWT from first year onwards (Mullen et al. 2019). To understand how social disadvantage affects ‘becoming employable’ prior to labour market entry, we examine three potential explanations: students’ social background, the type of HEI attended, and individual financial strain (see Figure 1 for a summary of the conceptual framework)
身份认同方法表明，"可就业毕业生 "的身份是由社会构建的，并在个人与机会把关人之间进行协商（Holmes，2015 年）。基于种族、残疾、社会和教育背景的高技能工作机会的系统性差异（OFS 2019）表明，社会劣势在个人与雇主关于毕业生就业能力的协商中扮演着重要角色。学生的学术、社会和专业资本影响着他们从一年级开始如何为 UtWT 做好准备（Mullen 等人，2019 年）。为了解社会不利条件如何影响进入劳动力市场前的 "就业能力"，我们研究了三种可能的解释：学生的社会背景、就读高校的类型以及个人经济压力（概念框架概要见图 1）
Insert Figure 1 about here
插入图 1

Students’ social background and development of social capital
学生的社会背景和社会资本的发展

Despite substantial expansion, HE remains a middle-class domain (Wong 2018). Middle-class students’ internalised values and dispositions acquired through socialisation (habitus), it is argued, provide a better ‘feel for the game’ in universities than those of working-class students (Edgerton and Roberts 2014). HE, therefore, enables middle-class students to secure employment that reinforces a lifestyle they expect to attain (Tomlinson 2012). Supporting this, first-generation students are less likely to work in elite professions than continuing-generations (Ashley et al. 2015). STEM education and careers tend to be dominated by the middle-class, with only a minority (24%) reported to be from disadvantaged backgrounds (Engineering UK 2018).
尽管高校大幅扩招，但高校仍然是中产阶级的天下（Wong，2018 年）。有观点认为，中产阶级学生通过社会化（习惯）获得的内化价值观和处置方式，与工薪阶层学生相比，能更好地 "感受 "大学里的 "游戏"（Edgerton 和 Roberts，2014 年）。因此，高等教育使中产阶级学生能够获得就业，从而巩固他们期望达到的生活方式（汤姆林森，2012 年）。与此相佐证的是，第一代学生从事精英职业的可能性低于连续一代学生（Ashley 等，2015 年）。STEM 教育和职业往往以中产阶级为主，据报道，只有少数（24%）来自弱势群体（英国工程学会，2018 年）。

Processes of class reproduction operate during university. The discourse of the‘ideal’ student/graduate‘pathologises’those from non-traditional backgrounds for not having appropriate aspirations and attitudes for the future (Moreau and Leathwood2006). However, graduates have differential access to social capital. For continuing-generation students (i.e., who are not the first in their close family to go to university),the availability and quality of networks through family/social ties may provide access to information about jobs and influence over employers, which are crucial to finding the first graduate job (Macmillan, Tyler, and Vignoles 2015). Thus, the importance given to the development of social capital through networks, as well as soft skills and competencies through participation in extra-curricular activities and internships places first-generation, and other non-traditional, students at a disadvantage if they do not have access to such opportunities (Bathmaker, Ingram, and Waller 2013).
阶级再生产的过程在大学期间也在进行。理想 "学生/毕业生的论述将非传统背景的学生归咎为对未来没有适当的抱负和态度（Moreau 和 Leathwood，2006 年）。然而，毕业生在获得社会资本方面存在差异。对于连续一代的学生（即在其近亲家庭中不是第一个上大学的人）来说，通过家庭/社会关系建立的网络的可用性和质量可以提供就业信息和对雇主的影响力，这对找到第一份毕业生工作至关重要（Macmillan, Tyler, and Vignoles 2015 年）。因此，重视通过网络发展社会资本，以及通过参加课外活动和实习发展软技能和能力，会使第一代学生和其他非传统学生处于不利地位，如果他们无法获得这些机会的话（Bathmaker、Ingram 和 Waller，2013 年）。

Particularly for performance and persistence in STEM fields, the crucial role played by role models for encouraging STEM careers and formation of professional identity has been demonstrated (Shin, Levy, and London 2016). First-generation students are unlikely to have such role models, as entry into most STEM careers require a university degree. In contrast, family achievement guilt, referring to the guilt associated with surpassing the educational achievements of close others in family, has been reported among first-generation students (Covarrubias and Fryberg 2015).
特别是在 STEM 领域的表现和坚持方面，榜样在鼓励 STEM 职业发展和形成职业认同方面所起的关键作用已得到证实（Shin、Levy 和 London，2016 年）。第一代学生不太可能有这样的榜样，因为进入大多数 STEM 职业都需要大学学位。与此相反，第一代学生中出现了家庭成就负罪感，指的是与超越家庭中关系密切的其他人的教育成就相关的负罪感（Covarrubias 和 Fryberg，2015 年）。

While it is likely that university experience may alter and develop ‘graduate identity’, our first set of hypotheses focuses broadly on social background as an obstacle to becoming employable. The hypotheses contrast the experiences of first- and continuing-generation students:
虽然大学经历可能会改变和发展 "毕业生身份"，但我们的第一组假设广泛地侧重于社会背景对就业的阻碍。这些假设对比了第一代和第二代学生的经历：

Hypothesis 1: First-generation students will report: (a) lower perceived employability; (b) higher anxiety; and (c) lower participation in proactive career behaviours, compared to continuing-generation students.
假设 1：第一代学生将报告：(a) 较低的就业能力感知；(b) 较高的焦虑；(c) 与连续一代的学生相比，较少参与积极的职业行为。

Institutional context  机构背景

The rapid expansion of HE in the UK is argued to have reinforced a ‘two-tier’ university system reflecting varying degrees of university prestige (Boden and Nedeva 2010). Institutions perceived as more prestigious tend to have lower staff/student ratios, higher entry requirements and lower participation rates from less affluent social groups; this status divide in the UK is reflected in the differentiation between ‘old’ (pre-1992) versus ‘new’ (post-1992) HEIs (Boliver 2016).
有人认为，英国高等教育的迅速发展强化了 "两级 "大学体系，反映了大学声望的不同程度（Boden 和 Nedeva，2010 年）。被认为更有声望的院校往往教职员工/学生比例较低，入学要求较高，较不富裕社会群体的参与率较低；英国的这种地位鸿沟反映在 "老"（1992 年前）与 "新"（1992 年后）高等院校之间的区别上（Boliver，2016 年）。

HEI environment may shape students’ experiences during UtWT in several ways. First, elite employers tend to focus recruitment resources on a select group of institutions (Ashley et al. 2015). Students in more prestigious HEIs tend to benefit from elite employers’ attention, e.g., in exposure to career opportunities and networking with gatekeepers, than those from other HEIs (Papafilippou and Bathmaker 2018). Second, HEI employability programmes provide students with positional advantage in the graduate labour market. Opportunities to interact with professionals through internships, meeting employers or alumni, and acquiring and practicing skills through volunteer opportunities are examples of such activities (Farenga and Quinlan 2016). These opportunities can raise expectations and reduce anxiety regarding an unknown transition, and allow opportunities for proactive career engagement, e.g., networking.
高校环境可能会从几个方面影响学生在 UtWT 期间的经历。首先，精英雇主倾向于将招聘资源集中于特定的院校群体（Ashley et al.）与其他高等院校的学生相比，更有声望的高等院校的学生往往能从精英雇主的关注中获益，例如在接触职业机会和与守门人建立联系方面（Papafilippou 和 Bathmaker，2018 年）。其次，高等院校的就业能力课程为学生提供了在毕业生劳动力市场上的定位优势。通过实习与专业人士互动、与雇主或校友会面、通过志愿者机会获得和锻炼技能等机会都是此类活动的例子（Farenga 和 Quinlan，2016 年）。这些机会可以提高学生的期望值，减少他们对未知过渡的焦虑，并为他们提供主动参与职业生涯的机会，例如建立人际网络。

Finally, the reputation of the university attended can influence students’ perceptions of fit into certain jobs, career expectations (Scholarios, Lockyer, and Johnson 2003) and their perceived barriers to employability (Rothwell, Herbert, and Rothwell 2008). For instance, Boden and Neveda’s (2010) examination of the employability-related information provided on websites of two universities operating within the same geographical area suggest contrasting expectations: the HEI with lower proportions of socially disadvantaged students emphasised creating the employers’ of the future, while the HEI with a greater proportion of socially disadvantaged students focused on producing the “re‐trainable flexible workforce with very specific skills” (p. 49).
最后，就读大学的声誉会影响学生对某些工作的适应程度、职业期望（Scholarios、Lockyer 和 Johnson，2003 年）以及他们对就业能力障碍的看法（Rothwell、Herbert 和 Rothwell，2008 年）。例如，Boden 和 Neveda（2010 年）对同一地理区域内两所大学网站上提供的与就业能力相关的信息进行了研究，结果表明，两所大学对就业能力的期望截然不同：社会处境不利学生比例较低的高等院校强调培养未来的雇主，而社会处境不利学生比例较高的高等院校则侧重于培养 "具有非常特殊技能的可再培训的灵活劳动力"（第 49 页）。

Such differences in career-related exposure, in turn, shape employability-related expectations. For the purposes of this article, we compare the experience of students attending pre- and post-1992 HEIs in the UK using this distinction as a proxy for two contrasting institutional employability contexts: the ‘older’, pre-1992 HEI, where students are more likely to be systematically socialised into an enterprising graduate identity compared to students in the ‘newer’, post-1992 HEI. Our second set of hypotheses contrasts graduate identity indicators of becoming employable across HEIs, controlling for the broader effects of social background.
这种与职业相关的接触方面的差异，反过来又影响了与就业能力相关的期望。在本文中，我们比较了英国 "1992 年前 "和 "1992 年后 "高等院校学生的经历，并将这种差异作为两种截然不同的院校就业能力背景的代表："老 "的、"1992 年前 "高等院校的学生与 "新 "的、"1992 年后 "高等院校的学生相比，更有可能被系统地社会化为一种进取型毕业生身份。我们的第二组假设是，在控制社会背景的广泛影响的前提下，对比各高等院校毕业生就业能力的认同指标。

Hypothesis 2: Compared to students in a pre-1992 HEI, those in post-1992 HEIs will report: (a) lower perceived employability; (b) higher anxiety; and (c) lower participation in proactive career behaviours.
假设 2：与 "1992 年前 "高等院校的学生相比，"1992 年后 "高等院校的学生将报告： (a) 认为自己的就业能力较低；(b) 焦虑程度较高；(c) 参与积极的职业行为较少。

Studentfinancial strain  学生财务压力

The final aspect of potential disadvantage for ‘becoming employable’ considered in this article is the individual’s perceived financial strain (the degree to which financial resources meet one’s personal needs (Ullah 1990)). Financial pressures, which are reported by a substantial proportion of students (Watson, Barber, and Dziurawiec 2016), can intensify job search and lead to less goal-directed career behaviour, focusing on securing any work available (Hausdorf 2007). Financial strain lowers one’s reservation wage, and graduates experiencing financial strain may lower their job search expectations, irrespective of qualifications match (Furlong 2015).
本文考虑的 "成为就业能手 "的潜在不利因素的最后一个方面是个人感知到的经济压力（经济资源满足个人需求的程度（Ullah，1990 年））。有相当一部分学生（Watson、Barber 和 Dziurawiec，2016 年）表示，经济压力会加剧求职，并导致职业行为的目标导向性降低，而将重点放在获得任何可用的工作上（Hausdorf，2007 年）。经济压力会降低一个人的保留工资，经历过经济压力的毕业生可能会降低他们的求职期望，无论学历是否匹配（Furlong，2015 年）。

Students who report experiencing financial difficulties are also more likely to report mental health issues, such as stress and anxiety (Richardson et al. 2017). Moreover, financial strain is a barrier for proactive career behaviour, e.g., extracurricular activities, engaging in career exploration or networking (Bathmaker, Ingram, and Waller 2013).
报告经历经济困难的学生也更有可能报告心理健康问题，如压力和焦虑（Richardson 等人，2017 年）。此外，经济压力也会阻碍积极主动的职业行为，如课外活动、参与职业探索或建立人际网络（Bathmaker、Ingram 和 Waller，2013 年）。

Our final set of hypotheses controls for the impact of social background and HEI-type to examine the influence of individual financial strain on becoming employable.
我们的最后一组假设控制了社会背景和高等院校类型的影响，以研究个人经济压力对就业的影响。

Hypothesis 3: The greater a student’s perceived financial strain: (a) the lower their perceived employability; (b) the higher their anxiety; and (c) the lower their participation in proactive career behaviours.
假设 3：学生感知到的经济压力越大：(a) 他们感知到的就业能力越低；(b) 他们的焦虑感越高；(c) 他们参与积极就业行为的程度越低。

Method  方法

The present study was part of a larger (as yet unpublished) research project on UtWT in Scotland. This larger study aimed to examine the role of career agency for securing graduate jobs. First, through snowball sampling, exploratory interviews were conducted with graduates in the first two years of post-graduation careers, focusing on the barriers graduates experienced in transition to work. Findings from interviews were then used to develop a longitudinal survey design which allowed testing conceptual models on the role of agency in UtWT success. The present study uses one of the survey instruments intended for final year students developed as part of the longitudinal design. Heads of schools/departments across subject areas in 10 purposely selected universities (from a total of 19 in Scotland, representing a balance of pre- and post-1992 universities and regional proximity) were invited to help disseminate the survey to final year students. Representatives from seven universities agreed to take part. Department heads/final year coordinators and/or career services in the seven participating universities sent an online survey link to graduating students (May-June 2016). This resulted in an initial sample size of 600 final year students. A follow-up survey was then administered to the 2016 cohort one year after graduation (June 2017).
本研究是苏格兰一项规模更大（尚未发表）的关于 UtWT 研究项目的一部分。这项更大规模的研究旨在考察职业中介机构在确保毕业生就业方面的作用。首先，通过 "滚雪球式 "抽样，对毕业后头两年的毕业生进行了探索性访谈，重点关注毕业生在向工作过渡时遇到的障碍。访谈结果随后被用于开发纵向调查设计，从而检验机构在UtWT成功中的作用的概念模型。本研究使用了纵向设计中针对毕业班学生开发的调查工具之一。我们邀请了 10 所特意挑选出来的大学（苏格兰共有 19 所大学，代表了 1992 年前和 1992 年后大学的平衡以及地区的接近性）各学科领域的学院/系主任，帮助向毕业班学生传播调查。七所大学的代表同意参与调查。七所参与大学的系主任/毕业班协调员和/或就业服务部门向即将毕业的学生发送了在线调查链接（2016 年 5 月至 6 月）。因此，最初的样本量为 600 名毕业班学生。然后在毕业一年后（2017 年 6 月）对 2016 届学生进行了后续调查。

For the purposes of the present research, we focused only on final year STEM student survey data in two HEIs. The two HEIs were chosen for pragmatic and theoretical reasons: they represented (i) the majority of STEM responses of the participating HEIs, and (ii) pre-and post-1992 UK institutions in the same geographical area, allowing the comparison required for testing Hypotheses 2a, 2b and 2c. Social disadvantage has been argued to be institutionalised in the UK, where there is higher representation of students from socially disadvantaged backgrounds in certain types of HEIs, i.e., post-1992 HEIs (Brown 2004). The pre-1992 HEI reflected higher entry standards, degree completion rates, research intensity and quality, staff-student ratios and proportions of students graduating with a good degree (i.e., 1 st 1 st  1^("st ")1^{\text {st }} or upper secondclass Honours) (SFC (2017). Although the post-1992 HEI had performed well in recent years with respect to graduate earnings five years after graduation, there are still substantial differences in graduates’ outcomes from the two HEIs in this study (Scottish Government 2018). The two HEIs therefore reflect the stratification in the UK graduate labour market (Boden and Nedeva 2010) in terms of graduate employability.
在本研究中，我们只关注两所高等院校在科学、技术、工程和数学方面的毕业班学生调查数据。选择这两所高等院校是出于实用性和理论性的原因：它们代表了(i) 参与研究的高等院校中大多数理工、技术和工程学科的答复，以及(ii) 处于同一地理区域的 "1992 年之前 "和 "1992 年之后 "的英国院校，从而为检验假设 2a、2b 和 2c 提供了所需的比较。有人认为，在英国，社会弱势已经制度化，来自社会弱势背景的学生在某些类型的高等院校，即 "1992 年后 "高等院校中的比例较高（Brown，2004 年）。1992年之前的高等院校反映了较高的入学标准、学位完成率、研究强度和质量、师生比例以及获得良好学位（即 1 st 1 st  1^("st ")1^{\text {st }} 或二等以上荣誉学位）的学生毕业比例（SFC (2017)）。尽管 "1992 年后 "高等院校近年来在毕业生毕业五年后的收入方面表现良好，但本研究中两所高等院校的毕业生在成果方面仍存在巨大差异（苏格兰政府，2018 年）。因此，这两所高等院校反映了英国毕业生劳动力市场在毕业生就业能力方面的分层情况（Boden 和 Nedeva，2010 年）。

Survey sample  调查样本
Data was based on a survey instrument administered between May-June 2016. Students responding to the survey represented a broad range of STEM subjects with visible career paths/skills in high demand: Subjects allied to medicine, Biological sciences, Physical sciences, Mathematical sciences, Computer science, Engineering and technology, and Architecture, building and planning. Participants from the post-1992 HEI were more likely to be in Computer science (58%), while those in the pre-1992 HEI were more commonly in Biological sciences (68%). Pre-pilot (N = 5) and pilot (N = 30) testing was conducted to determine the accuracy, reliability and validity of measures.
数据基于 2016 年 5 月至 6 月间开展的一项调查。对调查做出回应的学生代表了广泛的 STEM 学科，这些学科的职业发展方向/技能需求旺盛：与医学相关的学科、生物科学、物理科学、数学科学、计算机科学、工程和技术以及建筑、建设和规划。来自 "1992 年后的高等教育机构 "的参与者更有可能选修计算机科学（58%），而 "1992 年前的高等教育机构 "的参与者则更多选修生物科学（68%）。为确定测量的准确性、可靠性和有效性，我们进行了试点前测试（5 人）和试点测试（30 人）。

A total of 288 volunteered responses from final year STEM students in the two HEIs were received ( 48 % 48 % 48%48 \% of the responses from the overall 2016 cohort which forms the larger UtWT study). Only data from those students who were engaged in job search at the time of data collection were included in the analysis. The final sample comprised 203 job seekers (Mean age=23, SD=3 years; 46% female; 50% first-generation to attend university; 60 % 60 % 60%60 \% of the sample were from the post-1992 university).
两所高等院校共收到了 288 份来自 STEM 专业应届学生的自愿答复（ 48 % 48 % 48%48 \% 来自 2016 年整体学生的答复，构成了规模更大的 UtWT 研究）。只有那些在收集数据时正在求职的学生的数据才被纳入分析。最终样本包括203名求职者（平均年龄=23岁，SD=3岁；46%为女性；50%为第一代上大学的学生； 60 % 60 % 60%60 \% 样本来自1992年后的大学）。

Measures  措施

The three graduate identity indicators relevant for becoming employable were operationalised as follows.
与就业相关的三项毕业生身份指标的操作方法如下。

Job search expectations: Seven items were generated through semi-structured interviews, which were conducted as part of the larger UtWT study, with 15 graduates from the 2014 cohort. Participants were asked to indicate which of the seven job-related scenarios they anticipated finding themselves in upon graduation. Principal component analyses showed that these seven items loaded on to two distinct factors. These factors correspond to the employment outcomes generally reported by graduates: accepting any job (e.g., ‘accept the first job that comes my way’) and securing a good/graduate job (e.g., ‘join a graduate trainee scheme with one of the large graduate employers’).
求职期望：作为 UtWT 大型研究的一部分，我们对 2014 届的 15 名毕业生进行了半结构化访谈，从中产生了七个项目。参与者被要求指出，他们预计毕业后会在七种与工作相关的情景中选择哪一种。主成分分析表明，这七个项目被加载到两个不同的因子上。这些因子与毕业生普遍报告的就业结果相对应：接受任何工作（例如，"接受我找到的第一份工作"）和获得一份好工作/毕业生工作（例如，"加入某个大型毕业生雇主的毕业生实习计划"）。

Perceived internal and external barriers to employment: Rothwell, Herbert and Rothwell’s (2008)’s self-perceived employability scale was adapted, where participants were asked to indicate whether each item was a barrier to labour market entry (1=yes, 0=no). Sample items for perceived internal (four items, α=.74) and external barriers (five items, α=.78) are ‘my awareness of opportunities in the graduate labour market’and ‘the strength of my university’s brand’, respectively. A total sum score was calculated for perceived internal and external barriers to employment.
认为存在的内部和外部就业障碍：对 Rothwell、Herbert 和 Rothwell（2008 年）的自我认知就业能力量表进行了改编，要求参与者指出每个项目是否是进入劳动力市场的障碍（1=是，0=否）。感知到的内部障碍（4 项，α=.74）和外部障碍（5 项，α=.78）的样本项目分别是 "我对毕业生劳动力市场机会的认识 "和 "我所在大学的品牌实力"。我们计算了所感知到的内部和外部就业障碍的总和得分。

Anxiety was measured using Marteau and Bekker’s (1992) short version of the State Anxiety Inventory. Participants were asked to indicate the extent to which they feel each of the six emotions (calm, tense, upset, relaxed, content and worried) right now, about their job search for a job after graduation (4-point scale; 1=not at all, 4=very much; α = .90 α = .90 alpha=.90\alpha=.90 ).
焦虑感的测量采用了 Marteau 和 Bekker（1992 年）的状态焦虑量表简版。受试者被要求指出他们现在对毕业后找工作的六种情绪（平静、紧张、不安、放松、满足和担忧）的感受程度（4 点量表；1=完全没有，4=非常有； α = .90 α = .90 alpha=.90\alpha=.90 ）。
Proactive career behaviours were measured in three ways: (1) Pre-employment activities: This was an index calculated from the sum of three items asking students if they had engaged in voluntary work, an internship, or part-time work relevant for their degree subject/career intentions ( 1 = 1 = 1=1= yes, 0 = 0 = 0=0= no). These items were adapted from Brooks, Cornelius, Greenfield and Josef’s (1995) survey of college students’ career-related work or internship experience. (2) Job search strategies: This was measured using the Crossley and Highhouse (2005) scale consisting of strategies which were haphazard (four items, e.g., I use a “hit or miss”’ approach when gathering information about my future job", α = .78 α = .78 alpha=.78\alpha=.78 ); exploratory (six items, e.g., “I tried to get my resume out to as many organizations as possible”, α = .79 α = .79 alpha=.79\alpha=.79 ) and focused (six items, e.g., “I had a clear idea of what qualities I wanted in a job”, α = .75 α = .75 alpha=.75\alpha=.75 ). Each item was measured on a 5 -point scale ( 1 = 1 = 1=1= strongly disagree, 5 = 5 = 5=5= strongly agree) and a mean score calculated for each submeasure. (3) Networking: This was measured using seven items from the Career Strategies Inventory (Gould and Penley 1984; Noe 1996, e.g., “I have a network of contacts for obtaining information about events or activities that are relevant for my career”; 5 -point scale, 1 = 1 = 1=1= to a little extent, 5 = 5 = 5=5= to a great extent; α = .84 α = .84 alpha=.84\alpha=.84 ).
积极主动的职业行为从三个方面进行衡量：(1) 就业前活动：这是一个指数，由询问学生是否从事过与其学位科目/职业意向相关的志愿工作、实习或兼职工作（ 1 = 1 = 1=1= 是， 0 = 0 = 0=0= 否）的三个项目的总和计算得出。这些项目改编自 Brooks、Cornelius、Greenfield 和 Josef（1995 年）关于大学生职业相关工作或实习经历的调查。(2) 求职策略：采用 Crossley 和 Highhouse（2005 年）的量表对求职策略进行测量，包括随意性策略（4 个项目，如："我在收集有关未来工作的信息时，采用了'一击即中'的方法"， α = .78 α = .78 alpha=.78\alpha=.78 ）；探索性策略（6 个项目，如："我试图向尽可能多的机构投递简历"， α = .79 α = .79 alpha=.79\alpha=.79 ）和重点突出型（六个项目，例如，"我清楚地知道自己想要一份什么样的工作"， α = .75 α = .75 alpha=.75\alpha=.75 ）。每个项目都采用 5 分制（ 1 = 1 = 1=1= 非常不同意， 5 = 5 = 5=5= 非常同意）进行测量，并计算出每个子测量的平均分。(3) 联网：采用职业战略量表（Gould and Penley 1984；Noe 1996，例如，"我有一个人际关系网，可以获得与我的职业相关的事件或活动的信息"；5 分制， 1 = 1 = 1=1= 有一点， 5 = 5 = 5=5= 有一点， α = .84 α = .84 alpha=.84\alpha=.84 有一点， 5 = 5 = 5=5= 有一点， α = .84 α = .84 alpha=.84\alpha=.84 ）中的 7 个项目进行测量。
Social background: Consistent with Clarke and Beech (2018), students were asked to indicate whether any of their parents/carers/guardians had a university degree (1=no (first-generation), 0 = 0 = 0=0= yes (continuing-generation)).
社会背景：与 Clarke 和 Beech（2018 年）一致，学生被要求说明其父母/监护人/监护人中是否有人拥有大学学位（1=否（第一代）， 0 = 0 = 0=0= 是（延续一代））。

University type: the two selected universities represented pre- and post-1992 universities, operating within the same geographical area.
大学类型：所选两所大学分别代表 1992 年前和 1992 年后的大学，在同一地理区域办学。

Financial strain was measured using items from Ullah (1990). Participants were asked to reflect on the past four weeks and indicate (4-point scale; 1 = 1 = 1=1= never, 4 = 4 = 4=4= very often; α = .81 α = .81 alpha=.81\alpha=.81 ) how often they have: (1) had serious financial worries; (2) not been able to do the things they like to do; (3) the things they need to do because of shortages of money; and (4) been able to manage on the money they have.
经济压力采用 Ullah（1990 年）的项目进行测量。受试者被要求对过去四周的情况进行反思，并指出（4 点量表； 1 = 1 = 1=1= 从不， 4 = 4 = 4=4= 非常经常； α = .81 α = .81 alpha=.81\alpha=.81 ）他们有多经常出现以下情况：(1)有严重的财务烦恼；(2)不能做自己喜欢做的事情；(3)因为缺钱而不能做自己需要做的事情；以及(4)能够用现有的钱进行管理。
To account for any common method bias associated with single source measurement of independent and dependent variables, a Karman single factor test was conducted with all 13 study variables, excluding control variables. The unrotated factor solution showed six factors explaining in total 64 % 64 % 64%64 \% of variance, each accounting for less than 20 % 20 % 20%20 \% of variance.
为了考虑与自变量和因变量的单源测量有关的任何常见方法偏差，对所有 13 个研究变量（不包括控制变量）进行了卡曼单因素检验。未旋转的因子解显示，六个因子总共解释了 64 % 64 % 64%64 \% 个方差，每个因子所占方差小于 20 % 20 % 20%20 \% 。

Analytical strategy  分析战略

Hierarchical logistic regression analyses were conducted for the two binary job search expectation dependent variables (any job and good job). Hierarchical linear regression analyses were conducted for the remaining dependent variables (perceived internal and external barriers, anxiety and networking). The hierarchical models comprised four steps. Control variables (gender (female=1), nationality (Scottish=1, rest of the UK/rest of the EU/non-EU=0) and expected degree classification (2:1 or first =1)) were included in step 1. Social background, university type and financial strain were included in steps 2, 3 and 4 to test Hypotheses 1-3, respectively. Hypothesis testing was conducted by examination of the significant standardized Beta coefficients and the change in the variance explained (ΔR2) at each step.
对两个二元求职期望因变量（任何工作和好工作）进行了层次逻辑回归分析。对其余因变量（感知到的内部和外部障碍、焦虑和网络）进行了层次线性回归分析。层次模型包括四个步骤。第一步包括控制变量（性别（女性=1）、国籍（苏格兰=1，英国其他地区/欧盟其他地区/非欧盟=0）和预期学位分类（2:1 或第一学位=1））。社会背景、大学类型和经济压力分别被纳入第二、第三和第四步，以检验假设 1-3。假设检验是通过检验每个步骤中显著的标准化 Beta 系数和被解释方差的变化（ΔR2）来进行的。

Findings  调查结果
Table 1 provides the descriptive statistics. Validating our choice of universities based on proportion of students from socially disadvantaged backgrounds, first-generation students were more likely to be in the post-1992 rather than in the pre-1992 university ( r = .16 , p < .05 r = .16 , p < .05 r=.16,p < .05r=.16, \mathrm{p}<.05 ). Financial strain was not correlated with either of these measures.
表 1 提供了描述性统计数字。第一代学生更有可能就读于 "1992 年后 "的大学，而不是 "1992 年前 "的大学（ r = .16 , p < .05 r = .16 , p < .05 r=.16,p < .05r=.16, \mathrm{p}<.05 ）。经济压力与这两项指标都不相关。
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Table 2 shows logistic regression analyses predicting likelihood of expecting any job and a good job upon graduation. ‘Any job’ expectations were more likely among first-generation participants ( β = 1.73 , p < .05 β = 1.73 , p < .05 beta=1.73,p < .05\beta=1.73, p<.05 ) in comparison to continuinggeneration participants. However, this effect disappeared with the inclusion of HEI in Step 2 ( β = 1.57 , p > .05 β = 1.57 , p > .05 beta=1.57,p > .05\beta=1.57, p>.05 ). Students from the post-1992 university were almost four times more likely ( β = 3.96 p < .001 β = 3.96 p < .001 beta=3.96 p < .001\beta=3.96 p<.001 ) to report 'any job’ expectations in comparison to those from the pre-1992 university ( Δ Δ Delta\Delta Nagelkerke R 2 = 9 % R 2 = 9 % R^(2)=9%R^{2}=9 \% ). ‘Good job’ expectations were 85 per cent lower for students from the post-1992 university ( β = 0.15 p < .001 β = 0.15 p < .001 beta=0.15 p < .001\beta=0.15 p<.001 ), in comparison to those from the pre-1992 university ( Δ Δ Delta\Delta Nagelkerke R 2 = 17 % R 2 = 17 % R^(2)=17%R^{2}=17 \% ).
表 2 显示了预测期望毕业后找到任何工作和一份好工作的可能性的逻辑回归分析。与连续一代参与者相比，第一代参与者（ β = 1.73 , p < .05 β = 1.73 , p < .05 beta=1.73,p < .05\beta=1.73, p<.05 ）更有可能期望 "任何工作"。然而，将高等院校纳入第二步（ β = 1.57 , p > .05 β = 1.57 , p > .05 beta=1.57,p > .05\beta=1.57, p>.05 ）后，这种影响消失了。与来自 1992 年之前的大学的学生相比，来自 1992 年之后的大学的学生报告 "任何工作 "期望的可能性几乎是后者的四倍 ( β = 3.96 p < .001 β = 3.96 p < .001 beta=3.96 p < .001\beta=3.96 p<.001 )( Δ Δ Delta\Delta Nagelkerke R 2 = 9 % R 2 = 9 % R^(2)=9%R^{2}=9 \% )。与来自 "1992 年之前 "大学（ Δ Δ Delta\Delta Nagelkerke R 2 = 17 % R 2 = 17 % R^(2)=17%R^{2}=17 \% ）的学生相比，来自 "1992 年之后 "大学（ β = 0.15 p < .001 β = 0.15 p < .001 beta=0.15 p < .001\beta=0.15 p<.001 ）的学生对 "好工作 "的期望要低 85%。
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Results of multiple hierarchical regression analyses are presented in Table 3. In comparison to the pre-1992 university, students from the post-1992 university reported significantly lower levels of pre-employment activities (β=-.47, p<.001), exploratory (β=-.30, p<.001) and focused job search (β=-.18, p<.05), networking (β=-.28, p<.001), perceived internal (β=-.29, p<.001) and external barriers to employability (β=-.36, p<.001), and higher haphazard job search (β=.28, p<.001) and job search anxiety (β=.37, p<.001). University type showed the greatest incremental variance on pre-employment activities (ΔR2=.16) and job search anxiety (ΔR2=.13). Moreover, first-generation students reported more exploratory job search (β=.20, p<.001) and less job search anxiety (β=-.15, p<.01) in comparison to continuing-generation counterparts. However, this only explained six and one per cent incremental variance, respectively. Financial strain was only associated with job search anxiety (β=.22, p<.001) and explained five per cent incremental variance.
表 3 列出了多元层次回归分析的结果。与 "1992 年前 "的大学相比，"1992 年后 "的大学学生在就业前活动（β=-.47，p<.001）、探索性（β=-.30，p<.001）和重点求职（β=-.18，p<.05）、网络（β=-.28，p<.001）、感知到的就业能力内部障碍（β=-.29，p<.001）和外部障碍（β=-.36，p<.001），以及较高的求职随意性（β=.28，p<.001）和求职焦虑（β=.37，p<.001）。大学类型对就业前活动（ΔR2=.16）和求职焦虑（ΔR2=.13）的增量差异最大。此外，与连续一代学生相比，第一代学生的求职探索性更强（β=.20，p<.001），求职焦虑更小（β=-.15，p<.01）。然而，这只能分别解释 6%和 1%的增量方差。经济压力只与求职焦虑有关（β=.22，p<.001），并能解释 5% 的增量方差。

Insert Table 3 about here
此处插入表 3

Discussion  讨论

The findings provide support for an institutional effect on becoming an ‘employable graduate’. Controlling for students’ own social background, those attending the pre-1992 HEI held more positive expectations, were less anxious, and engaged in more proactive career behaviours than those in the post-1992 HEI (supporting Hypothesis 2). There was weaker support for broader social background (Hypothesis 1) and individual financial strain explanations (Hypothesis 3). These findings allow us to contribute in two distinct ways to understanding the development of student employability during UtWTs.
研究结果支持了院校对成为 "可就业毕业生 "的影响。与 "1992 年后 "高等院校的学生相比，在 "1992 年前 "高等院校就读的学生对自己的社会背景抱有更积极的期望，焦虑程度更低，职业行为更积极主动（支持假设 2）。对更广泛的社会背景（假设 1）和个人经济压力（假设 3）的解释支持较弱。这些研究结果使我们能够从两个不同的方面来理解学生在 UtWTs 期间就业能力的发展。

Understanding social disadvantage during preparation for labour market entry
了解准备进入劳动力市场期间的社会不利条件

We framed the study around three interrelated sources of disadvantage: social background, HEI type and institutional context, and financial strain. The findings indicate that HEI type has the strongest and most substantial effect on indicators of ‘employable graduate’ identity measured in this study. Students in post-1992 HEIs reported poorer job search expectations and lower participation in proactive career behaviours than those in the pre-1992 HEIs. Underlying our hypothesis was an expectation that exposure to opportunities, such as access to elite employers, influential networks, and/or perceived ‘fit’ with such employers and networks, signals expectations for development of enterprising graduate identity. The strong HEI effect over and above social background suggests that students in pre-1992 HEIs, as represented by recent evidence (e.g., Boliver, 2016), may have benefited from these channels in constructing themselves as an ‘employable graduate’, in employability-related cognition, affect and behaviour.
我们围绕三个相互关联的不利条件来源展开研究：社会背景、高等院校类型和院校背景以及经济压力。研究结果表明，高等院校类型对本研究中衡量的 "可就业毕业生 "身份指标的影响最大、最实质。与 "1992 年 "之前的高等院校相比，"1992 年 "之后的高等院校的学生对求职的期望较低，参与积极主动的职业行为的程度也较低。我们的假设的基础是这样一种预期，即接触机会，如接触精英雇主、有影响力的网络，和/或与这些雇主和网络的 "契合度"，预示着毕业生发展进取型身份的预期。除了社会背景之外，高等院校的强烈影响表明，"1992 年 "之前的高等院校的学生，正如最近的证据（如 Boliver，2016 年）所表明的那样，可能已经从这些渠道中获益，将自己构建为一名 "可就业的毕业生"，并在与就业能力相关的认知、情感和行为中获益。

There were also some findings contrary to our expectations. Students in the post- 1992 HEI reported fewer barriers to employability. Post-hoc analyses, controlling for social background and financial disadvantage, show that HEI type is indirectly related to perceived internal and external barriers via job search expectations. We can argue, therefore, that students in the post-1992 university may perceive fewer barriers for graduate labour market entry partly because they have lower job search expectations.
也有一些结果与我们的预期相反。1992 年以后的高等院校的学生报告的就业障碍较少。在控制了社会背景和经济劣势之后进行的事后分析表明，高等院校类型通过求职期望与学生感知到的内部和外部障碍间接相关。因此，我们可以认为，"1992 年后 "大学的学生认为毕业生进入劳动力市场的障碍较少，部分原因是他们的求职期望值较低。

We expected that social background would negatively affect becoming employable, based on the incongruence of first-generation students and STEM education/employment habitus and on a lack of social and cultural capital compared to continuing-generation students, especially due to lack of STEM role models. However, social background had a negligible direct effect on most study variables. It showed highest incremental variance (ΔR2=.02) in explaining expectations of taking ‘any job’ on graduation and exploratory job search and was associated with lower anxiety. We can only speculate on first-generation students’ preferences for exploratory job search. As first-generation university students, it is less likely that they will receive informed advice and guidance from significant others in access to STEM fields compared to continuing-generation students. Exploratory job search may therefore help compensate for this lack of social capital. We also tested whether job search expectation was an explanatory factor, especially for first-generation students’ lower anxiety. These post-hoc analyses did not provide significant results. Research on school-to-university transitions shows that first-generation students have lower expectations of being successful and even of going to university, reflecting their habitus (Reay, 2018). These students’ lower anxiety may also be associated with feeling less pressure than their continuing-generation counterparts to secure high-skilled, graduate jobs from those around them, e.g., family and even university staff.
基于第一代学生与 STEM 教育/就业习惯的不一致，以及与连续一代学生相比缺乏社会和文化资本，特别是由于缺乏 STEM 榜样，我们预计社会背景会对就业能力产生负面影响。然而，社会背景对大多数研究变量的直接影响微乎其微。在解释毕业时 "任何工作 "的期望和探索性求职方面，社会背景显示出最大的增量方差（ΔR2=.02），并且与较低的焦虑相关。我们只能推测第一代学生对探索性求职的偏好。作为第一代大学生，与连续一代学生相比，他们在进入 STEM 领域时从重要他人那里获得明智建议和指导的可能性较小。因此，探索性求职可能有助于弥补这种社会资本的不足。我们还测试了求职期望是否是一个解释因素，尤其是第一代学生焦虑较低的原因。这些事后分析结果并不显著。关于从学校到大学过渡的研究表明，第一代学生对成功甚至上大学的期望较低，这反映了他们的习惯（Reay，2018）。这些学生较低的焦虑感也可能与他们在获得来自周围人（如家人甚至大学教职员工）的高技能、毕业生工作方面感受到的压力小于连续一代学生有关。

One explanation for the negligible overall incremental effect of social background on becoming employable could be that this effect is indirect (Blasko et al. 2002). In other words, first-generation students fare worse than continuing-generation counterparts because they are more likely to attend post-1992 HEIs (where their habitus is more closely aligned with the HEI than in a pre-1992 HEI) and/or experience more financial strain. It is difficult to observe such indirect causality effects within the confines of our small-size and cross-sectional dataset. In fact, our post-hoc analyses where we tested indirect and interaction effects between social background and HEI type as predictors of becoming employable, did not yield meaningful results. This remains an issue for further research.
社会背景对就业能力的总体递增效应微乎其微，一种解释是这种效应是间接的（Blasko 等人，2002 年）。换句话说，第一代学生的就业情况比第二代学生差，是因为他们更有可能就读于 "1992 年后 "的高等院校（与 "1992 年前 "的高等院校相比，他们的习惯与高等院校的关系更为密切）和/或经历更多的经济压力。在我们的小规模横截面数据集范围内，很难观察到这种间接因果效应。事实上，我们在事后分析中检验了社会背景与高校类型之间的间接效应和交互效应，作为预测就业能力的因素，这些分析并没有得出有意义的结果。这仍是一个有待进一步研究的问题。

Financial strain was not related to other measures of social disadvantage in this study. This might be due to the widespread experience of financial difficulties across the student population (Watson, Barber & Dziurawiec, 2016) and so may not be a meaningful indicator to differentiate social disadvantage among students. There was limited support for a direct effect of financial strain on cognitive and behavioural aspects of UtWTs, with the only significant association being between financial strain and higher anxiety, findings consistent with existing research (Richardson et al. 2017).
在本研究中，经济压力与其他社会弱势衡量指标无关。这可能是由于学生群体中普遍存在经济困难（Watson, Barber & Dziurawiec, 2016），因此可能不是区分学生社会弱势的一个有意义的指标。经济压力对 UtWTs 认知和行为方面的直接影响得到的支持有限，唯一显著的关联是经济压力与较高的焦虑之间的关联，这一结果与现有研究一致（Richardson 等，2017 年）。

Understanding the ‘employable graduate’ identity construction process
了解 "可就业毕业生 "的身份构建过程

The study’s second theoretical contribution is to broaden the concept of graduate employability beyond the likelihood of securing and maintaining a job (McQuaid and Lindsay 2005) and/or individual attributes associated with securing a graduate job (e.g., human capital, career behaviour) (Bridgstock 2009). The neoliberal discourse of graduate employability assumes that the experience of becoming an ‘ideal graduate’ is uniformly positive (Allen et al. 2013). Yet, the realities of the UtWT are varied and complex.
本研究的第二项理论贡献是，将毕业生就业能力的概念扩展到了获得并维持一份工作的可能性（McQuaid 和 Lindsay，2005 年）和/或与获得一份毕业生工作相关的个人属性（如人力资本、职业行为）（Bridgstock，2009 年）之外。新自由主义关于毕业生就业能力的论述假定，成为 "理想毕业生 "的经历都是积极的（Allen 等，2013 年）。然而，UtWT 的现实是多样而复杂的。

Student cognitions and affective states are rarely included in discussions of graduate employability. Our findings show that social disadvantage explained the greatest incremental variance on students’ job search expectations, perceived barriers to employability and job search-related anxiety, i.e., in their cognition and affect toward UtWT, in comparison to its effects on proactive career behaviours. There is already considerable research on perceived employability and proactive career behaviours among the student population. Our study contributes to this research by showing that each of the indicators of potential disadvantage considered (social background, HEI- type and financial strain) significantly explained levels of anxiety felt by students related to UtWT. The study, therefore, highlights a need for a broader approach to understanding student experience of ‘becoming employable’, to include not only proactive career behaviours but also students’ cognition and affect.
关于毕业生就业能力的讨论很少涉及学生的认知和情感状态。我们的研究结果表明，社会不利条件对学生的求职期望、就业能力障碍感知和求职焦虑（即对 UtWT 的认知和情感）的影响最大，相比之下，社会不利条件对学生主动职业行为的影响最小。有关学生就业能力感知和主动职业行为的研究已经相当多了。我们的研究表明，潜在不利条件的各项指标（社会背景、高等院校类型和经济压力）都能显著解释学生对 UtWT 的焦虑程度，从而为这项研究做出了贡献。因此，本研究强调，有必要采用更广泛的方法来理解学生 "成为适于就业者 "的经历，这不仅包括积极主动的职业行为，还包括学生的认知和情感。

Practical implications  实际影响

Findings suggest a key role for HEIs, employers and policymakers in the development of an employable graduate identity for STEM subjects. First, HEI staff and employers contribute to students’ employability-related expectations. Alumni can provide exemplars of the opportunities available to students and help reflect the students’ potential – especially when their own journey reflects a similar pattern to the students. Particularly for entry into STEM careers, availability of non-stereotypical role models is important (Shin et al 2016); for example, first-generation students or those from similar HEIs. STEM employers are encouraged to be more nuanced in their recruitment activities and make selection decisions based on subject strength rather than long- standing perceptions or university rankings. This could be achieved by adopting local HEIs and thereby forming deeper relationships to help shape the curricula and build trust in the quality of the graduates (Allison et al. 2018).
研究结果表明，高等院校、雇主和政策制定者在培养科学、技术、工程和数学学科毕业生的就业能力方面发挥着关键作用。首先，高等院校的教职员工和雇主可以帮助学生树立与就业相关的期望。校友们可以为学生提供机会，并帮助反映学生的潜能--尤其是当他们自己的成长历程与学生的成长历程有相似之处时。特别是对于进入 STEM 职业的学生来说，提供非陈规定型的榜样非常重要（Shin 等人，2016 年）；例如，第一代学生或来自类似高等院校的学生。鼓励 STEM 雇主在招聘活动中更加细致入微，并根据学科优势而非长期认知或大学排名做出选择决定。这可以通过采用当地高等院校来实现，从而形成更深层次的关系，帮助塑造课程并建立对毕业生质量的信任（Allison 等，2018 年）。

Our second set of practice recommendations focuses on improving student experience and wellbeing beyond the degree programme. A key finding from this study concerns student wellbeing, as reflected in anxiety. Financial anxieties may be detrimental for academic and labour-market performance. Adopting the University Mental Health Charter, universities can proactively encourage student wellbeing throughout the university.
我们的第二套实践建议侧重于改善学位课程之外的学生体验和福祉。本研究的一个重要发现涉及学生的福祉，这体现在焦虑上。经济上的焦虑可能不利于学业和劳动力市场的表现。采用《大学心理健康宪章》，大学可以积极鼓励学生在整个大学期间保持身心健康。

Our third set of practical recommendations is for supporting more effective STEM career behaviours. Universities’ enhanced employment events could be better tailored to provide an understanding of career routes, develop a deeper awareness of the labour market and to overcome the challenges of accessing the market. For instance, entrepreneurship education has been suggested as a way of facilitating graduate identity development (Berglund 2013).
我们的第三套实用建议是支持更有效的 STEM 职业行为。大学的强化就业活动可以更有针对性地提供对就业途径的了解，培养对劳动力市场的深入认识，并克服进入市场所面临的挑战。例如，有人建议将创业教育作为促进毕业生身份发展的一种方式（Berglund，2013 年）。

Study limitations  研究局限性

We recognise that the study captures graduate identity at a particular stage of the UtWT and that graduate career identities evolve as they interact with the labour market (Holmes, 2013). Few studies, however, have attempted to apply a graduate identity perspective during the UtWT and specifically explore social disadvantage at this critical phase. The study, therefore, represents an original perspective on the construction of graduate employability.
我们认识到，本研究捕捉的是毕业生在UtWT特定阶段的身份认同，而毕业生的职业身份认同是随着他们与劳动力市场的互动而不断发展的（Holmes, 2013）。然而，很少有研究试图从毕业生身份认同的视角来探讨这一关键阶段的社会不利处境。因此，本研究为毕业生就业能力的构建提供了一个新的视角。

Our focus on STEM students was intended to narrow the labour markets being compared across HEI type, and hence potential explanatory variables impacting employability. However, there still exist subject-specific paths into employment for different STEM subjects which may impact graduates’ construction of employability. We were not able to differentiate between subjects at this level. Moreover, future research could study social disadvantage at the intersection of gender-based disadvantage, which remains an important issue for entry into STEM education and careers.
我们关注 STEM 学生的目的是缩小不同高校类型之间劳动力市场的比较范围，从而缩小影响就业能力的潜在解释变量。然而，不同的 STEM 学科仍然存在特定的就业途径，这可能会影响毕业生就业能力的构建。在这个层面上，我们无法区分不同的学科。此外，未来的研究可以从性别劣势的交叉点来研究社会劣势，这仍然是进入 STEM 教育和职业生涯的一个重要问题。

The cross-sectional survey design drawing from a single source (students) limits causal inferences regarding the relationships between study variables. Given also the relatively small sample size, our findings raise questions about which we can only speculate in this article.
从单一来源（学生）出发的横截面调查设计限制了对研究变量之间关系的因果推断。此外，由于样本量相对较小，我们的研究结果也提出了一些问题，而我们在本文中只能对这些问题进行推测。

Finally, it should also be recognised that the tuition-fee free Scottish HEI context is unique. Elsewhere, the existence of tuition fees and associated student debt may serve as an additional source of disadvantage for some students, with even greater implications for indicators of becoming employable, especially mental wellbeing (Richardson et al., 2017).
最后，还应认识到，免学费的苏格兰高等院校背景是独特的。在其他地方，学费和相关学生债务的存在可能会成为一些学生不利处境的额外来源，对就业能力指标，尤其是心理健康产生更大的影响（Richardson et al.）

Conclusions  结论

This article examined graduate employability from a graduate identity perspective, reflected not only in proactive career behaviours but also in students’ cognitions and affect related to UtWT. The findings show a substantial institutional effect on becoming employable, particularly on employability expectations and job search-related anxiety. Our findings are consistent with arguments that institution-type provides varying access to channels enabling more successful UtWTs, such as: elite employers, influential networks, and/or perceived ‘fit’ with such employers and networks. We attribute this to HEIs’ and employers’ expectations which shape students’ goals and behaviour in the labour market. In the present study, students in the post-1992 university may have felt less pressure to engage in entrepreneurial activities to improve employability.
本文从毕业生身份认同的角度研究了毕业生的就业能力，这不仅反映在积极主动的职业行为中，也反映在学生与 UtWT 相关的认知和情感中。研究结果表明，院校对就业能力的影响很大，尤其是对就业能力预期和求职焦虑的影响。我们的研究结果与以下论点是一致的：院校类型提供了不同的渠道，使学生能够更成功地进行实用职业技术培训，如：精英雇主、有影响力的网络和/或与这些雇主和网络的 "契合度"。我们将此归因于高等院校和雇主的期望，这些期望塑造了学生在劳动力市场上的目标和行为。在本研究中，"1992 年后 "大学的学生为提高就业能力而参与创业活动的压力可能较小。

The study also expands understanding of how disadvantage affects STEM UtWTs. Employability in STEM subjects has primarily examined gender or ethnicity as the focus of disadvantage (Smith and White 2019). Here, we focused on different facets of social disadvantage: social background, HEI type and financial strain. The findings have practical implications for universities, employers and policymakers in alleviating some of these pressures on disadvantaged students. Our recommendations focus on managing expectations, enabling students to gain the exposure and experiences required for successful UtWT, and reducing their anxiety and perceived barriers to achieving such transitions.
这项研究还拓展了人们对不利条件如何影响 STEM UtWTs 的认识。科学、技术、工程和数学学科的就业能力主要以性别或种族作为不利条件的焦点（Smith 和 White，2019 年）。在这里，我们关注社会不利条件的不同方面：社会背景、高校类型和经济压力。研究结果对大学、雇主和政策制定者减轻弱势学生的部分压力具有实际意义。我们的建议侧重于管理期望值，使学生能够获得成功实现实用工学转换所需的接触和经验，并减少他们的焦虑和实现这种转换的感知障碍。