世界贸易组织及其前身组织＂关税及贸易总协定＂（General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade，GATT）建立了一个强大的国际贸易体系，是当前处理国家间贸易规则的唯一全球性国际组织，其核心即＂世界贸易组织协定＂（WTO agreements）。＂世界贸易组织协定＂就各成员国政府对商品和服务的国际贸易的法律权利进行规制，要求他们对知识产权进行保护并设定最低保护标准。＂世界贸易组织协定＂由加入国际贸易的国家谈判和 世界贸易组织及其前身组织“关税及贸易总协定”（General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade，GATT）建立了一个强大的国际贸易体系，是当前处理国家间贸易规则的唯一全球性国际组织，其核心即“世界贸易组织协定”（WTO agreements）。“世界贸易组织协定”就各成员国政府对商品和服务的国际贸易的法律权利进行规制，要求他们对知识产权进行保护并设定最低保护标准。“世界贸易组织协定”由加入国际贸易的国家谈判和
Understanding the WTO ^(o+){ }^{\oplus} 理解 WTO ^(o+){ }^{\oplus}
The World Trade Organization (WTO) began life on 1 January 1995, but its trading system is half a century older. Since 1948, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had provided the rules for the system. It did not take long for the General Agreement to give birth to an unofficial, de facto international organization, also known informally as GATT. Over the years GATT evolved through several rounds of negotiations. The last and largest GATT round, was the Uruguay Round which lasted from 1986 to 1994 and led to the WTO’s creation. Whereas GATT had mainly dealt with trade in goods, the WTO and its agreements now cover trade in services, and in traded inventions, creations and intellectual property. 世界贸易组织（WTO）于 1995 年 1 月 1 日成立，但其贸易体系已有半个世纪的历史。自 1948 年以来，关税与贸易总协定（GATT）为该体系提供了规则。关税与贸易总协定很快就催生了一个非正式的、事实上的国际组织，也被非正式地称为 GATT。多年来，GATT 通过几轮谈判不断演变。最后一轮也是最大的一轮 GATT 谈判是乌拉圭回合，持续从 1986 年到 1994 年，并导致了 WTO 的成立。虽然 GATT 主要处理商品贸易，但 WTO 及其协议现在涵盖了服务贸易以及交易的发明、创造和知识产权。
Over the past 60 years, the WTO and its predecessor organization the GATT have helped to create a strong and prosperous international trading system, thereby contributing to unprecedented global economic growth. The WTO currently has 164 members, of which 117 are developing countries or separate customs territories. WTO activities are supported by a Secretariat of some 700 staff, led by the WTO Director-General. The Secretariat is located in Geneva, Switzerland, and has an annual budget of approximately CHF 200 million ( $180\$ 180 million, €130€ 130 million). The three official languages of the WTO are English, French and Spanish. 在过去的 60 年中，世界贸易组织（WTO）及其前身关税及贸易总协定（GATT）帮助建立了一个强大而繁荣的国际贸易体系，从而促进了前所未有的全球经济增长。目前，WTO 拥有 164 个成员，其中 117 个是发展中国家或单独关税区。WTO 的活动由大约 700 名员工组成的秘书处支持，秘书处由 WTO 总干事领导。秘书处位于瑞士日内瓦，年预算约为 2 亿瑞士法郎（ $180\$ 180 百万， €130€ 130 百万）。WTO 的三种官方语言是英语、法语和西班牙语。
WTO is an organization for liberalizing trade. It is a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements, a place for them to settle trade WTO 是一个自由化贸易的组织。它是各国政府谈判贸易协议的论坛，是它们解决贸易争端的地方。
disputes, and it operates a system of trade rules. Indeed, the WTO provides a forum for negotiating agreements aimed at reducing obstacles to international trade and ensuring a level playing field for all, thus contributing to economic growth and development. The WTO also provides a legal and institutional framework for the implementation and monitoring of these agreements, as well as for scttling disputes arising from their interpretation and application. The current body of trade agreements comprising the WTO consists of 16 different multilateral agreements, to which all WTO members are parties, and two different plurilateral agreements, to which only some WTO members are parties. WTO membership means a balance of rights and obligations. 争端，并且它运作着一套贸易规则。实际上，WTO 提供了一个谈判协议的论坛，旨在减少国际贸易的障碍，并确保所有国家在同一起跑线上，从而促进经济增长和发展。WTO 还提供了一个法律和制度框架，用于实施和监测这些协议，以及解决因其解释和应用而产生的争端。目前，构成 WTO 的贸易协议包括 16 个不同的多边协议，所有 WTO 成员国均为缔约方，以及两个不同的多边协议，只有部分 WTO 成员国为缔约方。WTO 成员资格意味着权利和义务的平衡。
Decisions in the WTO are generally taken by consensus of the entire membership. The highest institutional body is the Ministerial Conference, which meets roughly every two years. A General Council conducts the organization’s business in the intervals between Ministerial Conferences. Both of these bodies comprise all members. Specialised subsidiary bodies (Councils, Committees, Sub-committees), also comprising all members, administer and monitor the implementation by members of the various WTO agreements. 在 WTO 中，决策通常由全体成员的共识作出。最高的机构是部长级会议，约每两年召开一次。总理事会在部长级会议之间处理组织事务。这两个机构都由所有成员组成。专门的附属机构（理事会、委员会、分委员会）也由所有成员组成，负责管理和监督成员对各种 WTO 协议的实施。
As a place where member governments go, to try to sort out the trade problems they face with each other, the first step is to talk. The WTO was born out of negotiations, and everything the WTO does is the result of negotiations. The bulk of the WTO’s current work comes from the 1986-94 negotiations called the Uruguay Round and earlier negotiations under the GATT. The WTO is currently the host to new negotiations, under the " Doha Development Agenda" launched in 2001. Where countries have faced trade barriers and wanted them lowered, the negotiations have helped to liberalize trade. But the WTO is not just about liberalizing trade, and in some circumstances its rules support maintaining trade barriers - for example to protect consumers or prevent the spread of disease. More specifically, the WTO’s main activities include: 作为成员政府解决彼此之间贸易问题的场所，第一步是进行对话。世界贸易组织（WTO）是在谈判中诞生的，WTO 所做的一切都是谈判的结果。WTO 目前的大部分工作源于 1986-1994 年间的谈判，即乌拉圭回合，以及早期的关税与贸易总协定（GATT）谈判。WTO 目前是 2001 年启动的“多哈发展议程”下新谈判的主办方。在各国面临贸易壁垒并希望降低这些壁垒的情况下，谈判有助于实现贸易自由化。但 WTO 不仅仅是关于贸易自由化，在某些情况下，其规则支持维持贸易壁垒，例如保护消费者或防止疾病传播。更具体地说，WTO 的主要活动包括：
negotiating the reduction or elimination of obstacles to trade (import tariffs, other barriers to trade) and agreeing on rules governing the conduct of international trade (e.g. antidumping, subsidies, product standards, etc.) 谈判减少或消除贸易障碍（进口关税、其他贸易壁垒）并就国际贸易行为的规则达成一致（例如，反倾销、补贴、产品标准等）。
administering and monitoring the application of the WTO’s agreed rules for trade in goods, trade in services, and trade-related intellectual property rights 管理和监测 WTO 商定的商品贸易、服务贸易和与贸易相关的知识产权的适用规则
monitoring and reviewing the trade policies of our members, as well as ensuring transparency of regional and bilateral trade agreements 监测和审查我们成员的贸易政策，以及确保区域和双边贸易协议的透明度
settling disputes among our members regarding the interpretation and application of the agreements 解决我们成员之间关于协议的解释和适用的争端
building capacity of developing country government officials in international trade matters 提高发展中国家政府官员在国际贸易事务中的能力
assisting the process of accession of some 30 countries who are not yet members of the organization 协助大约 30 个尚未成为该组织成员国的国家的加入过程
conducting economic research and collecting and disseminating trade data in support of the WTO’s other main activities 进行经济研究，收集和传播贸易数据，以支持 WTO 的其他主要活动
explaining to and educating the public about the WTO, its mission and its activities. 向公众解释和教育关于世界贸易组织（WTO）、其使命和活动。
At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations. These documents provide the legal ground-rules for international commerce. They are essentially contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits. Although negotiated and signed by governments, the goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business, while allowing governments to meet social and environmental objectives. 其核心是世界贸易组织（WTO）协议，这些协议由世界大多数贸易国家谈判并签署。这些文件为国际商业提供了法律基本规则。它们本质上是合同，约束各国政府将其贸易政策保持在商定的限度内。尽管是由政府谈判和签署的，但其目标是帮助商品和服务的生产者、出口商和进口商开展业务，同时允许各国政府实现社会和环境目标。
The system’s overriding purpose is to help trade flow as freely as possibleso long as there are no undesirable side-effects-because this is important for economic development and well-being. That partly means removing obstacles. It also means ensuring that individuals, companies and governments know what the trade rules are around the world, and giving them the confidence that there will be no sudden changes of policy. In other words, the rules have to be “transparent” and predictable. The WTO also helps to settle disputes. Trade relations often involve conflicting interests. Agreements, including those painstakingly negotiated in the WTO system, often need interpreting. The most harmonious way to settle these differences is through some neutral procedure based on an agreed legal foundation, which certainly is the purpose behind the dispute settlement process written into the WTO agreements. 该系统的首要目的是帮助贸易尽可能自由流动，只要没有不良副作用，因为这对经济发展和福祉至关重要。这部分意味着消除障碍。这也意味着确保个人、公司和政府了解全球的贸易规则，并让他们有信心政策不会突然改变。换句话说，规则必须是“透明的”和可预测的。WTO 还帮助解决争端。贸易关系通常涉及相互冲突的利益。协议，包括在 WTO 系统中经过艰苦谈判达成的协议，通常需要解释。解决这些分歧的最和谐方式是通过基于商定法律基础的某种中立程序，这无疑是 WTO 协议中争端解决程序的目的所在。
I . Principle of the Trade System 贸易体系原则
The WTO is the primary organization in the field of economic globalization and is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations, whilst the WTO agreements govern the rights of governments to regulate international trade in goods and services and requires them to protect intellectual property. The WTO also has an active dispute settlement system which, since 1995, has produced a substantial jurisprudence. WTO 是经济全球化领域的主要组织，也是唯一一个处理国家之间贸易规则的全球国际组织，而 WTO 协议则规范了各国政府对国际商品和服务贸易的监管权利，并要求它们保护知识产权。WTO 还拥有一个活跃的争端解决机制，自 1995 年以来，已产生了大量的法律判例。
The WTO agreements are lengthy and complex because they are legal texts covering a wide range of activities. ^((1)){ }^{(1)} They deal with: agriculture, textiles and clothing, banking, telecommunications, government purchases, industrial standards and product safety, food sanitation regulations, intellectual property, and much more. But a number of simple, fundamental principles run throughout all of these documents. These principles are the foundation of the multilateral trading system, which affirm the trading system should be WTO 协议内容冗长且复杂，因为它们是涵盖广泛活动的法律文本。 ^((1)){ }^{(1)} 它们涉及：农业、纺织和服装、银行、通信、政府采购、工业标准和产品安全、食品卫生法规、知识产权等许多方面。但这些文件中贯穿着一些简单的基本原则。这些原则是多边贸易体系的基础，确认贸易体系应当是
without discrimination-a country should not discriminate between its trading partners (giving them equally “most-favoured-nation” or MFN status) and neither should it discriminate between its own and foreign products, services or nationals (giving them “national treatment”); 无歧视——一个国家不应在其贸易伙伴之间进行歧视（给予他们同等的“最惠国”或 MFN 地位），也不应在本国和外国的产品、服务或国民之间进行歧视（给予他们“国民待遇”）；
freer-barriers coming down through negotiation; 通过谈判消除自由壁垒；
predictable-foreign companies, investors and governments should be confident that trade barriers (including tariffs and non-tariff barriers) should not be raised arbitrarily; tariff rates and market-opening commitments are “bound” in the WTO; 可预测的外国公司、投资者和政府应当确信，贸易壁垒（包括关税和非关税壁垒）不应被任意提高；关税率和市场开放承诺在 WTO 中是“绑定”的；
more competitive-discouraging “unfair” practices such as export subsidies and dumping products at below cost to gain market share; 更具竞争力——抑制“不公平”的做法，例如出口补贴和以低于成本的价格倾销产品以获取市场份额；
more beneficial for less developed countries-giving them more time to adjust, greater flexibility, and special privileges. 对发展较少的国家更有利——给予它们更多的调整时间、更大的灵活性和特殊特权。
i. e. The WTO’s founding and guiding principles remain the pursuit of open borders, the guarantee of MFN principle and non-discriminatory treatment 即世界贸易组织的创立和指导原则仍然是追求开放边界、保证最惠国待遇原则和非歧视性待遇。
by and among members, and a commitment to transparency in the conduct of its activities. The opening of national markets to international trade, with justifiable exceptions or with adequate flexibilities, will encourage and contribute to sustainable development, raise people’s welfare, reduce poverty, and foster peace and stability. At the same time, such market opening must be accompanied by sound domestic and intcrnational policies that contribute to economic growth and development according to each member’s needs and aspirations. A closer look at these principles: 成员之间的承诺，以及在其活动中保持透明度的承诺。国家市场向国际贸易的开放，伴随合理的例外或适当的灵活性，将鼓励并促进可持续发展，提高人民的福祉，减少贫困，促进和平与稳定。同时，这种市场开放必须伴随健全的国内和国际政策，以根据每个成员的需求和愿望促进经济增长和发展。仔细审视这些原则：
1. Trade Without Discrimination 1. 无歧视贸易
This principle consists of two parts, MFN and national treatment, i. e. treating other people equally, and treating foreigners and locals equally. Under the WTO agreements, countries cannot normally discriminate between their trading partners. Grant someone a special favour (such as a lower customs duty rate for one of their products) and you have to do the same for all other WTO members. This principle is known as MFN treatment, which sounds like a contradiction. It suggests special treatment, but in the WTO, it actually means non-discrimination-treating virtually everyone equally. Each member treats all the other members equally as “most-favoured” trading partners. If a country improves the benefits that it gives to one trading partner, it has to give the same “best” treatment to all the other WTO members so that they all remain " mostfavoured". MFN status did not always mean equal treatment. The first bilateral MFN treaties set up exclusive clubs among a country’s “most-favoured” trading partners. Under GATT and now the WTO, the MFN club is no longer exclusive. The MFN principle ensures that each country treats all its fellow members equally. 该原则由两个部分组成，最惠国待遇和国民待遇，即平等对待他人，以及平等待遇外国人和本国人。在 WTO 协议下，各国通常不能对其贸易伙伴进行歧视。给予某人特殊优惠（例如对其某一产品降低关税）时，必须对所有其他 WTO 成员给予同样的待遇。该原则被称为最惠国待遇，这听起来像是一个矛盾。它暗示了特殊待遇，但在 WTO 中，它实际上意味着非歧视——几乎平等地对待每个人。每个成员将所有其他成员视为“最惠国”贸易伙伴平等对待。如果一个国家改善了对某个贸易伙伴的优惠待遇，则必须对所有其他 WTO 成员给予同样的“最佳”待遇，以使他们都保持“最惠国”地位。最惠国地位并不总是意味着平等待遇。最初的双边最惠国条约在一个国家的“最惠国”贸易伙伴之间建立了排他性俱乐部。在关贸总协定（GATT）和现在的 WTO 下，最惠国俱乐部不再是排他性的。最惠国原则确保每个国家平等对待所有其他成员。
MFN is so important that it is the first article of the GATT, which governs trade in goods. MFN is also a priority in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) (Article 2) and the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) (Article 4), although in each agreement the principle is handled slightly differently. Together, those three agreements cover all three main areas of trade handled by the WTO. 最惠国待遇（MFN）是如此重要，以至于它是《关税与贸易总协定》（GATT）的第一条，规范商品贸易。MFN 在《服务贸易总协定》（GATS）（第 2 条）和《与贸易有关的知识产权协议》（TRIPS）（第 4 条）中也是优先事项，尽管在每个协议中，该原则的处理方式略有不同。这三个协议共同涵盖了世贸组织（WTO）处理的所有三个主要贸易领域。
Some exceptions are allowed. For example, countries can set up a free trade agreementthat applies only to goods traded within the group-discriminating 某些例外是允许的。例如，国家可以建立仅适用于集团内交易商品的自由贸易协定——这是一种歧视性做法。
against goods from outside. Or they can give developing countries special access to their markets. Or a country can raise barriers against products that are considered to be traded unfairly from specific countries. And in services, countrics are allowed, in limited circumstances, to discriminate. But the agreements only permit these exceptions under strict conditions. In general, MFN means that every time a country lowers a trade barrier or opens up a market, it has to do so for the same goods or services from all its trading partners-whether rich or poor, weak or strong. 针对外部商品。或者，他们可以给予发展中国家特别的市场准入。或者一个国家可以对被认为来自特定国家的不公平交易产品提高壁垒。在服务方面，国家在有限的情况下被允许歧视。但这些协议仅在严格条件下允许这些例外。一般来说，最惠国待遇意味着每当一个国家降低贸易壁垒或开放市场时，必须对所有贸易伙伴的相同商品或服务采取相同的措施——无论是富国还是穷国，强国还是弱国。
Imported and locally produced goods should be treated equally-at least after the foreign goods have entered the market. The same should apply to foreign and domestic services, and to foreign and local trademarks, copyrights and patents. This principle of “national treatment” (giving others the same treatment as one’s own nationals) is also found in all the three main WTO agreements (Article 3 of GATT, Article 17 of GATS and Article 3 of TRIPS), although once again the principle is handled slightly differently in each of these. National treatment only applies once a product, service or item of intellectual property has entered the market. Therefore, charging customs duty on an import is not a violation of national treatment even if locally-produced products are not charged an equivalent tax. 进口和本地生产的商品应当平等对待——至少在外国商品进入市场之后。对外国和国内服务，以及外国和本地商标、版权和专利也应适用同样的原则。这个“国民待遇”原则（给予他人与自己国民相同的待遇）在所有三个主要的 WTO 协议中都有体现（GATT 第 3 条、GATS 第 17 条和 TRIPS 第 3 条），尽管在每个协议中该原则的处理方式略有不同。国民待遇仅在产品、服务或知识产权进入市场后适用。因此，对进口商品征收关税并不违反国民待遇，即使本地生产的产品不被征收等同的税款。
2. Freer Tradethrough Negotiation 2. 通过谈判实现更自由的贸易
Lowering trade barriers is one of the most obvious means of encouraging trade. The barriers concerned include customs duties (or tariffs) and measures such as import bans or quotas that restrict quantities selectively. From time to time other issues such as red tape and exchange rate policies have also been discussed. 降低贸易壁垒是促进贸易最明显的手段之一。相关的壁垒包括关税（或税率）以及限制数量的进口禁令或配额等措施。时不时地，其他问题如繁文缛节和汇率政策也会被讨论。
Since GATT’s creation in 1947-48 there have been nine rounds of trade negotiations. At first these focused on lowering tariffs (customs duties) on imported goods. As a result of the negotiations, by the mid-1990s industrial countries’ tariff rates on industrial goods had fallen steadily to less than 4%4 \%. But by the 1980s, the negotiations had expanded to cover non-tariff barriers on goods, and to the new areas such as services and intellectual property. 自 1947-48 年 GATT 成立以来，已经进行了九轮贸易谈判。最初，这些谈判集中在降低进口商品的关税（海关税）上。经过谈判，到 1990 年代中期，工业国家对工业品的关税率稳步下降至低于 4%4 \% 。但到 1980 年代，谈判范围扩大到涵盖商品的非关税壁垒，以及服务和知识产权等新领域。
Opening markets can be beneficial, but it also requires adjustment. The WTO agreements allow countries to introduce changes gradually, through 开放市场可能是有益的，但这也需要调整。WTO 协议允许各国逐步引入变化，通过
“progressive liberalization”. Developing countries are usually given longer to fulfil their obligations. “渐进式自由化”。发展中国家通常被给予更长的时间来履行其义务。
3. Predictability Through Binding and Transparency 3. 通过约束和透明性实现可预测性
Sometimes, promising not to raisc a trade barrier can be as important as lowering one, because the promise gives businesses a clearer view of their future opportunities. With stability and predictability, investment is encouraged, jobs are created and consumers can fully enjoy the benefits of competition-choice and lower prices. The multilateral trading system is an attempt by governments to make the business environment stable and predictable. 有时候，承诺不提高贸易壁垒与降低贸易壁垒同样重要，因为这一承诺使企业对未来的机会有了更清晰的认识。在稳定和可预测的环境下，投资得以鼓励，创造了就业机会，消费者可以充分享受竞争带来的选择和更低的价格。多边贸易体系是各国政府努力使商业环境稳定和可预测的一种尝试。
In the WTO, when countries agree to open their markets for goods or services, they “bind” their commitments. For goods, these bindings amount to ceilings on customs tariff rates. Sometimes countries tax imports at rates that are lower than the bound rates. Frequently this is the case in developing countries. In developed countries the rates actually charged and the bound rates tend to be the same. A country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade. One of the achievements of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade talks was to increase the amount of trade under binding commitments. In agriculture, 100%100 \% of productsnow have bound tariffs. The result of all this leads to a substantially higher degree of market security for traders and investors. 在 WTO 中，当各国同意开放其商品或服务市场时，他们会“绑定”其承诺。对于商品，这些绑定相当于关税税率的上限。有时，各国对进口商品征收的税率低于绑定税率。这在发展中国家经常发生。在发达国家，实际征收的税率和绑定税率往往是相同的。一个国家可以改变其绑定，但只能在与其贸易伙伴协商后进行，这可能意味着需要对其贸易损失进行补偿。乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判的成就之一是增加了在绑定承诺下的贸易量。在农业方面， 100%100 \% 种产品现在有绑定关税。所有这些的结果导致了交易者和投资者市场安全性的显著提高。
The system tries to improve predictability and stability in other ways as well. One way is to discourage the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports-administering quotas can lead to more red-tape and accusations of unfair play. Another is to make countries’ trade rules as clear and public (“transparent”) as possible. Many WTO agreements require governments to disclose their policies and practices publicly within the country or by notifying the WTO. The regular surveillance of national trade policies through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism provides a further means of encouraging transparency both domestically and at the multilateral level. 该系统还试图通过其他方式提高可预测性和稳定性。一种方式是抑制配额和其他用于限制进口数量的措施的使用——管理配额可能导致更多的繁文缛节和不公平竞争的指控。另一种方式是尽可能使各国的贸易规则清晰和公开（“透明”）。许多 WTO 协议要求各国政府在国内公开披露其政策和做法，或通过通知 WTO 来进行披露。通过贸易政策审查机制对国家贸易政策的定期监督进一步促进了国内和多边层面的透明度。
4. Promoting Fair Competition 4. 促进公平竞争
The WTO is sometimes described as a “free trade” institution, but that is not entirely accurate. The system does allow tariffs and, in limited WTO 有时被描述为一个“自由贸易”机构，但这并不完全准确。该系统确实允许关税，并且在有限的情况下
circumstances, other forms of protection. More accurately, it is a system of rules dedicated to open, fair and undistorted competition. The rules on non-discrimination-MFN and national treatment-are designed to secure fair conditions of trade. So too are those on dumping (exporting at below cost to gain market share) and subsidies. The issues are complex, and the rules try to establish what is fair or unfair, and how governments can respond, in particular by charging additional import duties calculated to compensate for damage caused by unfair trade. 在这种情况下，其他形式的保护。更准确地说，它是一个致力于开放、公平和不扭曲竞争的规则体系。关于非歧视的规则——最惠国待遇和国民待遇——旨在确保公平的贸易条件。关于倾销（以低于成本的价格出口以获取市场份额）和补贴的规则也是如此。这些问题很复杂，规则试图确定什么是公平或不公平，以及政府如何应对，特别是通过征收额外的进口关税来补偿因不公平贸易造成的损害。
Many of the other WTO agreements aim to support fair competition: in agriculture, intellectual property, services, for example. The agreement on government procurement (a “plurilateral” agreement because it is signed by only a few WTO members) extends competition rules to purchases by thousands of government entities in many countries. 许多其他 WTO 协议旨在支持公平竞争：例如，在农业、知识产权、服务等方面。关于政府采购的协议（因为只有少数 WTO 成员签署，所以称为“多边”协议）将竞争规则扩展到许多国家数千个政府实体的采购中。
5. Encouraging Development and Economic Reform 5. 鼓励发展和经济改革
The WTO system contributes to development. On the other hand, developing countries need flexibility in the time they take to implement the system’s agreements. And the agreements themselves inherit the earlier provisions of GATT that allow for special assistance and trade concessions for developing countries. Over three quarters of WTO members are developing countries and countries in transition to market economies. During the seven and a half years of the Uruguay Round, over 60 of these countries implemented trade liberalization programmes autonomously. At the same time, developing countries and transition economies were much more active and influential in the Uruguay Round negotiations than in any previous round, and they are even more so in the current Doha Development Agenda. WTO 体系有助于发展。另一方面，发展中国家在实施该体系协议的时间上需要灵活性。这些协议本身继承了关贸总协定（GATT）早期的条款，允许对发展中国家提供特别援助和贸易优惠。超过四分之三的 WTO 成员是发展中国家和向市场经济过渡的国家。在乌拉圭回合的七年半时间里，超过 60 个国家自主实施了贸易自由化计划。同时，发展中国家和过渡经济体在乌拉圭回合谈判中的活跃程度和影响力远高于以往任何回合，在当前的多哈发展议程中更是如此。
At the end of the Uruguay Round, developing countries were prepared to take on most of the obligations that are required of developed countries. But the agreements did give them transition periods to adjust to the more unfamiliar and, perhaps, difficult WTO provisions-particularly so for the poorest, “leastdeveloped” countries. A ministerial decision adopted at the end of the round says better-off countries should accelerate implementing market access commitments on goods exported by the least-developed countries, and it seeks increased technical assistance for them. More recently, developed countries have started to 在乌拉圭回合结束时，发展中国家准备承担大部分发达国家所需的义务。但协议确实给予它们过渡期，以适应更不熟悉且可能更困难的 WTO 条款——尤其是对于最贫困的“最不发达”国家。回合结束时通过的一项部长级决定指出，较富裕国家应加快实施对最不发达国家出口商品的市场准入承诺，并寻求为它们提供更多的技术援助。最近，发达国家已经开始
allow duty-frce and quota-free imports for almost all products from leastdeveloped countries. On all of this, the WTO and its members are still going through a learning process. The Doha Development Agenda includes developing countries’ concerns about the difficulties they face in implementing the Uruguay Round agreements. 允许对几乎所有来自最不发达国家的产品免税和免配额进口。在这一切上，WTO 及其成员国仍在经历一个学习过程。多哈发展议程包括发展中国家对实施乌拉圭回合协议所面临困难的关注。
II. The Case for Open Trade II. 开放贸易的理由
The economic case for an open trading system based on multilaterally agreed rules is simple enough and rests largely on commercial common sense. But it is also supported by evidence: the experience of world trade and economic growth since the Second World War. Tariffs on industrial products have fallen steeply and now average less than 5%5 \% in industrial countries. During the first 25 years after the war, world economic growth averaged about 5%5 \% per year, a high rate that was partly the result of lower trade barriers. World trade grew even faster, averaging about 8%8 \% during the period. The data show a definite statistical link between freer trade and economic growth. Economic theory points to strong reasons for the link. All countries, including the poorest, have assets-human, industrial, natural, financial-which they can employ to produce goods and services for their domestic markets or to compete overseas. 基于多边协议规则的开放贸易体系的经济理由相当简单，主要基于商业常识。但它也得到了证据的支持：自第二次世界大战以来的世界贸易和经济增长的经验。工业产品的关税大幅下降，目前在工业国家的平均关税低于 5%5 \% 。在战后最初的 25 年中，世界经济增长的年均增速约为 5%5 \% ，这一高增长率部分是由于贸易壁垒的降低。世界贸易的增长速度甚至更快，期间的年均增速约为 8%8 \% 。数据表明，自由贸易与经济增长之间存在明确的统计联系。经济理论指出了这种联系的强有力理由。所有国家，包括最贫穷的国家，都拥有可以用于生产国内市场商品和服务或在海外竞争的人力、工业、自然和金融等资产。
Economics tells us that we can benefit when these goods and services are traded. Simply put, the principle of “comparative advantage” says that countries prosper first by taking advantage of their assets in order to concentrate on what they can produce best, and then by trading these products for products that other countries produce best. In other words, liberal trade policies-policies that allow the unrestricted flow of goods and services-sharpen competition, motivate innovation and breed success. They multiply the rewards that result from producing the best products, with the best design, at the best price. 经济学告诉我们，当这些商品和服务进行交易时，我们可以受益。简单来说，“比较优势”原则表明，国家首先通过利用其资产来专注于其最擅长生产的产品，从而繁荣发展，然后通过将这些产品与其他国家最擅长生产的产品进行交易。换句话说，自由贸易政策——允许商品和服务不受限制流动的政策——能够加剧竞争，激励创新并孕育成功。它们成倍增加了以最佳设计、最佳价格生产最佳产品所带来的回报。
But success in trade is not static. The ability to compete well in particular products can shift from company to company when the market changes or new technologies make cheaper and better products possible. Producers are encouraged to adapt gradually and in a relatively painless way. They can focus on new products, find a new “niche” in their current area or expand into new areas. Experience shows that competitiveness can also shift between whole 但贸易的成功并不是静态的。当市场变化或新技术使得更便宜、更好的产品成为可能时，特定产品的竞争能力可以在公司之间转移。生产者被鼓励逐步适应，以相对无痛的方式进行调整。他们可以专注于新产品，在当前领域找到新的“利基”或扩展到新领域。经验表明，竞争力也可以在整个行业之间转移。
countries. A country that may have enjoyed an advantage because of lower labour costs or because it had good supplies of some natural resources, could also become uncompetitive in some goods or services as its economy develops. However, with the stimulus of an open economy, the country can move on to become competitive in some other goods or services, which is normally a gradual process. ^((1)){ }^{(1)} 国家。一个可能因为较低的劳动力成本或拥有丰富的自然资源而享有优势的国家，随着其经济的发展，也可能在某些商品或服务上变得缺乏竞争力。然而，在开放经济的刺激下，该国可以逐步转向在其他一些商品或服务上变得具有竞争力，这通常是一个渐进的过程。
Nevertheless, the temptation to ward off the challenge of competitive imports is always present. And richer governments are more likely to yield to the siren call of protectionism, for short term political gain-through subsidies, complicated redtape, and hiding behind legitimate policy objectives such as environmental preservationor consumer protection as an excuse to protect producers. 然而，抵御竞争性进口挑战的诱惑始终存在。更富裕的政府更有可能屈服于保护主义的诱惑，以获得短期的政治利益——通过补贴、复杂的繁文缛节，以及以环境保护或消费者保护等合法政策目标作为保护生产者的借口。
Protection ultimately leads to bloated, inefficient producers supplying consumers with outdated, unattractive products. In the end, factories close and jobs are lost despite the protection and subsidies. If other governments around the world pursue the same policies, markets contract and world economic activity is reduced. One of the objectives that governments bring to WTO negotiations is to prevent such a self-defeating and destructive drift into protectionism 保护最终导致臃肿、低效的生产者向消费者提供过时且不吸引人的产品。最终，尽管有保护和补贴，工厂关闭，工作岗位流失。如果世界其他国家的政府也采取相同的政策，市场将收缩，全球经济活动将减少。各国政府在 WTO 谈判中提出的目标之一是防止这种自我挫败和破坏性的保护主义倾向。
Note that comparative advantage is arguably the single most powerful insight into economics. Suppose country A is better than country B at making automobiles, and country B is better than country A at making bread. It is trivial that both would benefit if A specialized in automobiles, B specialized in bread and they traded their products. That is a case of absolute advantage. But what if a country is bad at making everything? Will trade drive all producers out of business? The answer, according to Ricardo, is no. The reason is the principle of comparative advantage. It says, countries AA and BB still stand to benefit from trading with each other even if AA is better than BB at making everything. If AA is much more superior at making automobiles and only slightly superior at making bread, then A should still invest resources in what it does 请注意，比较优势可以说是经济学中最强大的洞察力。假设国家 A 在制造汽车方面优于国家 B，而国家 B 在制造面包方面优于国家 A。如果 A 专注于汽车，B 专注于面包并进行产品交易，那么显然双方都会受益。这是绝对优势的一个例子。但是，如果一个国家在所有方面都很差呢？贸易会使所有生产者破产吗？根据里卡多的说法，答案是否定的。原因在于比较优势原则。它表明，即使 AA 在制造所有产品方面优于 BB ，国家 AA 和 BB 仍然可以通过相互贸易获益。如果 AA 在制造汽车方面远远优于在制造面包方面，那么 A 仍然应该将资源投入到它擅长的领域。
best-producing automobiles-and export the product to B . B should still invest in what it does best-making bread-and export that product to A, even if it is not as efficient as A. Both would still benefit from the trade. A country does not have to be best at anything to gain from trade. That is comparative advantage. The theory dates back to classical cconomist David Ricardo. It is one of the most widely accepted among economists. It is also one of the most misunderstood among non-economists because it is confused with absolute advantage. It is often claimed, for example, that some countries have no comparative advantage in anything. That is virtually impossible. 最佳生产汽车并将产品出口到 B。B 仍然应该投资于其最擅长的面包生产，并将该产品出口到 A，即使其效率不如 A。双方仍将从贸易中受益。一个国家不必在任何方面都是最优秀的才能从贸易中获益。这就是比较优势。该理论可以追溯到古典经济学家大卫·李嘉图。它是经济学家中最广泛接受的理论之一。它也是非经济学家中最常被误解的理论之一，因为它常常与绝对优势混淆。例如，常常有人声称某些国家在任何方面都没有比较优势。这几乎是不可能的。
III. The GATT Years: From Havana to Marrakesh III. GATT 年代：从哈瓦那到马拉喀什
The WTO’s creation on 1 January 1995 marked the biggest reform of international trade since after the Second World War. It also brought to reality-in an updated form-the failed attempt in 1948 to create an International Trade Organization. Much of the history of those 47 years was written in Geneva. But it also traces a journey that spanned the continents, from that hesitant start in 1948 in Havana (Cuba), via Annecy (France), Torquay (UK), Tokyo (Japan), Punta del Este (Uruguay), Montreal (Canada), Brussels (Belgium) and finally to Marrakesh (Morocco) in 1994. During that period, the trading system came under GATT, salvaged from the aborted attempt to create the ITO. GATT helped establish a strong and prosperous multilateral trading system that became more and more liberal through rounds of trade negotiations. But by the 1980s the system needed a thorough overhaul. This led to the Uruguay Round, and ultimately to the WTO. 世界贸易组织（WTO）于 1995 年 1 月 1 日成立，标志着自第二次世界大战以来国际贸易的最大改革。它还以更新的形式实现了 1948 年创建国际贸易组织的失败尝试。在这 47 年的历史中，大部分是在日内瓦书写的。但它也追溯了一段跨越各大洲的旅程，从 1948 年在哈瓦那（古巴）的犹豫起步，经过安纳西（法国）、托基（英国）、东京（日本）、埃斯特角城（乌拉圭）、蒙特利尔（加拿大）、布鲁塞尔（比利时），最终于 1994 年抵达马拉喀什（摩洛哥）。在此期间，贸易体系归属于关税及贸易总协定（GATT），这是从创建国际贸易组织（ITO）的失败尝试中拯救出来的。GATT 帮助建立了一个强大而繁荣的多边贸易体系，通过多轮贸易谈判变得越来越自由化。但到 1980 年代，该体系需要彻底改革。这导致了乌拉圭回合，最终形成了 WTO。
1. "Provisional" for Almost Half a Century 1. "临时"近半个世纪
From 1948 to 1994 , the GATT provided the rules for much of world trade and presided over periods that saw some of the highest growth rates in international commerce. It seemed well-established, but throughout those 47 years, it was a provisional agreement and organization. The original intention was to create a third institution to handle the trade side of international economic cooperation, joining the two “Bretton Woods” institutions, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Over 50 countries participated in negotiations to create an International Trade Organization (ITO) as a specialized agency of 从 1948 年到 1994 年，关税及贸易总协定（GATT）为世界贸易提供了规则，并主持了国际商业中一些最高增长率的时期。它似乎已经建立得很好，但在这 47 年中，它始终是一个临时协议和组织。最初的意图是创建一个第三个机构来处理国际经济合作的贸易方面，加入两个“布雷顿森林”机构，即世界银行和国际货币基金组织。超过 50 个国家参与了创建国际贸易组织（ITO）作为一个专门机构的谈判。
the United Nations. The draft ITO Charter was ambitious. It extended beyond world trade disciplines, to include rules on employment, commodity agreements, restrictive business practices, international investment, and services. The aim was to create the ITO at a UN Conference on Trade and Employment in Havana, Cuba in 1947. 联合国。国际贸易组织（ITO）章程草案雄心勃勃。它不仅涉及世界贸易规则，还包括就业、商品协议、限制性商业行为、国际投资和服务的规则。其目的是在 1947 年于古巴哈瓦那举行的联合国贸易与就业会议上创建国际贸易组织。
Meanwhile, 15 countries had begun talks in December 1945 to reduce and bind customs tariffs. With the Second World War only recently ended, they wanted to give an early boost to trade liberalization, and to begin to correct the legacy of protectionist measures which remained in place from the early 1930s. This first round of negotiations resulted in a package of trade rules and 45,000 tariff concessions affecting $10\$ 10 billion of trade, about one fifth of the world’s total. The group had expanded to 23 by the time the deal was signed on 30 October 1947. The tariff concessions came into effect by 30 June 1948 through a “Protocol of Provisional Application”. And so the new General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was born, with 23 founding members (officially “contracting parties”). The 23 were also part of the larger group negotiating the ITO Charter. One of the provisions of GATT says that they should accept some of the trade rules of the draft. This, they believed, should be done swiftly and “provisionally” in order to protect the value of the tariff concessions they had negotiated. They spelt out how they envisaged the relationship between GATT and the ITO Charter, but they also allowed for the possibility that the ITO might not be created. 与此同时，15 个国家于 1945 年 12 月开始谈判，以减少和约束关税。随着第二次世界大战刚刚结束，他们希望为贸易自由化提供早期推动，并开始纠正自 1930 年代初以来仍然存在的保护主义措施的遗留问题。这轮谈判的结果是形成了一套贸易规则和 45,000 项关税让步，涉及 $10\$ 10 亿的贸易，约占全球总量的五分之一。到 1947 年 10 月 30 日签署协议时，参与国已扩展至 23 个。关税让步通过“临时适用议定书”于 1948 年 6 月 30 日生效。因此，新的关税与贸易总协定（GATT）诞生了，拥有 23 个创始成员（正式称为“缔约方”）。这 23 个国家也是谈判国际贸易组织（ITO）章程的更大团体的一部分。GATT 的一项条款规定，他们应接受草案中的一些贸易规则。他们认为，这应迅速且“临时”地进行，以保护他们所谈判的关税让步的价值。 他们阐明了他们对关税及贸易总协定（GATT）与国际贸易组织（ITO）章程之间关系的设想，但他们也考虑到国际贸易组织可能不会成立的可能性。
The Havana conference began on 21 November 1947, less than a month after GATT was signed. The ITO Charter was finally agreed in Havana in March 1948, but ratification in some national legislatures proved impossible. The most serious opposition was in the US Congress, even though the US government had been one of the driving forces. In 1950, the United States government announced that it would not seek Congressional ratification of the Havana Charter, and the ITO was effectively dead. So, the GATT became the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1948 until the WTO was established in 1995. 哈瓦那会议于 1947 年 11 月 21 日开始，距离关税与贸易总协定（GATT）签署不到一个月。国际贸易组织（ITO）章程最终在 1948 年 3 月于哈瓦那达成一致，但在一些国家立法机构的批准中遇到了困难。美国国会的反对最为严重，尽管美国政府曾是推动这一进程的主要力量之一。1950 年，美国政府宣布将不寻求国会对哈瓦那章程的批准，国际贸易组织实际上已死。因此，从 1948 年到 1995 年世界贸易组织（WTO）成立之前，关税与贸易总协定成为唯一管理国际贸易的多边工具。
For almost half a century, the GATT’s basic legal principles remained much as they were in 1948. There were additions in the form of a section on 近半个世纪以来，关税及贸易总协定（GATT）的基本法律原则基本保持不变，仍如 1948 年所定。以一节的形式进行了补充。
development added in the 1960 s and “plurilateral” agreements (i.e. with voluntary membership) in the 1970s, and cfforts to reduce tariffs further continucd. Much of this was achicved through a series of multilateral negotiations known as “trade rounds”-the biggest leaps forward in international trade libcralization have come through these rounds which were held under GATT’s auspiccs. In the carly years, the GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT Anti-Dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the scventics was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system. The eighth, the Uruguay Round of 1986-94, was the last and most extensive of all. It led to the WTO and a new set of agreements. 在 1960 年代增加了发展问题，1970 年代则出现了“多边”协议（即自愿成员资格），并且进一步减少关税的努力持续进行。这主要是通过一系列被称为“贸易回合”的多边谈判实现的——国际贸易自由化的最大进展都是通过这些在关税及贸易总协定（GATT）框架下举行的回合取得的。在早期，GATT 贸易回合集中在进一步减少关税。然后，1960 年代中期的肯尼迪回合促成了 GATT 反倾销协议和一个关于发展的部分。1970 年代的东京回合是首次重大尝试解决非关税贸易壁垒并改善系统。第八轮，即 1986-1994 年的乌拉圭回合，是所有回合中最后也是最广泛的一次。它导致了世界贸易组织（WTO）和一套新的协议的形成。
2. The Tokyo Round: A First Try to Reform the System 东京回合：改革体系的第一次尝试
The Tokyo Round lasted from 1973 to 1979, with 102 countries participating. It continued GATT’s efforts to progressively reduce tariffs. The results included an average one-third cut in customs duties in the world’s nine major industrial markets, bringing the average tariff on industrial products down to 4.7%4.7 \%. The tariff reductions, phased in over a period of eight years, involved an element of “harmonization”-the higher the tariff, the larger the cut, proportionally. 东京回合持续了从 1973 年到 1979 年，共有 102 个国家参与。它延续了关贸总协定（GATT）逐步降低关税的努力。结果包括世界九大工业市场的平均关税削减三分之一，使工业产品的平均关税降至 4.7%4.7 \% 。关税削减分阶段在八年内实施，涉及“协调”的元素——关税越高，削减的幅度相对越大。
In other issues, the Tokyo Round had mixed results. It failed to come to grips with the fundamental problems affecting farm trade and also stopped short of providing a modified agreement on “safeguards” (emergency import measures). Nevertheless, a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers did emerge from the negotiations, in some cases interpreting existing GATT rules, in others breaking entirely new ground. In most cases, only a relatively small number of (mainly industrialized) GATT members subscribed to these agreements and arrangements. Because they were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called “codes”. They were not multilateral, but they were a beginning. Several codes were eventually amended in the Uruguay Round and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained “plurilateral”-those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products. In 1997 WTO 在其他问题上，东京回合的结果喜忧参半。它未能解决影响农产品贸易的根本问题，也未能提供关于“保障措施”（紧急进口措施）的修订协议。然而，一系列关于非关税壁垒的协议确实在谈判中出现，在某些情况下对现有的关贸总协定（GATT）规则进行了解释，而在其他情况下则开辟了全新的领域。在大多数情况下，只有相对少数（主要是工业化国家）关贸总协定成员签署了这些协议和安排。由于这些协议未被全部关贸总协定成员接受，因此它们通常被非正式称为“规范”。它们不是多边的，但它们是一个开始。几个规范最终在乌拉圭回合中被修订，并转变为所有世贸组织成员接受的多边承诺。只有四个仍然是“多边协议”——即关于政府采购、牛肉、民用飞机和乳制品的协议。1997 年世贸组织
members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two. 成员同意终止牛肉和乳制品协议，仅保留两个。
3. The Contribution of GATT 3. GATT 的贡献
GATT was provisional with a limited field of action, but its success over 47 years in promoting and securing the liberalization of much of world trade is incontestable. Continual reductions in tariffs alone helped spur very high rates of world trade growth during the 1950 s and 1960 s-around 8%8 \% a year on average. And the momentum of trade liberalization helped ensure that trade growth consistently out-paced production growth throughout the GATT era, a measure of countries’ increasing ability to trade with each other and to reap the benefits of trade. The rush of new members during the Uruguay Round demonstrated that the multilateral trading system was recognized as an anchor for development and an instrument of economic and trade reform. But all was not well. As time passed new problems arose. The Tokyo Round in the 1970s was an attempt to tackle some of these but its achievements were limited. This was a sign of difficult times to come. 关税及贸易总协定（GATT）是临时性的，行动范围有限，但其在 47 年内促进和确保世界贸易大部分自由化的成功是不可否认的。仅关税的持续降低就帮助推动了 1950 年代和 1960 年代世界贸易的高增长率——平均每年约 8%8 \% 。贸易自由化的势头确保了在 GATT 时代，贸易增长始终超过生产增长，这反映了各国之间日益增强的贸易能力以及从贸易中获得的利益。乌拉圭回合期间新成员的涌入表明，多边贸易体系被视为发展的支柱和经济与贸易改革的工具。但并非一切都很好。随着时间的推移，新问题出现了。1970 年代的东京回合试图解决其中一些问题，但其成就有限。这是未来困难时期的一个迹象。
GATT’s success in reducing tariffs to such a low level, combined with a series of economic recessions in the 1970s and early 1980s, drove governments to devise other forms of protection for sectors facing increased foreign competition. High rates of unemployment and constant factory closures led governments in Western Europe and North America to seek bilateral marketsharing arrangements with competitors and to embark on a subsidies race to maintain their holds on agricultural trade. Both these changes undermined GATT’s credibility and effectiveness. The problem was not just a deteriorating trade policy environment. By the early 1980s the General Agreement was clearly no longer as relevant to the realities of world trade as it had been in the 1940s. For a start, world trade had become far more complex and important than 40 years before: the globalization of the world economy was underway, trade in services-not covered by GATT rules-was of major interest to more and more countries, and international investment had expanded. The expansion of services trade was also closely tied to further increases in world merchandise trade. In other respects, GATT had been found wanting. For instance, in agriculture, loopholes in the multilateral system were heavily exploited, and efforts at 关税及贸易总协定（GATT）在将关税降低到如此低的水平方面取得的成功，加上 1970 年代和 1980 年代初期的一系列经济衰退，促使各国政府制定其他形式的保护措施，以应对日益增加的外国竞争。高失业率和工厂不断关闭使西欧和北美的政府寻求与竞争对手达成双边市场共享协议，并展开补贴竞赛，以维持对农业贸易的控制。这两种变化都削弱了 GATT 的可信度和有效性。问题不仅仅是贸易政策环境的恶化。到 1980 年代初，普遍协议显然不再像 1940 年代那样与世界贸易的现实相关。首先，世界贸易变得比 40 年前复杂得多且重要：全球经济的全球化正在进行中，服务贸易（不受 GATT 规则约束）对越来越多的国家具有重大意义，国际投资也在扩大。服务贸易的扩展与世界商品贸易的进一步增长密切相关。在其他方面，GATT 也被发现存在不足。 例如，在农业方面，多边体系中的漏洞被严重利用，努力在
liberalizing agricultural trade met with little success. In the textiles and clothing sector, an exception to GATT’s normal disciplines was negotiated in the 1960s and early 1970s, leading to the Multifibre Arrangement. Even GATT’s institutional structure and its dispute settlement system were causing concern. These and other factors convinced GATT members that a new effort to reinforce and extend the multilateral system should be attempted. That effort resulted in the Uruguay Round, the Marrakesh Declaration, and the creation of the WTO. 农业贸易的自由化进展甚微。在纺织和服装行业，1960 年代和 1970 年代初期谈判达成了对关贸总协定（GATT）正常规则的一个例外，导致了多纤维安排。即使是 GATT 的机构结构和争端解决机制也引发了担忧。这些因素以及其他因素使 GATT 成员国相信，应该尝试新的努力来加强和扩展多边体系。这一努力导致了乌拉圭回合、马拉喀什宣言以及世界贸易组织（WTO）的成立。
IV . Trade Rounds IV. 贸易回合
Trade rounds are progress by package. They are often lengthy-the Uruguay Round took seven and a half years-but trade rounds can have an advantage, offering a package approach to trade negotiations that can sometimes be more fruitful than negotiations on a single issue. The size of the package can mean more benefits because participants can seek and secure advantages across a wide range of issues. Agreement can be easier to reach, through trade-offssomewhere in the package there should be something for everyone. This has political as well as economic implications. A government may want to make a concession, perhaps in one sector, because of the economic benefits. But politically, it could find the concession difficult to defend. A package would contain politically and economically attractive benefits in other sectors that could be used as compensation. 贸易回合是通过打包进展的。它们通常很漫长——乌拉圭回合持续了七年半——但贸易回合可以有一个优势，提供一种打包的贸易谈判方式，这有时比单一问题的谈判更有成效。包的大小可以意味着更多的好处，因为参与者可以在广泛的问题上寻求和获得优势。通过权衡，达成协议可能更容易——在包的某个地方应该有适合每个人的东西。这具有政治和经济的影响。一个政府可能希望在某个部门做出让步，因为经济利益。但在政治上，它可能会发现很难为这项让步辩护。一个包将包含在其他部门具有政治和经济吸引力的好处，可以用作补偿。
So, reform in politically-sensitive sectors of world trade can be more feasible as part of a global package-a good example is the agreement to reform agricultural trade in the Uruguay Round. Developing countries and other less powerful participants have a greater chance of influencing the multilateral system in a trade round than in bilateral relationships with major trading nations. But the size of a trade round can be both a strength and a weakness. From time to time, the question is asked: wouldn’t it be simpler to concentrate negotiations on a single sector? Recent history is inconclusive. At some stages, the Uruguay Round seemed so cumbersome that it seemed impossible that all participants could agree on every subject. Then the round did end successfully in 1993-94. This was followed by two years of failure to reach agreement in the single-sector talks on maritime transport. Still it is fabricated to deem trade 因此，在世界贸易的政治敏感领域进行改革作为全球方案的一部分可能更为可行——一个很好的例子是乌拉圭回合中关于农业贸易改革的协议。发展中国家和其他较弱势的参与者在贸易回合中影响多边体系的机会大于与主要贸易国的双边关系。但贸易回合的规模既可以是优势，也可以是劣势。时不时地，人们会问：集中谈判于单一领域不是更简单吗？最近的历史并没有得出明确的结论。在某些阶段，乌拉圭回合似乎如此繁琐，以至于所有参与者在每个议题上达成一致似乎是不可能的。然而，该回合在 1993-94 年成功结束。随后是两年未能在海运单一领域的谈判中达成协议。尽管如此，仍然被认为贸易是虚构的。
rounds the one route to success. In 1997, single sector talks were concluded in basic telecommunications, information technology equipment and financial services. Indeed, success depends on using the right type of negotiation for the particular time and context. 成功的途径是多方面的。1997 年，基本电信、信息技术设备和金融服务的单一领域谈判结束。实际上，成功取决于在特定的时间和背景下使用正确类型的谈判。
Many of the trade rounds would have"built-in agenda", i. e. timetables for future work. Part of the “built-in agenda” started almost immediately. In some areas, it included new or further negotiations. In other areas, it included assessments or reviews of the situation at specified times. Some negotiations were quickly completed, notably in basic telecommunications, financial services. Member governments also swiftly agreed a deal for freer trade in information technology products, an issue outside the “built-in agenda”. For instance, the agenda originally built into the Uruguay Round agreements has seen additions and modifications and a number of items are now part of the Doha Agenda, some of them updated. 许多贸易回合将有“内置议程”，即未来工作的时间表。“内置议程”的一部分几乎立即开始。在某些领域，它包括新的或进一步的谈判。在其他领域，它包括在特定时间对情况的评估或审查。一些谈判迅速完成，特别是在基础电信和金融服务方面。成员国政府也迅速达成了一项关于信息技术产品自由贸易的协议，这是一个超出“内置议程”的问题。例如，最初纳入乌拉圭回合协议的议程已经看到增加和修改，许多项目现在成为多哈议程的一部分，其中一些已更新。
1. The Uruguay Round 1. 乌拉圭回合
It took seven and a half years, almost twice the original schedule. By the end, 123 countries were taking part. It covered almost all trade, from toothbrushes to pleasure boats, from banking to telecommunications, from the genes of wild rice to AIDS treatments. It was quite simply the largest trade negotiation ever, and most probably the largest negotiation of any kind in history. 历时七年半，几乎是原定时间的两倍。到最后，123 个国家参与其中。它涵盖几乎所有的贸易，从牙刷到游艇，从银行业到电信，从野生稻的基因到艾滋病治疗。这无疑是有史以来最大的贸易谈判，可能也是历史上最大的任何类型的谈判。
At times it seemed doomed to fail. But in the end, the Uruguay Round brought about the biggest reform of the world’s trading system since GATT was created at the end of the Second World War. And yet, despite its troubled progress, the Uruguay Round did see some early results. Within only two years, participants had agreed on a package of cuts in import duties on tropical products-which are mainly exported by developing countries. They had also revised the rules for settling disputes, with some measures implemented on the spot. And they called for regular reports on GATT members’ trade policies, a move considered important for making trade regimes transparent around the world. 有时它似乎注定要失败。但最终，乌拉圭回合带来了自第二次世界大战结束以来世界贸易体系的最大改革。尽管进展艰难，乌拉圭回合确实取得了一些早期成果。在短短两年内，参与者就达成了一项关于削减热带产品进口关税的协议，这些产品主要由发展中国家出口。他们还修订了争端解决的规则，并在现场实施了一些措施。他们还呼吁定期报告关贸总协定成员的贸易政策，这一举措被认为对全球贸易体制的透明化至关重要。
The seeds of the Uruguay Round were sown in November 1982 at a ministerial meeting of GATT members in Geneva. Although the ministers 乌拉圭回合的种子于 1982 年 11 月在日内瓦的关税及贸易总协定（GATT）成员国部长会议上播下。尽管部长们
intended to launch a major new negotiation, the conference stalled on agriculture and was widely regarded as a failure. In fact, the work programme that the ministers agreed formed the basis for what was to become the Uruguay Round negotiating agenda. Nevertheless, it took four more years of exploring, clarifying issues and painstaking consensus-building, before ministers agreed to launch the new round. They did so in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay. They cventually acccptcd a negotiating agenda that covered virtually every outstanding trade policy issue. The talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles. All the original GATT articles were up for review. It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed, and the ministers gave themselves four years to complete it. Two years later, in December 1988, ministers met again in Montreal, Canada, for what was supposed to be an assessment of progress at the round’s half-way point. The purpose was to clarify the agenda for the remaining two years, but the talks ended in a deadlock that was not resolved until officials met more quietly in Geneva the following April. 旨在启动一项重大新谈判，但会议在农业问题上停滞不前，被广泛视为失败。事实上，部长们达成的工作计划构成了后来的乌拉圭回合谈判议程的基础。然而，经过四年的探索、澄清问题和艰苦的共识建立，部长们才同意启动新回合。他们于 1986 年 9 月在乌拉圭的东角城召开会议，最终接受了涵盖几乎所有未解决贸易政策问题的谈判议程。这次谈判将把贸易体系扩展到几个新领域，特别是服务贸易和知识产权，并对农业和纺织品等敏感行业的贸易进行改革。所有原有的关贸总协定条款都将进行审查。这是迄今为止达成的最大贸易谈判授权，部长们给自己四年的时间来完成。两年后，即 1988 年 12 月，部长们再次在加拿大蒙特利尔会面，原本是为了评估回合进行到一半时的进展。 目的是明确剩余两年的议程，但谈判陷入僵局，直到次年四月官员们在日内瓦更为低调地会晤时才得以解决。
Despite the difficulty, during the Montreal meeting, ministers did agree a package of early results. These included, some concessions on market access for tropical products-aimed at assisting developing countries-as well as a streamlined dispute settlement system, and the Trade Policy Review Mechanism which provided for the first comprehensive, systematic and regular reviews of national trade policies and practices of GATT members. The round was supposed to end when ministers met once more in Brussels, in December 1990. But they disagreed on how to reform agricultural trade and decided to extend the talks. The Uruguay Round entered its bleakest period. 尽管困难重重，在蒙特利尔会议期间，各国部长确实达成了一揽子早期成果。这些成果包括对热带产品市场准入的一些让步，旨在帮助发展中国家，以及一个简化的争端解决机制和贸易政策审查机制，该机制提供了对关贸总协定成员国国家贸易政策和实践的首次全面、系统和定期审查。该回合原定于 1990 年 12 月在布鲁塞尔再次召开部长会议时结束。但他们在如何改革农业贸易上存在分歧，决定延长谈判。乌拉圭回合进入了最暗淡的时期。
Despite the poor political outlook, a considerable amount of technical work continued, leading to the first draft of a final legal agreement. This draft “Final Act” was compiled by the then GATT director-general, Arthur Dunkel, who chaired the negotiations at officials’ level. It was put on the table in Geneva in December 1991, The text fulfilled every part of the Punta del Este mandate, with one exception-it did not contain the participating countries’ lists of commitments for cutting import duties and opening their services markets. The 尽管政治前景不佳，但大量技术工作仍在继续，最终形成了法律协议的初稿。该“最终法案”草案由当时的关贸总协定（GATT）总干事亚瑟·邓克尔编写，他主持了官员级别的谈判。该草案于 1991 年 12 月在日内瓦提交。文本满足了庞塔德尔埃斯特的每一项授权，唯一的例外是它没有包含参与国削减进口关税和开放服务市场的承诺清单。
draft became the basis for the final agreement. Over the following two years, the negotiations lurched between impending failure, to predictions of imminent success. Scveral deadlines came and went. New points of major conflict emerged to join agriculture: services, market access, anti-dumping rules, and the proposed creation of a new institution. Differences between the United Statcs and Europcan Union becamc central to hopes for a final, successful conclusion. 草案成为最终协议的基础。在接下来的两年中，谈判在即将失败和即将成功的预测之间摇摆不定。几个截止日期来来去去。新的主要冲突点出现，加入了农业：服务、市场准入、反倾销规则以及提议创建新机构。美国和欧盟之间的分歧成为最终成功结论的希望的核心。
In November 1992, the US and EU settled most of their differences on agriculture in a deal known informally as the “Blair House accord”. By July 1993 the “Quad” (US, EU, Japan and Canada) announced significant progress in negotiations on tariffs and related subjects (“market access”). It took until 15 December 1993 for every issue to be finally resolved and for negotiations on market access for goods and services to be concluded (although some final touches were completed in talks on market access a few weeks later). On 15 April 1994, the deal was signed by ministers from most of the 123 participating governments at a meeting in Marrakesh, Morocco. 1992 年 11 月，美国和欧盟在一项非正式称为“布莱尔府协议”的交易中解决了大部分农业分歧。到 1993 年 7 月，“四国集团”（美国、欧盟、日本和加拿大）宣布在关税及相关议题（“市场准入”）的谈判中取得了重大进展。直到 1993 年 12 月 15 日，所有问题才最终得到解决，商品和服务的市场准入谈判也得以结束（尽管在几周后的市场准入谈判中完成了一些最后的细节）。1994 年 4 月 15 日，来自 123 个参与政府的大多数部长在摩洛哥马拉喀什的一次会议上签署了该协议。
The delay had some merits. It allowed some negotiations to progress further than would have been possible in 1990: for example some aspects of services and intellectual property, and the creation of the WTO itself. But the task had been immense, and negotiation-fatigue was felt in trade bureaucracies around the world. The difficulty of reaching agreement on a complete package containing almost the entire range of current trade issues led some to conclude that a negotiation on this scale would never again be possible. Yet, the Uruguay Round agreements contain timetables for new negotiations on a number of topics. And by 1996, some countries were openly calling for a new round early in the next century. The response was mixed; but the Marrakesh agreement did already include commitments to reopen negotiations on agriculture and services at the turn of the century. These began in early 2000 and were incorporated into the Doha Development Agenda in late 2001. 延迟有其优点。它使一些谈判得以比 1990 年更进一步：例如某些服务和知识产权方面，以及世贸组织的成立。但这项任务是巨大的，全球贸易机构感受到了谈判疲劳。就几乎涵盖当前所有贸易问题的完整方案达成一致的困难使一些人得出结论，认为如此规模的谈判将再也不可能。然而，乌拉圭回合协议中包含了关于多个主题的新谈判时间表。到 1996 年，一些国家公开呼吁在下个世纪初进行新一轮谈判。反应不一；但马拉喀什协议确实已经包括了在世纪之交重新开启农业和服务谈判的承诺。这些谈判于 2000 年初开始，并在 2001 年底纳入了多哈发展议程。
The WTO replaced GATT as an international organization, but the General Agreement still exists as the WTO’s umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations. Trade lawyers distinguish between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the WTO 取代了关贸总协定（GATT）成为国际组织，但《一般协议》仍然作为 WTO 的商品贸易框架条约存在，并根据乌拉圭回合谈判进行了更新。贸易律师区分 1994 年 GATT（GATT 的更新部分）和 1947 年 GATT。
original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994. Confusing? For most of us, it’s enough to refer simply to “GATT”. 原始协议仍然是 1994 年关贸总协定（GATT）的核心。令人困惑吗？对我们大多数人来说，仅仅提到“关贸总协定”就足够了。
2. The Doha Round 2. 多哈回合
The Doha Round is the latest round of trade negotiations among the WTO membership. Its aim is to achieve major reform of the international trading system through the introduction of lower trade barriers and revised trade rules. The work programme covers about 20 areas of trade. The Round is also known semi-officially as the Doha Development Agenda as a fundamental objective is to improve the trading prospects of developing countries. 多哈回合是世界贸易组织成员之间最新一轮的贸易谈判。其目标是通过引入更低的贸易壁垒和修订贸易规则，实现国际贸易体系的重大改革。工作计划涵盖约 20 个贸易领域。该回合也被半官方地称为多哈发展议程，因为其基本目标是改善发展中国家的贸易前景。
The Round was officially launched at the WTO’s Fourth Ministerial Conference in Doha, Qatar, in November 2001. The Doha Ministerial Declaration provided the mandate for the negotiations, including on agriculture, services and an intellectual property topic, which began earlier. 该回合于 2001 年 11 月在卡塔尔多哈举行的 WTO 第四届部长级会议上正式启动。多哈部长级宣言为谈判提供了授权，包括农业、服务和早期开始的知识产权议题。
In Doha, ministers also approved a decision on how to address the problems developing countries face in implementing the current WTO agreements. 在多哈，部长们还批准了一项决定，旨在解决发展中国家在实施当前 WTO 协议时面临的问题。
Chapter 章节
Developing Countries 发展中国家
The WTO functions include implementing WTO trade agreements, offering forum for trade negotiations, handling trade disputes, monitoring national trade policies, providing technical assistance and training for developing countries, of which the latter is vital for the development of global market economy and fair competition. WTO members enjoy the privileges that other member countries give to them and the security that the trading rules provide. In return, they had to make commitments to open their markets and to abide by the rules - those commitments were the result of the membership or accession negotiations. Countries negotiating membership are so-called WTO “observers”. All members, including developing countries, have joined the system as a result of negotiation and therefore membership means a balance of rights and obligations. WTO 的职能包括实施 WTO 贸易协议、提供贸易谈判的论坛、处理贸易争端、监测国家贸易政策、为发展中国家提供技术援助和培训，其中后者对全球市场经济和公平竞争的发展至关重要。WTO 成员享有其他成员国给予的特权和贸易规则提供的安全。作为回报，他们必须承诺开放市场并遵守规则——这些承诺是成员资格或加入谈判的结果。谈判加入的国家被称为 WTO“观察员”。所有成员，包括发展中国家，都是通过谈判加入该体系的，因此成员资格意味着权利和义务的平衡。
I . Overview 一. 概述
About two thirds of the WTO’s around 150 members are developing countries. They play an increasingly important and active role in the WTO because of their numbers, because they are becoming more important in the global economy, and because they increasingly look to trade as a vital tool in their development efforts. Developing countries are a highly diverse group often with very different views and concerns. 大约三分之二的世界贸易组织（WTO）约 150 个成员国是发展中国家。由于其数量、在全球经济中日益重要的地位以及越来越将贸易视为发展努力的重要工具，发展中国家在 WTO 中扮演着越来越重要和积极的角色。发展中国家是一个高度多样化的群体，通常有着非常不同的观点和关注点。
The WTO deals with the special needs of developing countries in three ways: WTO 以三种方式处理发展中国家的特殊需求：
the WTO agreements contain special provisions on developing countries WTO 协议包含关于发展中国家的特别条款
the Committee on Trade and Development is the main body focusing on work in this area in the WTO, with some others dealing with specific topics such as trade and debt, and technology transfer 贸易与发展委员会是 WTO 中专注于该领域工作的主要机构，还有一些其他机构处理特定主题，如贸易与债务以及技术转让
the WTO Secretariat provides technical assistance (mainly training of various kinds) for developing countries. WTO 秘书处为发展中国家提供技术援助（主要是各种类型的培训）。
1. In the Agreements: More Time, Better Terms 1. 在协议中：更多时间，更好的条款
The WTO agreements include numerous provisions giving developing and least developed countries special rights or extra leniency-" special and differential treatment". Among these are provisions that allow developed countries to treat developing countries more favourably than other WTO members. WTO 协议包括许多条款，赋予发展中国家和最不发达国家特殊权利或额外宽容——“特殊和差别待遇”。其中包括允许发达国家对发展中国家给予比其他 WTO 成员更有利待遇的条款。
The GATT, which deals with trade in goods, has a special section (Part 4) on Trade and Development which includes provisions on the concept of nonreciprocity in trade negotiations between developed and developing countrieswhen developed countries grant trade concessions to developing countries they should not expect the developing countries to make matching offers in return. Both GATT and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) allow developing countries some preferential treatment. 《关税及贸易总协定》（GATT）涉及商品贸易，特别设有一部分（第 4 部分）关于贸易与发展，其中包括关于发达国家与发展中国家之间贸易谈判中非对等概念的条款。当发达国家向发展中国家提供贸易优惠时，不应期望发展中国家作出相应的回报。GATT 和《服务贸易总协定》（GATS）均允许发展中国家享有一定的优惠待遇。
Other measures concerning developing countries in the WTO agreements include: WTO 协议中关于发展中国家的其他措施包括：
extra time for developing countries to fulfil their commitments (in many of the WTO agreements) 为发展中国家履行其承诺（在许多 WTO 协议中）提供额外时间
provisions designed to increase developing countries’ trading opportunities through greater market access (e.g. in textiles, services, technical barriers to trade) 旨在通过更大的市场准入（例如，在纺织品、服务、技术贸易壁垒）增加发展中国家贸易机会的条款
provisions requiring WTO members to safeguard the interests of developing countries when adopting some domestic or international measures (e.g. in antidumping, safeguards, technical barriers to trade) 要求 WTO 成员在采取某些国内或国际措施（例如反倾销、保障措施、技术性贸易壁垒）时，维护发展中国家利益的规定
provisions for various means of helping developing countries (e, g. to deal with commitments on animal and plant health standards, technical standards, and in strengthening their domestic telecommunications sectors). 为帮助发展中国家的各种措施（例如，处理动物和植物健康标准、技术标准的承诺，以及加强其国内电信部门）。
2. Legal Assistance: A Secretariat Service 2. 法律援助：秘书处服务
The WTO Secretariat has special legal advisers for assisting developing countricsin any WTO dispute and for giving them legal counsel. The service is offered bythe WTO’s Training and Technical Cooperation Institute. Developing countriesregularly make use of it. Furthermore, 32 WTO governments set up an Advisory Centre on WTOlaw in 2001. Its members consist of countries contributing to the funding, and those receivinglegal advice. All least-developed countries are automatically eligible for advice. WTO 秘书处设有专门的法律顾问，协助发展中国家处理任何 WTO 争端并提供法律咨询。该服务由 WTO 培训与技术合作研究所提供。发展中国家定期使用此服务。此外，32 个 WTO 成员国于 2001 年设立了 WTO 法律咨询中心。其成员包括提供资金的国家和接受法律建议的国家。所有最不发达国家自动有资格获得咨询。
Other developing countries and transition economies have to be fee-paying membersin order to receive advice. 其他发展中国家和转型经济体必须成为付费会员才能获得建议。
3. Least-developed Countries: Special Focus 3. 最不发达国家：特别关注
The least-developed countries receive extra attention in the WTO. All the WTO agreements recognize that they must benefit from the greatest possible flexibility, and better-off members must make extra efforts to lower import barriers on least developed countries’ exports. Since the Uruguay Round agreements were signed in 1994, several decisions in favour of least-developed countries have been taken. 在 WTO 中，最不发达国家受到额外关注。所有 WTO 协议都承认它们必须享有尽可能大的灵活性，而较富裕的成员国必须额外努力降低对最不发达国家出口的进口壁垒。自 1994 年乌拉圭回合协议签署以来，已采取了若干有利于最不发达国家的决定。
Meeting in Singapore in 1996, WTO ministers agreed on a “Plan of Action for Least-Developed Countries”. This included technical assistance to enable them top articipate better in the multilateral system and a pledge from developed countries to improved market access for least-developed countries’ products. 1996 年在新加坡举行的会议上，WTO 部长们达成了“最不发达国家行动计划”。这包括技术援助，以使他们更好地参与多边体系，以及发达国家对改善最不发达国家产品市场准入的承诺。
A year later, in October 1997, six international organizations-the International Monetary Fund, the International Trade Centre, the United Nations Conference for Trade and Development, the United Nations Development Programme, the World Bank and the WTO-launched the “Integrated Framework”, a joint technical assistance programme exclusively for least-developed countries. 一年后，即 1997 年 10 月，六个国际组织——国际货币基金组织、国际贸易中心、联合国贸易和发展会议、联合国开发计划署、世界银行和世界贸易组织——启动了“综合框架”，这是一个专门为最不发达国家提供的联合技术援助计划。
In 2002, the WTO adopted a work programme for least-developed countries. It contains several broad elements: improved market access; more technical assistance; support for agencies working on the diversification of leastdeveloped countries’ economies; help in following the work of the WTO; and a 在 2002 年，WTO 通过了一项针对最不发达国家的工作计划。该计划包含几个广泛的要素：改善市场准入；提供更多技术援助；支持致力于最不发达国家经济多样化的机构；帮助跟踪 WTO 的工作；以及一项
specdicr membership process for least-developed countries negotiating to join the WTO. 最不发达国家加入 WTO 的特定成员资格流程。
At the same time, more and more member governments have unilaterally scrapped import dutics and import quotas on all exports from leastdevcloped countries. 与此同时，越来越多的成员政府单方面取消了对所有最不发达国家出口的进口关税和进口配额。
4. A "Maison" in Geneva: Being Present Is Important, But Not Easy for All 4. 日内瓦的“Maison”：出席很重要，但并非对所有人都容易
The WTO’s official business takes place mainly in Geneva. So do the unofficial contacts that can be equally important. But having a permanent office of representatives in Geneva can be expensive. Only about one third of the 30 or so least developed countries in the WTO have permanent offices in Geneva, and they cover all United Nations activities as well as the WTO. WTO 的官方业务主要在日内瓦进行。非正式的接触同样重要。但在日内瓦设立常驻代表处可能会很昂贵。在 WTO 中，大约三分之一的 30 个最不发达国家在日内瓦设有常驻代表处，并且它们还涵盖所有联合国活动以及 WTO。
As a result of the negotiations to locate the WTO headquarters in Geneva, the Swiss government has agreed to provide subsidized office space for delegations from least-developed countries. 由于在日内瓦设立 WTO 总部的谈判，瑞士政府已同意为最不发达国家的代表团提供补贴办公空间。
A number of WTO members also provide financial support for ministers and accompanying officials from least-developed countries to help them attend WTO ministerial conferences. 一些 WTO 成员国还为最不发达国家的部长及随行官员提供财政支持，以帮助他们参加 WTO 部长级会议。
II. Committees II. 委员会
Work specifically on developing countries within the WTO itself can be divided into two broad areas: (i) work of the WTO committees, and (ii) training for government officials (and others) by the WTO Secretariat as mandated by the Committee. 在 WTO 内部，针对发展中国家的工作可以分为两个大领域：（i）WTO 委员会的工作，以及（ii）根据委员会的授权，由 WTO 秘书处为政府官员（及其他人员）提供的培训。
1. Trade and Development Committee 贸易与发展委员会
The WTO Committee on Trade and Development has a wide-ranging mandate. Among the broad areas of topics it has tackled as priorities are: how provisions favouring developing countries are being implemented, guidelines for technical cooperation, increased participation of developing countries in the trading system, and the position of least-developed countries. WTO 贸易与发展委员会的任务范围广泛。它作为优先事项所处理的广泛主题包括：有利于发展中国家的条款如何实施、技术合作的指导方针、发展中国家在贸易体系中的参与增加，以及最不发达国家的地位。
Member countries also have to inform the WTO about special programmes involving trade concessions for products from developing countries, and about regional arrangements among developing countries. The Trade and Development 成员国还必须向 WTO 通报涉及对发展中国家产品的贸易让步的特别计划，以及发展中国家之间的区域安排。贸易与发展
Committce handles notifications of: 委员会处理以下通知：
Gencralized System of Preferences programmes, in which developed countrics lower the ir trade barriers preferentially for products from developing countrics 普惠制计划，发达国家对发展中国家的产品降低贸易壁垒
preferential arrangements among developing countries such as MERCOSUR (the Southern Common Market in Latin America), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA). 发展中国家之间的优惠安排，例如南方共同市场（拉丁美洲的 MERCOSUR）、东南非共同市场（COMESA）和东盟自由贸易区（AFTA）。
2. Sub-committee on Least-Developed Countries 2. 最不发达国家小组委员会
The Sub-committee on Least-Developed Countries reports to the Trade and Development Committee, but it is an important body in its own right. Its work focuses on two related issues: 最不发达国家小组委员会向贸易与发展委员会报告，但它本身是一个重要的机构。它的工作集中在两个相关问题上：
ways of integrating least-developed countries into the multilateral trading system, and 将最不发达国家纳入多边贸易体系的方法，和
technical cooperation. 技术合作。
The sub-committee also examines periodically how special provisions favouring least-developed countries in the WTO agreements are being implemented. 该小组委员会还定期审查在 WTO 协议中有利于最不发达国家的特别条款的实施情况。
The Doha agenda committees 多哈议程委员会
The Doha Ministerial Conference in November 2001, added new tasks and some new working groups. The Trade and Development Committee meets in “special sessions” to handle work under the Doha Development Agenda. The ministers also set up working groups on Trade, Debt and Finance, and on Trade and Technology Transfer. (For details see the chapter on the Doha Agenda.) 2001 年 11 月的多哈部长会议增加了新任务和一些新的工作组。贸易与发展委员会在“特别会议”上召开，以处理多哈发展议程下的工作。部长们还成立了关于贸易、债务与金融以及贸易与技术转让的工作组。（有关详细信息，请参见多哈议程章节。）
III. WTO Technical Cooperation III. WTO 技术合作
Technical cooperation is an area of WTO work that is devoted almost entirely to helping developing countries (and countries in transition from centrally-planned economies) operate successfully in the multilateral trading system. The objective is to help build the necessary institutions and to train officials. The subjects covered deal both with trade policies and with effective negotiation. 技术合作是 WTO 工作的一部分，几乎完全致力于帮助发展中国家（以及从计划经济转型的国家）在多边贸易体系中成功运作。其目标是帮助建立必要的机构并培训官员。所涉及的主题既包括贸易政策，也包括有效的谈判。
In addition, the WTO offers training, seminars and workshops, which 此外，WTO 提供培训、研讨会和工作坊，
specifically designed for developing countries. Each year, the WTO holds regular training sessions on trade policy in Geneva, and it organizes about 500 technical cooperation activities annually, including seminars and workshops in various countries and courses in Geneva. 专门为发展中国家设计。每年，WTO 在日内瓦举行定期的贸易政策培训会议，并每年组织约 500 项技术合作活动，包括在各国举办的研讨会和工作坊以及在日内瓦的课程。
Targeted are developing countries and countries in transition from former socialistor communist systems, with a special emphasis on African countries. Seminars have also been organized in Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, Middle East and Pacific. 目标是发展中国家和从前社会主义或共产主义制度过渡的国家，特别强调非洲国家。还在亚洲、拉丁美洲、加勒比地区、中东和太平洋地区组织了研讨会。
Funding for technical cooperation and training comes from three sources: the WTO’s regular budget, voluntary contributions from WTO members, and cost-sharing either by countries involved in an event or by international organizations. The present regular WTO budget for technical cooperation and training is 7 million Swiss francs. 技术合作和培训的资金来源于三个方面：WTO 的常规预算、WTO 成员国的自愿捐款，以及参与活动的国家或国际组织的分摊费用。目前 WTO 用于技术合作和培训的常规预算为 700 万瑞士法郎。
Extra contributions by member countries go into trust funds administered by the WTO Secretariat or the donor country. In 2004, contributions to trust funds totalled 24 million Swiss francs. 成员国的额外贡献进入由 WTO 秘书处或捐赠国管理的信托基金。2004 年，信托基金的贡献总额为 2400 万瑞士法郎。
A WTO Reference Centre programme was initiated in 1997 with the objective of creating a network of computerized information centres in leastdeveloped and developing countries. The centres provide access to WTO information and documents through a print library, a CD-ROM collection and through the Internet to WTO websites and databases. The centres are located mainly in trade ministries and in the headquarters of regional coordination organizations. There are currently 140 reference centres. WTO 参考中心计划于 1997 年启动，旨在建立一个在最不发达和发展中国家的计算机信息中心网络。这些中心通过印刷图书馆、CD-ROM 收藏以及互联网访问 WTO 网站和数据库，提供 WTO 信息和文件的获取。中心主要位于贸易部和区域协调组织的总部。目前共有 140 个参考中心。
IV . Some Issues Raised IV . 提出的一些问题
The Uruguay Round (1986-1994) saw a shift in North-South politics in the GATT-WTO system. Previously, developed and developing countries had tended to be in opposite groups, although even then there were exceptions. In the run up to the Uruguay Round, the line between the two became less rigid, and during the round different alliances developed, depending on the issues. The trend has continued since then. 乌拉圭回合（1986-1994）见证了 GATT-WTO 体系中南北政治的转变。此前，发达国家和发展中国家往往处于对立的阵营，尽管当时也有例外。在乌拉圭回合之前，两者之间的界限变得不那么严格，在回合期间，根据不同的问题形成了不同的联盟。自那时以来，这一趋势持续存在。
In some issues, the divide still appears clear-in textiles and clothing, and some of the newer issues debated in the WTO, for example-and developing 在某些问题上，分歧仍然显而易见——例如在纺织品和服装以及在 WTO 中讨论的一些新问题上——发展中国家
countries have organized themselves into alliances such as the African Group and the Least-Developed Countrics Group، In many others, the developing countries do not share common interests and may find themselves on opposite sides of a negotiation. A number of different coalitions among different groups of developing countries have emerged for this reason. The differences can be found in subjects of immense importance to developing countries, such as agriculture. 各国已组织成如非洲集团和最不发达国家集团等联盟。在许多其他情况下，发展中国家并不共享共同利益，可能在谈判中处于对立面。因此，不同发展中国家之间出现了许多不同的联盟。这些差异可以在对发展中国家至关重要的主题中找到，例如农业。
1. Participation in the System: Opportunities and Concerns 1. 参与系统：机遇与担忧
The WTO agreements, which were the outcome of the 1986-1994 Uruguay Round of trade negotiations, provide numerous opportunities for developing countries to make gains. Further liberalization through the Doha Agenda negotiations aims to improve the opportunities. WTO 协议是 1986-1994 年乌拉圭回合贸易谈判的结果，为发展中国家提供了众多获益机会。通过多哈议程谈判进一步自由化旨在改善这些机会。
Among the gains are export opportunities, which include: 收益之一是出口机会，包括：
fundamental reforms in agricultural trade 农业贸易的根本改革
phasing out quotas on developing countries’ exports of textiles and clothing 逐步取消对发展中国家纺织品和服装出口的配额
reductions in customs duties on industrial products 工业产品关税的减免
expanding the number of products whose customs duty rates are “bound” under the WTO, making the rates difficult to raise 扩大在 WTO 下“绑定”的产品数量，使关税税率难以提高
phasing out bilateral agreements to restrict traded quantities of certain goods-these “grey area” measures (the so-called voluntary export restraints) are not really recognized under GATT-WTO. 逐步淘汰限制某些商品交易数量的双边协议——这些“灰色区域”措施（所谓的自愿出口限制）在 GATT-WTO 下并不真正被承认。
In addition, liberalization under the WTO boosts global GDP and stimulates world demand for developing countries’ exports. But a number of problems remain. Developing countries have placed on the Doha Agenda a number of problems they face in implementing the present agreements. And they complain that they still face exceptionally high tariffs on selected products (“tariff peaks”) in important markets that continue to obstruct their important exports. Examples include tariff peaks on textiles, clothing, and fish and fish products. 此外，WTO 下的自由化促进了全球 GDP 的增长，并刺激了世界对发展中国家出口的需求。但仍然存在许多问题。发展中国家在多哈议程上提出了他们在实施现有协议时面临的许多问题。他们抱怨在重要市场上仍然面临对某些产品的异常高关税（“关税峰值”），这些关税继续阻碍他们的重要出口。例子包括纺织品、服装以及鱼类和鱼类产品的关税峰值。
In the Uruguay Round, on average, industrial countries made slightly smaller reductions in their tariffs on products which are mainly exported by developing countries ( 37%37 \% ), than on imports from all countries ( 40%40 \% ). At the same time, the potential for developing countries to trade with each other is also hampered by the fact that the highest tariffs are sometimes in developing 在乌拉圭回合中，工业国家对主要由发展中国家出口的产品（ 37%37 \% ）的关税平均减少幅度略小于对所有国家进口产品（ 40%40 \% ）的关税减少幅度。同时，发展中国家之间的贸易潜力也受到限制，因为有时最高的关税出现在发展中国家。
countries themselves. But the increased proportion of trade covered by “bindings” (committed ceilings that are difficult to remove) has added security to developing country exports. 国家自身。但是，受到“约束”（难以解除的承诺上限）覆盖的贸易比例增加，为发展中国家的出口增加了保障。
A related issuc is “tariff escalation”, where an importing country protects its processing or manufacturing industry by setting lower duties on imports of raw materials and components, and higher duties on finished products. The situation is improving. Tariff escalation remains after the Uruguay Round, but it is less severe, with a number of developed countries eliminating escalation on selected products. Now, the Doha agenda includes special attention to be paid to tariff peaks and escalation so that they can be substantially reduced. The terms of “tariff peaks” and “tariff escalation” may be interpreted as follows. 一个相关问题是“关税升级”，即一个进口国通过对原材料和组件的进口设定较低的关税，而对成品设定较高的关税来保护其加工或制造业。情况正在改善。关税升级在乌拉圭回合后仍然存在，但程度较轻，一些发达国家已对特定产品取消了升级。现在，多哈议程特别关注关税峰值和升级，以便能够大幅减少它们。“关税峰值”和“关税升级”这两个术语可以解释如下。
Tariff peaks: Most import tariffs are now quite low, particularly in developed countries. But for a few products that governments consider to be sensitive-they want to protect their domestic producers-tariffs remain high. These are “tariff peaks”. Some affect exports from developing countries. 关税峰值：目前大多数进口关税相对较低，特别是在发达国家。但对于一些政府认为敏感的产品——他们希望保护国内生产者——关税仍然很高。这些被称为“关税峰值”。其中一些影响来自发展中国家的出口。
Tariff escalation: If a country wants to protect its processing or manufacturing industry, it can set low tariffs on imported materials used by the industry (cutting the industry’s costs) and set higher tariffs on finished products to protect the goods produced by the industry. This is “tariff escalation”. When importing countries escalate their tariffs in this way, they make it more difficult for countries producing raw materials to process and manufacture value-added products for export. Tariff escalation exists in both developed and developing countries. Slowly, it is being reduced. 关税升级：如果一个国家想要保护其加工或制造业，它可以对该行业使用的进口原材料设定低关税（降低行业成本），并对成品设定更高的关税，以保护该行业生产的商品。这就是“关税升级”。当进口国以这种方式提高关税时，它们使得生产原材料的国家更难以加工和制造增值产品以供出口。关税升级在发达国家和发展中国家都存在。它正在逐渐减少。
2. Erosion of Preferences 2. 优惠的侵蚀
An issue that worries developing countries is the erosion of preferencesspecial tariff concessions granted by developed countries on imports from certain developing countries become less meaningful if the normal tariff rates are cut because the difference between the normal and preferential rates is reduced. 一个让发展中国家担忧的问题是优惠的侵蚀——发达国家对某些发展中国家的进口所给予的特殊关税优惠在正常关税税率降低时变得不那么重要，因为正常税率和优惠税率之间的差距减小了。
Just how valuable these preferences are is a matter of debate. Unlike regular WTO tariff commitments, they are not “bound” under WTO agreements and therefore they can be changed easily. They are often given unilaterally, at the initiative of the importing country. This makes trade under preferential rates less predictable than under regular bound rates which cannot be increased easily. 这些优惠的价值有多大是一个有争议的问题。与常规的 WTO 关税承诺不同，它们在 WTO 协议下并没有“约束”，因此可以很容易地进行更改。它们通常是由进口国单方面给予的。这使得在优惠税率下的贸易比在常规的不可轻易提高的约束税率下的贸易更不具可预测性。
Ultimately countries stand to gain more from regular bound tariff rates. But some countries and some companies have benefited from preferences. The gains vary from product to product, and they also depend on whether producers can use the opportunity to adjust so that they remain competitive after the preferences have been withdrawn. 最终，各国从常规的约束性关税率中获益更多。但一些国家和一些公司从优惠中受益。收益因产品而异，并且还取决于生产者是否能够利用这一机会进行调整，以便在优惠被撤回后保持竞争力。
3. The Ability to Adapt: the Supply-side 3. 适应能力：供给侧
Can developing countries benefit from the changes? Yes, but only if their economies are capable of responding. This depends on a combination of actions: from improving policy-making and macroeconomic management, to boosting training and investment. The least-developed countries are worst placed to make the adjustments because of lack of human and physical capital, poorly developed infrastructures, institutions that don’t function very well, and in some cases, political instability. 发展中国家能从这些变化中受益吗？可以，但前提是它们的经济能够作出反应。这取决于一系列行动的结合：从改善政策制定和宏观经济管理，到增强培训和投资。最不发达国家在进行调整方面处于最不利的位置，因为缺乏人力和物力资本、基础设施发展不完善、机构运作不良，以及在某些情况下，政治不稳定。
V China's Accession to the WTO ^((1)){ }^{(1)} 中国加入世界贸易组织
In 1986, China notified the GATT of its wish to resume its status as a contracting party and has ever since set about establishing the rule of law in the country as its priority. ^((2)){ }^{(2)} In order to meet the WTO standard, more than 230 laws, over 147 of them concerning all facets of IP, have been enacted and updated since 1979 , which are still in effect and are generally consistent with accepted principles of international law. ^((3)){ }^{(3)} The 1982 Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, which was later revised respectively in 1988, 1993, 1999 and 2004, confirmed the socialist system and the people’s ownership of the state power as well as private property rights in China. ^((4)){ }^{(4)} Moreover, the 1999 amendments add the following to Article 5 as the first paragraph: "China 1986 年，中国向关贸总协定（GATT）通报了恢复其缔约方地位的愿望，并自此以来将建立法治作为国家的优先事项。 ^((2)){ }^{(2)} 为了符合世界贸易组织（WTO）的标准，自 1979 年以来，已颁布和更新了 230 多部法律，其中 147 部涉及知识产权的各个方面，这些法律仍然有效，并且通常与国际法的公认原则一致。 ^((3)){ }^{(3)} 1982 年《中华人民共和国宪法》在 1988 年、1993 年、1999 年和 2004 年分别进行了修订，确认了社会主义制度和人民对国家权力的所有权以及中国的私有财产权。 ^((4)){ }^{(4)} 此外，1999 年的修正案在第五条的第一段中增加了以下内容：“中国
exercises the rule of law, building a socialist country governed according to law. "(1) Whilst the public interest is emphasised ^((2)){ }^{(2)}, the Constitution protects peoplc’s individual rights, including private property rights ^((®)){ }^{(®)}, and sets forth that neither individual nor organisation is privileged to be beyond the Constitution or the law. ^((4)){ }^{(4)} China, more than ever, is ready for its integration into the international community and its emergence into the world economy. 行使法治，建设一个依法治理的社会主义国家。“（1）虽然强调公共利益 ^((2)){ }^{(2)} ，但宪法保护人民的个人权利，包括私有财产权 ^((®)){ }^{(®)} ，并规定任何个人或组织都没有特权超越宪法或法律。 ^((4)){ }^{(4)} 中国比以往任何时候都更准备融入国际社会，进入世界经济。
On 17 September 2001, the WTO accepted China as its 143 rd member. ^((6)){ }^{(6)} “With China’s membership,” said Mike Moore, then WTO Director-General, “the WTO will take a major step towards becoming a truly world organisation.” “The near-universal acceptance of its rules-based system will serve a pivotal role in underpinning global economic cooperation” and has also officially concluded the 15 -year-long ncgotiations and announced China’s entry to the world economy ^(®){ }^{\circledR}, to which China has made arduous efforts to accede. 2001 年 9 月 17 日，世贸组织接受中国成为其第 143 个成员。时任世贸组织总干事的迈克·摩尔表示：“中国的加入将使世贸组织朝着真正的世界组织迈出重要一步。” “其规则基础体系的几乎普遍接受将在支撑全球经济合作中发挥关键作用”，并且还正式结束了长达 15 年的谈判，宣布中国加入世界经济，中国为此付出了艰苦的努力。
Prior to its accession to the WTO, China enacted and revised over 2000 related laws, regulations and measures in order to satisfy the WTO member global trading rules, and numerous changes were implemented to its trade regime. ^((1){ }^{(1} China has to transition out of the government’s old role of directing and controlling markets progressively towards the implementation and enforcement of laws and regulations promoting free markets. The WTO acceptance also embraces China’s commitments to more than 20 existing multilateral WTO agreements, including the TRIPS; China thus has the obligation to adhere to the international standard of intellectual property protection. China on the one hand had modified its law and regulations before entering the WTO in 2001 and on the other hand is dedicated to strengthening 在加入世界贸易组织（WTO）之前，中国制定和修订了 2000 多部相关法律、法规和措施，以满足 WTO 成员的全球贸易规则，并对其贸易体制进行了众多变革。 ^((1){ }^{(1} 中国必须逐步转变政府过去主导和控制市场的角色，向实施和执行促进自由市场的法律法规过渡。WTO 的接受也意味着中国承诺遵守 20 多项现有的多边 WTO 协议，包括《与贸易有关的知识产权协议》（TRIPS）；因此，中国有义务遵守国际知识产权保护标准。一方面，中国在 2001 年加入 WTO 之前修改了其法律法规，另一方面则致力于加强
Part Two Required Readings • WTO Law 第二部分 必读文献 • WTO 法
its copyright protection, that is, judicial and administrative enforcement. Indeed, the emergence in the global economy and the integration into the international system present numerous challenges as well as opportunities to China. 其版权保护，即司法和行政执法。实际上，全球经济的出现和融入国际体系为中国带来了众多挑战和机遇。
Chapter 3 第三章
Cross-cutting and New Issues 跨领域和新问题
The WTO’s work is not confined to specific agreements with specific obligations. Member governments also discuss a range of other issues, usually in special committees or working groups. Some are old, some are new to the GATT-WTO system, some are issues in their own right, some cut across several WTO topics, and some could lead to negotiations, including: WTO 的工作不仅限于特定义务的特定协议。成员政府还讨论一系列其他问题，通常在特别委员会或工作组中进行。有些是旧问题，有些是 GATT-WTO 体系中的新问题，有些是独立的问题，有些涉及多个 WTO 主题，还有一些可能导致谈判，包括：
regional economic groupings 区域经济集团
trade and the environment 贸易与环境
trade and investment 贸易与投资
competition policy 竞争政策
transparency in government procurement 政府采购的透明度
trade “facilitation” (simplifying trade procedures, making trade flow more smoothly 贸易“便利化”（简化贸易程序，使贸易流动更加顺畅）
through means that go beyond the removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers) 通过超越关税和非关税壁垒的手段
electronic commerce 电子商务
One other topic has been discussed a lot in the WTO from time to time. It is: 在 WTO 中，另一个话题时不时被广泛讨论。它是：
trade and labour rights 贸易与劳动权利
Although the list above is not on the WTO’s work agenda, it has received a great deal of attention and has become topical issues have to be discuss to appreciate and clarify the presentsituation. 尽管上述清单不在 WTO 的工作议程上，但它引起了极大的关注，并已成为必须讨论的热点问题，以便理解和澄清当前的情况。
I. Regionalism: Friends or Rivals? I. 区域主义：朋友还是竞争对手？
The European Union, the North Amcrican Free Trade Agreement, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR), the Australia-New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Agreement, and so on. By July 2005, only one WTO member-Mongolia-was not party to a regional trade agreement. The surge in these agreements has continued unabated since the early 1990s. By July 2005, a total of 330 had been notified to the WTO (and its predecessor, GATT). Of these 206 were notified after the WTO was created in January 1995, 180 are currently in force; several others are believed to be operational although not yet notified. One of the most frequently asked questions is whether these regional groups help or hinder the WTO’s multilateral trading system. A committee is keeping an eye on developments. 欧洲联盟、北美自由贸易协定、东南亚国家联盟、南亚区域合作联盟、南方共同市场（MERCOSUR）、澳大利亚-新西兰更紧密经济关系协定等。到 2005 年 7 月，只有一个世贸组织成员国——蒙古，没有参与任何区域贸易协定。自 1990 年代初以来，这些协定的激增持续不断。到 2005 年 7 月，共有 330 个已通知世贸组织（及其前身，关贸总协定）。其中 206 个是在 1995 年 1 月世贸组织成立后通知的，目前 180 个正在生效；还有几个被认为已经生效但尚未通知。人们最常问的问题之一是这些区域集团是否有助于或妨碍世贸组织的多边贸易体系。一个委员会正在关注相关发展。
They seem to be contradictory, but often regional trade agreements can actually support the WTO’s multilateral trading system. Regional agreements have allowed groups of countries to negotiate rules and commitments that go beyond what was possible at the time multilaterally. In turn, some of these rules have paved the way for agreement in the WTO. Services, intellectual property, environmental standards, investment and competition policies are all issues that were raised in regional negotiations and later developed into agreements or topics of discussion in the WTO. The groupings that are important for the WTO are those that abolish or reduce barriers on trade within the group. The WTO agreements recognize that regional arrangements and closer economic integration can benefit countries. It also recognizes that under some circumstances regional trading arrangements could hurt the trade interests of other countries. Normally, setting up a customs union or free trade area would violate the WTO’s principle of equal treatment for all trading partners (" most-favourednation"). But Article 24 of GATT allows regional trading arrangements to be set up as a special exception, provided certain strict criteria are met. 它们似乎是矛盾的，但区域贸易协议往往可以支持 WTO 的多边贸易体系。区域协议使得一组国家能够谈判超越当时多边谈判可能达成的规则和承诺。反过来，这些规则中的一些为 WTO 达成协议铺平了道路。服务、知识产权、环境标准、投资和竞争政策都是在区域谈判中提出的议题，后来发展成为 WTO 中的协议或讨论主题。对 WTO 重要的分组是那些在组内取消或减少贸易壁垒的分组。WTO 协议承认区域安排和更紧密的经济一体化可以使国家受益。它还承认在某些情况下，区域贸易安排可能会损害其他国家的贸易利益。通常，建立关税同盟或自由贸易区将违反 WTO 对所有贸易伙伴的平等待遇原则（“最惠国”）。 但《关税及贸易总协定》第 24 条允许在满足某些严格标准的情况下设立区域贸易安排作为特殊例外。
In particular, the arrangements should help trade flow more freely among the countries in the group without barriers being raised on trade with the outside world. In other words, regional integration should complement the multilateral 特别是，这些安排应有助于该集团内各国之间的贸易更加自由流动，而不对与外部世界的贸易设置障碍。换句话说，区域一体化应补充多边贸易。
trading system and not threaten it. Article 24 says if a free trade area or customs union is created, duties and other trade barriers should be reduced or removed on substantially all sectors of trade in the group. Non-members should not find trade with the group any more restrictive than before the group was set up. Similarly, Article 5 of the General Agreement on Trade in Services provides for economic integration agreements in services. Other provisions in the WTO agreements allow developing countries to enter into regional or global agreements that include the reduction or elimination of tariffs and non-tariff barriers on trade among themselves. 贸易体系，而不是威胁它。第 24 条规定，如果建立自由贸易区或关税同盟，则应在该集团的几乎所有贸易领域减少或消除关税和其他贸易壁垒。非成员国与该集团的贸易不应比该集团成立之前更具限制性。同样，《服务贸易总协定》第 5 条规定了服务领域的经济一体化协议。WTO 协议中的其他条款允许发展中国家达成区域或全球协议，包括在其之间减少或消除关税和非关税壁垒。
On 6 February 1996, the WTO General Council created the Regional Trade Agreements Committee. Its purpose is to examine regional groups and to assess whether they are consistent with WTO rules. The committee is also examining how regional arrangements might affect the multilateral trading system, and what the relationship between regional and multilateral arrangements might be. 1996 年 2 月 6 日，WTO 总理事会成立了区域贸易协定委员会。其目的是审查区域集团，并评估它们是否符合 WTO 规则。该委员会还在研究区域安排可能对多边贸易体系产生的影响，以及区域安排与多边安排之间的关系。
II. Investment, Competition, Procurement and Simpler Procedures 二. 投资、竞争、采购和简化程序
Ministers from WTO member-countries decided at the 1996 Singapore Ministerial Conference to set up three new working groups: on trade and investment, on competition policy, and on transparency in government procurement. They also instructed the WTO Goods Council to look at possible ways of simplifying trade procedures, an issue sometimes known as “trade facilitation”. These are sometimes referred as the “Singapore issues” as the Singapore conference kicked off work in the four subjects, which were originally included on the Doha Development Agenda. The carefully negotiated mandate was for negotiations to start after the 2003 Cancún Ministerial Conference, “on the basis of a decision to be taken, by explicit consensus, at that session on modalities of negotiations”. There was no consensus, and the members agreed on 1 August 2004 to proceed with negotiations in only one subject, trade facilitation. The other three were dropped from the Doha agenda. 在 1996 年新加坡部长会议上，世界贸易组织（WTO）成员国的部长们决定成立三个新的工作组：一个关于贸易与投资，一个关于竞争政策，以及一个关于政府采购透明度的工作组。他们还指示 WTO 货物理事会研究简化贸易程序的可能方法，这个问题有时被称为“贸易便利化”。这些问题有时被称为“新加坡问题”，因为新加坡会议启动了这四个主题的工作，这些主题最初包含在多哈发展议程中。经过仔细协商的授权是，在 2003 年坎昆部长会议后开始谈判，“基于在该会议上就谈判方式达成明确共识的决定”。没有达成共识，成员国于 2004 年 8 月 1 日同意仅在一个主题上进行谈判，即贸易便利化。其他三个主题被从多哈议程中删除。
1. Investment and Competition: What Role for the WTO? 1. 投资与竞争：WTO 的角色是什么？
Work in the WTO on investment and competition policy issues originally took the form of specific responses to specific trade policy issues, rather than a look at the broad picture. Decisions reached at the 1996 Ministerial Conference 在世贸组织中，关于投资和竞争政策问题的工作最初是针对特定贸易政策问题的具体回应，而不是对整体情况的审视。1996 年部长级会议上达成的决定
in Singapore changed the perspective. The ministers decided to set up two working groups to look more generally at how trade relates to investment and competition policies. The working groups’ tasks were analytical and exploratory. They would not negotiate new rules or commitments without a clear consensus decision. The ministers also recognized the work underway in the UN Conference on Tradeand Development (UNCTAD) and other international organizations. The working groups were to cooperate with these organizations so as to make best use of available resources and to ensure that development issues are fully taken into account. An indication of how closely trade is linked with investment is the fact that about one third of the $6.1\$ 6.1 trillion total for world trade in goods and services in 1995 was trade within companies-for example between subsidiaries in different countriesor between a subsidiary and its headquarters. 在新加坡改变了视角。部长们决定成立两个工作组，更一般地研究贸易与投资和竞争政策之间的关系。工作组的任务是分析性和探索性的。他们不会在没有明确共识决定的情况下谈判新的规则或承诺。部长们还认识到在联合国贸易和发展会议（UNCTAD）及其他国际组织中正在进行的工作。工作组将与这些组织合作，以充分利用可用资源，并确保充分考虑发展问题。贸易与投资紧密相关的一个迹象是，1995 年全球商品和服务贸易总额的约三分之一是公司内部的贸易——例如，不同国家的子公司之间或子公司与其总部之间的贸易。
The close relationships between trade and investment and competition policy have long been recognized. One of the intentions, when GATT was drafted in the late 1940s, was for rules on investment and competition policy to exist alongside those for trade in goods. The other two agreements were not completed because the attempt to create an International Trade Organization failed. Over the years, GATT and the WTO have increasingly dealt with specific aspects of the relationships. For example, one type of trade covered by the GATS is the supply of services by a foreign company setting up operations in a host country-i.e. through foreign investment. The Trade-Related Investment Measures Agreement says investors’ right to use imported goods as inputs should not depend on their export performance. 贸易与投资及竞争政策之间的密切关系早已得到认可。在 20 世纪 40 年代末起草 GATT 时，其中一个意图是制定与商品贸易规则并存的投资和竞争政策规则。由于创建国际贸易组织的尝试失败，另外两个协议未能完成。多年来，GATT 和 WTO 越来越多地处理这些关系的具体方面。例如，GATS 涵盖的一种贸易类型是外国公司在东道国设立业务时提供服务，即通过外国投资。《与贸易有关的投资措施协议》规定，投资者使用进口商品作为投入的权利不应取决于其出口表现。
The same goes for competition policy. While GATT and GATS contain rules on monopolies and exclusive service suppliers, the principles have been elaborated considerably in the rules and commitments on telecommunications. The agreements on intellectual property and services both recognize governments’ rights to act against anti-competitive practices, and their rights to work together to limit these practices. 竞争政策也是如此。虽然《关税及贸易总协定》（GATT）和《服务贸易总协定》（GATS）包含关于垄断和独占服务供应商的规则，但在电信的规则和承诺中，这些原则得到了相当大的阐述。关于知识产权和服务的协议都承认政府有权对抗竞争行为，并有权共同合作以限制这些行为。
2. Transparency in Government Purchases: Towards Multilateral Rules 2. 政府采购的透明度：迈向多边规则
The WTO already has an Agreement on Government Procurement. It is plurilateral-only some WTO members have signed it so far. The agreement WTO 已经有一项政府采购协议。该协议是多边的——目前只有部分 WTO 成员签署了该协议。
covers such issues as transparency and non-discrimination. The decision by WTO ministers at the 1996 Singapore conference did two things. It set up a working group that was multilateral-it included all WTO members. And it focused the group’s work on transparency in government procurement practices. The group did not look at preferential treatment for local suppliers, so long as the preferences were not hidden. The first phase of the group’s work was to study transparency in government procurement practices, taking into account national policies. The second phase was to developments for inclusion in an agreement. 涵盖了透明度和非歧视等问题。1996 年新加坡会议上 WTO 部长们的决定做了两件事。它成立了一个多边工作组——包括所有 WTO 成员。并且它将该小组的工作重点放在政府采购实践的透明度上。该小组没有考虑对当地供应商的优惠待遇，只要这些优惠不是隐性的。该小组工作的第一阶段是研究政府采购实践中的透明度，考虑国家政策。第二阶段是为纳入协议的发展。
3. Trade Facilitation: A New High Profile 3. 贸易便利化：一个新的高关注度
Once formal trade barriers come down, other issues become more important. For example, companies need to be able to acquire information on other countries’ importing and exporting regulations and how customs procedures are handled. Cutting red-tape at the point where goods enter a country and providing easier access to this kind of information are two ways of “facilitating” trade. The 1996 Singapore ministerial conference instructed the WTO Goods Council to start exploratory and analytical work “on the simplification of trade procedures in order to assess the scope for WTO rules in this area”. Negotiations began after the General Council decision of 1 August 2004. 一旦正式的贸易壁垒被拆除，其他问题变得更加重要。例如，公司需要能够获取其他国家的进出口法规以及海关程序的处理方式。在货物进入一个国家的环节减少繁文缛节，并提供更容易获取此类信息的途径是“便利”贸易的两种方式。1996 年新加坡部长级会议指示 WTO 货物理事会开始进行“关于简化贸易程序的探索性和分析性工作，以评估 WTO 在该领域规则的适用范围”。在 2004 年 8 月 1 日的总理事会决定后，谈判开始。
III. Electronic Commerce: A Rapid Growing Sector III. 电子商务：一个快速增长的领域
A new area of trade involves goods crossing borders electronically, to which the WTO law intends to catch up. ^((1)){ }^{(1)} Broadly speaking, this is the production, advertising, sale and distribution of products via telecommunications networks, The most obvious examples of products distributed electronically are books, music and videos transmitted down telephone lines or through the Internet. The declaration on global electronic commerce adopted by the Second (Geneva) Ministerial Conference on 20 May 1998 urged the WTO General Council to establish a comprehensive work programme to examine all trade-related issues arising from global electronic commerce. The General Council adopted the plan 一个新的贸易领域涉及商品通过电子方式跨境流通，WTO 法律旨在跟上这一进程。 ^((1)){ }^{(1)} 广义上讲，这涉及通过电信网络进行产品的生产、广告、销售和分销。通过电话线或互联网传输的书籍、音乐和视频是电子分销产品最明显的例子。1998 年 5 月 20 日第二届（日内瓦）部长级会议通过的全球电子商务声明敦促 WTO 总理事会建立一个全面的工作计划，以审查全球电子商务所产生的所有与贸易相关的问题。总理事会通过了该计划。
for this work programme on 25 Scptember 1998, initiating discussions on issues of clectronic commerce and trade by the Goods, Services and TRIPS (intellectual property) Councils and the Trade and Development Committee. In the meantime, WTO members also agreed to continue their current practice of not imposing customs duties on electronic transmissions. 关于这个工作计划，1998 年 9 月 25 日，启动了关于电子商务和商品、服务及 TRIPS（知识产权）理事会以及贸易与发展委员会的贸易问题的讨论。与此同时，WTO 成员国还同意继续保持目前不对电子传输征收关税的做法。
V\mathbb{V}. Labour Standards: Consensus, Coherence and Controversy V\mathbb{V} . 劳动标准：共识、一致性与争议
Labour standards are those that are applied to the way workers are treated. The term covers a wide range of things: from use of child labour and forced labour, to the right to organize trade unions and to strike, minimum wages, health and safety conditions, and working hours. 劳动标准是适用于工人待遇的标准。该术语涵盖了广泛的内容：从使用童工和强迫劳动，到组织工会和罢工的权利，最低工资，健康和安全条件，以及工作时间。
1. Consensus on Core Standards, Work Deferred to the ILO 1. 核心标准的共识，工作推迟至国际劳工组织
There is a clear consensus: all WTO member governments are committed to a narrower set of internationally recognized “core” standards-freedom of association, no forced labour, no child labour, and no discrimination at work (including gender discrimination). 有一个明确的共识：所有 WTO 成员政府都致力于一套更狭义的国际公认的“核心”标准——结社自由、禁止强迫劳动、禁止童工以及禁止工作场所歧视（包括性别歧视）。
At the 1996 Singapore Ministerial Conference, members defined the WTO’s role on this issue, identifying the International Labour Organization (ILO) as the competent body to negotiate labour standards. There is no work on this subject in the WTO’s Councils and Committees. However the secretariats of the two organizations work together on technical issues under the banner of “coherence” in global economic policy-making. However, beyond that it is not easy for them to agree, and the question of international enforcement is a minefield. 在 1996 年新加坡部长级会议上，成员国明确了世贸组织在这一问题上的角色，确定国际劳工组织（ILO）为谈判劳动标准的主管机构。世贸组织的各个理事会和委员会没有在这一主题上开展工作。然而，这两个组织的秘书处在全球经济政策制定的“协调”旗帜下就技术问题进行合作。然而，除此之外，他们达成一致并不容易，国际执行的问题则是一个雷区。
2. Why Was This Brought to the WTO? What Is the Debate about? 2. 为什么这被提交给 WTO？争论是什么？
Four broad questions have been raised inside and outside the WTO. 在 WTO 内外提出了四个广泛的问题。
The analytical question: if a country has lower standards for labour rights, do its exports gain an unfair advantage? Would this force all countries to lower their standards (the “race to the bottom”)? 分析性问题：如果一个国家的劳动权利标准较低，其出口是否会获得不公平的优势？这是否会迫使所有国家降低其标准（“向下竞争”）？
The response question: if there is a “race to the bottom”, should countries only trade with those that have similar labour standards? 回应问题：如果存在“向下竞争”，国家是否应该只与那些拥有相似劳动标准的国家进行贸易？
The question of rules: should WTO rules explicitly allow governments 规则的问题：WTO 规则是否应明确允许政府
to take trade action as a means of putting pressure on other countries to comply? 采取贸易行动作为施压其他国家遵守的手段？
The institutional question: is the WTO the proper place to discuss and set rulcs on labour-or to enforce them, including those of the ILO? 制度问题：WTO 是否是讨论和制定劳动规则的适当场所，或者执行这些规则，包括国际劳工组织的规则？
In addition, all these points have an underlying question: whether trade actions could be used to impose labour standards, or whether this would simply be an excuse for protectionism. Similar questions are asked about standards, i.e. sanitary and phytosanitary measures, and technical barriers to trade. 此外，所有这些观点都有一个潜在的问题：贸易行动是否可以用来强加劳动标准，或者这是否仅仅是保护主义的借口。关于标准，即卫生和植物卫生措施以及技术性贸易壁垒，也提出了类似的问题。
The WTO agreements do not deal with labour standards as such. On the one hand, some countries would like to change this. WTO rules and disciplines, they argue, would provide a powerful incentive for member nations to improve workplace conditions and “international coherence” (the phrase used to describe efforts to ensure policies move in the same direction). On the other hand, many developing countries believe the issue has no place in the WTO framework. They argue that the campaign to bring labour issues into the WTO is actually a bid by industrial nations to undermine the comparative advantage of lowerwage trading partners, and could undermine their ability to raise standards through economic development, particularly if it hampers their ability to trade. They also argue that proposed standards can be too high for them to meet at their level of development. WTO 协议并未直接涉及劳动标准。一方面，一些国家希望对此进行改变。他们认为，WTO 的规则和纪律将为成员国改善工作场所条件提供强有力的激励，并促进“国际一致性”（这一短语用于描述确保政策朝同一方向发展的努力）。另一方面，许多发展中国家认为这一问题不应纳入 WTO 框架。他们认为，将劳动问题引入 WTO 的运动实际上是工业国家削弱低工资贸易伙伴比较优势的企图，并可能削弱它们通过经济发展提高标准的能力，特别是如果这妨碍了它们的贸易能力。他们还认为，提议的标准对于它们当前的发展水平来说可能过高。
These nations argue that efforts to bring labour standards into the arena of multilateral trade negotiations are little more than a smokescreen for protectionism. At a more complex legal level is the question of the relationship between the International Labour Organization’s standards and the WTO agreements-forexample whether or how the ILO’s standards can be applied in a way that is consistentwith WTO rules. 这些国家认为，将劳动标准引入多边贸易谈判领域的努力不过是保护主义的幌子。在更复杂的法律层面上，存在国际劳工组织标准与 WTO 协议之间关系的问题——例如，国际劳工组织的标准是否以及如何以与 WTO 规则一致的方式适用。
3. What Has Happened in the WTO? 3. 世界贸易组织发生了什么？
In the WTO, the debate has been hard-fought, particularly in 1996 and 1999. It was at the 1996 Singapore conference that members agreed they were committed to recognized core labour standards, but these should not be used for protectionism. The economic advantage of low-wage countries should not be questioned, but the WTO and ILO secretariats would continue their existing collaboration, the declaration said. The concluding remarks of the chairman, Singapore’s trade and industry minister, Mr Yeo Cheow Tong, added that the 在 WTO 中，辩论非常激烈，特别是在 1996 年和 1999 年。1996 年新加坡会议上，成员国一致同意他们致力于承认核心劳动标准，但这些标准不应被用于保护主义。低工资国家的经济优势不应受到质疑，但 WTO 和国际劳工组织（ILO）秘书处将继续现有的合作，声明中指出。新加坡贸易与工业部长杨潮东的总结发言补充道，
declaration does not put labour on the WTO’s agenda. The countries concerned might continue their pressure for more work to be done in the WTO, but for the time being there are no committees or working parties dealing with the issue. 声明并未将劳动问题纳入 WTO 的议程。相关国家可能会继续施压，要求在 WTO 中进行更多工作，但目前没有处理该问题的委员会或工作组。
The issue was also raised at the Seattle Ministerial Conference in 1999, but with no agreement reached. The 2001 Doha Ministerial Conference reaffirmed the Singapore declaration on labour without any specific discussion. 该问题在 1999 年西雅图部长级会议上也被提出，但未达成任何协议。2001 年多哈部长级会议重申了关于劳工的新加坡声明，但没有进行具体讨论。
V. The Environment: A Specific Concern V. 环境：一个特定的关注点
The WTO has no specific agreement dealing with the environment. (1) However, the WTO agreements confirm governments’ right to protect the environment, provided certain conditions are met, and a number of them include provisions dealing with environmental concerns. The objectives of sustainable development and environmental protection are important enough to be stated in the preamble to the Agreement Establishing the WTO. WTO 没有专门处理环境问题的协议。(1) 然而，WTO 协议确认了政府保护环境的权利，前提是满足某些条件，并且其中一些协议包含处理环境问题的条款。可持续发展和环境保护的目标足够重要，以至于在《建立世界贸易组织协议》的序言中得以阐明。
The increased emphasis on environmental policies is relatively recent in the 60 -year history of the multilateral trading system. At the end of the Uruguay Round in 1994, trade ministers from participating countries decided to begin a comprehensive work programme on trade and environment in the WTO. They created the Trade and Environment Committee. This has brought environmental and sustainable development issues into the mainstream of WTO work. The 2001 Doha Ministerial Conference kicked off negotiations in some aspects of the subject. 在多边贸易体系 60 年的历史中，对环境政策的重视相对较新。1994 年乌拉圭回合结束时，参与国的贸易部长决定在 WTO 内开始一项关于贸易与环境的综合工作计划。他们成立了贸易与环境委员会。这将环境和可持续发展问题纳入了 WTO 工作的主流。2001 年多哈部长会议启动了该主题某些方面的谈判。
1. The Committee: Broad-based Responsibility 1. 委员会：广泛的责任
The committee has a broad-based responsibility covering all areas of the multilateral trading system—goods, services and intellectual property. Its duties are to study the relationship between trade and the environment, and to make recommendations about any changes that might be needed in the trade agreements. 该委员会负责涵盖多边贸易体系的所有领域——货物、服务和知识产权。其职责是研究贸易与环境之间的关系，并就贸易协议中可能需要的任何变更提出建议。
The committee’s work is based on two important principles: 委员会的工作基于两个重要原则：
The WTO is only competent to deal with trade. In other words, in WTO 仅有权处理贸易。换句话说，在
environmental issues its only task is to study questions that arise when environmental policies have a significant impact on trade. The WTO is not an environmental agency. Its members do not want it to intervene in national or international environmental policies or to set environmental standards. Other agencies that specialize in environmental issues are better qualified to undertake those tasks. 环境问题其唯一任务是研究当环境政策对贸易产生重大影响时出现的问题。WTO 并不是一个环境机构。其成员不希望它干预国家或国际环境政策或制定环境标准。其他专门从事环境问题的机构更有资格承担这些任务。
If the committee does identify problems, its solutions must continue to uphold the principles of the WTO trading system. 如果委员会确实发现问题，其解决方案必须继续维护 WTO 贸易体系的原则。
More generally WTO members are convinced that an open, equitable and non-discriminatory multilateral trading system has a key contribution to make to national and international efforts to better protect and conserve environmental resources and promote sustainable development. This was recognized in the results of the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio (the “Earth Summit”) and its 2002 successor, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. 更一般地说，WTO 成员国相信，开放、公平和非歧视的多边贸易体系对国家和国际努力更好地保护和保护环境资源以及促进可持续发展具有关键贡献。这在 1992 年里约热内卢联合国环境与发展大会（“地球峰会”）及其 2002 年继任者——约翰内斯堡可持续发展世界峰会的成果中得到了认可。
The committee’s work programme focuses on 10 areas. Its agenda is driven by proposals from individual WTO members on issues of importance to them. The following sections outline some of the issues, and what the committee has concluded so far: 委员会的工作计划集中在 10 个领域。其议程由个别 WTO 成员提出的对他们重要的问题的提案驱动。以下部分概述了一些问题，以及委员会迄今为止的结论：
2. WTO and Environmental Agreements: How Are They Related? 2. WTO 与环境协议：它们之间有什么关系？
How do the WTO trading system and “green” trade measures relate to each other? What is the relationship between the WTO agreements and various international environmental agreements and conventions? There are about 200 international agreements (outside the WTO) dealing with various environmental issues currently in force. They are called multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs). About 20 of these include provisions that can affect trade: for example they ban trade in certain products, or allow countries to restrict trade in certain circumstances. Among them are the Montreal Protocol for the protection of the ozone layer, the Basel Convention on the trade or transportation of hazardous waste across international borders, and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), WTO 贸易体系与“绿色”贸易措施之间有什么关系？WTO 协议与各种国际环境协议和公约之间的关系是什么？目前生效的国际协议（不包括 WTO）大约有 200 个，涉及各种环境问题。它们被称为多边环境协议（MEAs）。其中大约 20 个包含可能影响贸易的条款：例如，它们禁止某些产品的贸易，或允许国家在特定情况下限制贸易。其中包括《蒙特利尔议定书》以保护臭氧层、《巴塞尔公约》关于危险废物跨国界贸易或运输，以及《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》（CITES）。
Briefly, the WTO’s committee says the basic WTO principles of nondiscrimination and transparency do not conflict with trade measures needed to 简而言之，WTO 的委员会表示，WTO 的基本原则——非歧视和透明度与所需的贸易措施并不冲突
protect the environment, including actions taken under the environmental agreements. It also notes that clauses in the agreements on goods, services and intellectual property allow governments to give priority to their domestic environmental policies. The WTO’s committee says the most effective way to deal with international environmental problems is through the environmental agreements. It says this approach complements the WTO’s work in seeking internationally agreed solutions for trade problems. In other words, using the provisions of an international environmental agreement is better than one country trying on its own to change other countries’ environmental policies. The committee notes that actions taken to protect the environment and having an impact on trade can play an important role in some environmental agreements, particularly when trade is a direct cause of the environmental problems. But it also points out that trade restrictions are not the only actions that can be taken, and they are not necessarily the most effective. Alternatives include: helping countries acquire environmentally-friendly technology, giving them financial assistance, providing training, etc. 保护环境，包括根据环境协议采取的行动。它还指出，关于商品、服务和知识产权的协议条款允许各国政府优先考虑其国内环境政策。WTO 的委员会表示，解决国际环境问题的最有效方法是通过环境协议。它表示，这种方法补充了 WTO 在寻求国际公认的贸易问题解决方案方面的工作。换句话说，利用国际环境协议的条款比一个国家单独尝试改变其他国家的环境政策要更好。委员会指出，采取保护环境的行动并对贸易产生影响，可以在一些环境协议中发挥重要作用，特别是当贸易是环境问题的直接原因时。但它也指出，贸易限制并不是唯一可以采取的行动，并且它们不一定是最有效的。替代方案包括：帮助国家获得环保技术，提供财政援助，提供培训等。
The problem should not be exaggerated. So far, no action affecting trade and taken under an international environmental agreement has been challenged in the GATTWTO system. There is also a widely held view that actions taken under an environmental agreement are unlikely to become a problem in the WTO if the countries concerned have signed the environmental agreement, although the question is not settled completely. The Trade and Environment Committee is more concerned about what happens when one country invokes an environmental agreement to take action against another country that has not signed the environmental agreement. 问题不应被夸大。到目前为止，在 GATT/WTO 体系下，没有任何影响贸易的行动因国际环境协议而受到挑战。还有一种广泛的看法认为，如果相关国家已签署环境协议，则根据环境协议采取的行动不太可能在 WTO 中成为问题，尽管这个问题尚未完全解决。贸易与环境委员会更关心的是，当一个国家援引环境协议对另一个未签署环境协议的国家采取行动时会发生什么。
Although a key question ought to be asked. If one country believes another country’s trade damages the environment, what can it do? Can it restrict the other country’s trade? If it can, under what circumstances? At the moment, there are no definitive legal interpretations, largely because the questions have not yet been tested in a legal dispute either inside or outside the WTO. But the combined result of the WTO’s trade agreements and environmental agreements outside the WTO suggest; 尽管应该提出一个关键问题。如果一个国家认为另一个国家的贸易损害了环境，它可以做些什么？它可以限制另一个国家的贸易吗？如果可以，在什么情况下？目前，没有明确的法律解释，主要是因为这些问题尚未在 WTO 内外的法律争议中得到检验。但是，WTO 的贸易协议和 WTO 外的环境协议的综合结果表明；
First, cooperate: The countries concerned should try to cooperate to 首先，合作：相关国家应努力合作以
prevent environmental damage. 防止环境损害。
The complaining country can act (e.g. on imports) to protect its own domestic environment, but it cannot discriminate. Under the WTO agreements, standards, taxes or other measures applied to imports from the other country must also apply equally to the complaining country’s own products (“national treatment”) and imports from all other countries (MFN). 投诉国可以采取行动（例如，对进口）以保护其国内环境，但不能歧视。根据 WTO 协议，对来自其他国家的进口所适用的标准、税收或其他措施也必须同样适用于投诉国自身的产品（“国民待遇”）和来自所有其他国家的进口（最惠国待遇）。
If the other country has also signed an environment agreement, then what ever action the complaining country takes is probably not the WTO’s concern. 如果其他国家也签署了环境协议，那么投诉国采取的任何行动可能与 WTO 无关。
What if the other country has not signed? Here the situation is unclear and the subject of debate. Some environmental agreements say countries that have signed the agreement should apply the agreement even to goods and services from countries that have not. Whether this would break the WTO agreements remains untested because so far no dispute of this kind has been brought to the WTO. One proposed way to clarify the situation would be to rewrite the rules to make clear that countries can, in some circumstances, cite an environmental agreement when they take action affecting the trade of a country that has not signed. Critics say this would allow some countries to force their environmental standards on others. 如果其他国家没有签署协议怎么办？在这里，情况不明确，且是一个争论的主题。一些环境协议规定，签署协议的国家应将该协议适用于来自未签署国家的商品和服务。是否会违反 WTO 协议尚未得到验证，因为到目前为止，没有此类争端被提交给 WTO。一个提议的澄清情况的方法是重写规则，以明确在某些情况下，国家可以在采取影响未签署国家贸易的行动时引用环境协议。批评者表示，这将允许一些国家将其环境标准强加于其他国家。
When the issue is not covered by an environmental agreement, WTO rules apply. The WTO agreements are interpreted to say two important things. First, trade restrictions cannot be imposed on a product purely because of the way it has been produced. Second, one country cannot reach out beyond its own territory to impose its standards on another country. 当问题未被环境协议涵盖时，适用 WTO 规则。WTO 协议的解释传达了两个重要信息。首先，不能仅仅因为产品的生产方式而对其施加贸易限制。其次，一个国家不能超越其领土对另一个国家施加其标准。
3. Disputes: Where Should They Be Handled? 3. 争端：应在哪里处理？
Suppose a trade dispute arises because a country has taken action on trade (for example imposed a tax or restricted imports) under an environmental agreement outside the WTO and another country objects. Should the dispute be handled under the WTO or under the other agreement? The Trade and Environment Committee says that if a dispute arises over a trade action taken under an environmental agreement, and if both sides to the dispute have signed that agreement, then they should try to use the environmental agreement to settle the dispute. But if one side in the dispute has not signed the environment 假设由于一个国家在 WTO 以外的环境协议下采取了贸易行动（例如征收税收或限制进口），而另一个国家提出异议，导致贸易争端的出现。该争端应在 WTO 下处理还是在其他协议下处理？贸易与环境委员会表示，如果因在环境协议下采取的贸易行动而产生争端，并且争端双方均已签署该协议，则应尝试利用该环境协议来解决争端。但如果争端的一方未签署该环境协议，
agreement, then the WTO would provide the only possible forum for settling the dispute. The preference for handling disputes under the environmental agreements docs not mean environmental issues would be ignored in WTO disputes. The WTO agreements allow panels examining a dispute to seek expert advice on environmental issues. 协议，那么 WTO 将提供解决争端的唯一可能论坛。对在环境协议下处理争端的偏好并不意味着在 WTO 争端中会忽视环境问题。WTO 协议允许审查争端的专家小组就环境问题寻求专家意见。
4. A WTO Dispute: The "Shrimp-Turtle" Case 4. WTO 争端：“虾-海龟”案件
This was a case brought by India, Malaysia, Pakistan and Thailand against the US. The appellate and panel reports werc adopted on 6 November 1998. The official title is “United States-Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products”, the official WTO case numbers are 58 and 61. 这是印度、马来西亚、巴基斯坦和泰国对美国提起的案件。上诉和小组报告于 1998 年 11 月 6 日通过。正式标题为“美国-对某些虾及虾产品的进口禁令”，正式的 WTO 案件编号为 58 和 61。
Seven species of sea turtles have been identified. They are distributed around the world in subtropical and tropical areas. They spend their lives at sea, where they migrate between their foraging and nesting grounds. Sea turtles have been adversely affected by human activity, either directly (their meat, shells and eggs have been exploited), or indirectly (incidental capture in fisheries, destroyed habitats, polluted oceans). In early 1997, India, Malaysia, Pakistan and Thailand brought a joint complaint against a ban imposed by the US on the importation of certain shrimp and shrimp products. The protection of sea turtles was at the heart of the ban. 已识别出七种海龟。它们分布在全球的亚热带和热带地区。它们一生都在海洋中度过，迁徙于觅食和产卵场所。海龟受到人类活动的负面影响，直接影响包括（其肉、壳和蛋被开发利用），或间接影响（在渔业中意外捕获、栖息地被破坏、海洋污染）。1997 年初，印度、马来西亚、巴基斯坦和泰国对美国对某些虾及虾产品进口的禁令提出了联合投诉。保护海龟是该禁令的核心。
The US Endangered Species Act of 1973 listed as endangered or threatened the five species of sea turtles that occur in US waters, and prohibited their “take” within the US, in its territorial sea and the high seas. (“Take” means harassment, hunting, capture, killing or attempting to do any of these. ) Under the act, the US required US shrimp trawlers to use “turtle excluder devices” (TEDs) in their nets when fishing in areas where there is a significant likelihood of encountering sea turtles. Section 609 of US Public Law 101-102, enacted in 1989, dealt with imports. It said, among other things, that shrimp harvested with technology that may adversely affect certain sea turtles may not be imported into the US-unless the harvesting nation was certified to have a regulatory programme and an incidental take-rate comparable to that of the US, or that the particular fishing environment of the harvesting nation did not pose a threat to sea turtles. In practice, countries that had any of the five species of sea turtles within their jurisdiction, and harvested shrimp with mechanical means, 1973 年美国《濒危物种法》将五种在美国水域出现的海龟列为濒危或受威胁物种，并禁止在美国、其领海和公海内“捕捉”它们。（“捕捉”指的是骚扰、猎杀、捕获、杀死或试图进行上述任何行为。）根据该法案，美国要求美国虾拖网渔船在有可能遇到海龟的区域捕鱼时，在其网中使用“海龟排除装置”（TEDs）。1989 年颁布的美国公共法第 101-102 条第 609 节涉及进口。该条款规定，使用可能对某些海龟产生不利影响的技术捕获的虾不得进口到美国——除非捕捞国被认证拥有与美国相当的监管计划和附带捕捞率，或者捕捞国的特定捕鱼环境对海龟没有威胁。实际上，任何在其管辖范围内拥有五种海龟中的任何一种并使用机械手段捕捞虾的国家，
had to impose on their fishermen requirements comparable to those borne by US shrimpers if they wanted to be certified to export shrimp products to the US. Essentially this meant the use of TEDs at all times. 如果他们想获得向美国出口虾产品的认证，就必须对他们的渔民施加与美国虾捕捞者相当的要求。基本上，这意味着必须始终使用捕虾器（TEDs）。
The panel considered that the ban imposed by the US was inconsistent with GATT Article 11, which limits the use of import prohibitions or restrictions, and could not be justified under GATT Article 20 , which deals with general exceptions to the rules, including for certain environmental reasons. Following an appeal, the Appellate Body found that the measure at stake did qualify for provisional justification under Article 20(g)20(\mathrm{~g}), but failed to meet the requirements of the chapeau (the introductory paragraph) of Article 20 (which defines when the general exceptions can be cited). The Appellate Body therefore concluded that the US measure was not justified under Article 20 of GATT 1994 , i. e. the current version of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade as modified by the 1994 Uruguay Round agreement. At the request of Malaysia, the original panel in this case considered the measures taken by the United States to comply with the recommendations and rulings of the Dispute Settlement Body. The panel report for this recourse was appealed by Malaysia. The Appellate Body upheld the panel’s findings that the US measure was now applied in a manner that met the requirements of Article 20 of the GATT 1994. 该小组认为，美国实施的禁令与《关税及贸易总协定》第 11 条不一致，该条限制了进口禁令或限制的使用，并且无法根据《关税及贸易总协定》第 20 条进行辩护，该条涉及规则的一般例外，包括某些环境原因。在上诉后，上诉机构发现该措施符合第 20(g)20(\mathrm{~g}) 条的临时辩护条件，但未能满足第 20 条的引言部分（定义何时可以引用一般例外）的要求。因此，上诉机构得出结论，依据 1994 年《关税及贸易总协定》第 20 条，美国的措施并不合理，即根据 1994 年乌拉圭回合协议修订的《关税及贸易总协定》的当前版本。应马来西亚的请求，本案的原小组考虑了美国为遵守争端解决机构的建议和裁决而采取的措施。马来西亚对该补救措施的小组报告提出了上诉。 上诉机构支持了小组的发现，即美国的措施现在以符合 1994 年《关税与贸易总协定》第 20 条要求的方式实施。
In its report, the Appellate Body made clear that under WTO rules, countries have the right to take trade action to protect the environment (in particular, human, animal or plant life and health) and endangered species and exhaustible resources. It also said measures to protect sea turtles would be legitimate under GATT Article 20 which deals with various exceptions to the WTO’s trade rules, provided certain criteria such as non-discrimination were met. 在其报告中，上诉机构明确表示，根据 WTO 规则，各国有权采取贸易措施以保护环境（特别是人类、动物或植物的生命和健康）以及濒危物种和可耗竭资源。它还表示，保护海龟的措施在满足某些标准（如非歧视）时，根据涉及 WTO 贸易规则各种例外的 GATT 第 20 条是合法的。
The US lost the case, not because it sought to protect the environment but because it discriminated between WTO members. It provided countries in the western hemisphere-mainly in the Caribbean-technical and financial assistance and longer transition periods for their fishermen to start using turtle-excluder devices. It did not give the same advantages, however, to the four Asian countries (India, Malaysia, Pakistan and Thailand) that filed the complaint with the WTO. 美国输掉了案件，并不是因为它试图保护环境，而是因为它对 WTO 成员国存在歧视。它为西半球的国家——主要是加勒比地区——提供了技术和财政援助，并给予其渔民更长的过渡期以开始使用海龟排除装置。然而，它并没有给予向 WTO 提出投诉的四个亚洲国家（印度、马来西亚、巴基斯坦和泰国）同样的优势。
The ruling also said WTO panels may accept “amicus briefs” (friends-of-the-court submissions) from NGOs or other interested parties, and what they have not decided. The Appellate Body stated: 裁决还表示，WTO 小组可以接受来自非政府组织或其他相关方的“朋友法庭意见书”，以及他们尚未决定的事项。上诉机构指出：
"185. In reaching these conclusions, we wish to underscore what we have not decided in this appeal. We have not decided that the protection and preservation of the environment is of no significance to the Members of the WTO. Clearly, it is. We have not decided that the sovereign nations that are Members of the WTO cannot adopt effective measures to protect endangered species, such as sea turtles. Clearly, they can and should. And we have not decided that sovereign states should not act together bilaterally, plurilaterally or multilaterally, either within the WTO or in other international fora, to protect endangered species or to otherwise protect the environment. Clearly, they should and do. "185. 在得出这些结论时，我们希望强调我们在本次上诉中没有决定的事项。我们没有决定环境的保护和维护对 WTO 成员国没有重要性。显然，它是有重要性的。我们没有决定作为 WTO 成员的主权国家不能采取有效措施保护濒危物种，例如海龟。显然，他们可以并且应该这样做。我们也没有决定主权国家不应在 WTO 内或其他国际论坛中以双边、多边或多国方式共同采取行动，以保护濒危物种或以其他方式保护环境。显然，他们应该这样做，并且确实在这样做。"
“186. What we have decided in this appeal is simply this: although the measure of the United States in dispute in this appeal serves an environmental objective that is recognized as legitimate under paragraph ( g ) of Article XX[i. e. 20] of the GATT 1994, this measure has been applied by the United States in a manner which constitutes arbitrary and unjustifiable discrimination between Members of the WTO, contrary to the requirements of the chapeau of Article XX. For all of the specific reasons outlined in this Report, this measure does not qualify for the exemption that Article XX of the GATT 1994 affords to measures which serve certain recognized, legitimate environmental purposes but which, at the same time, are not applied in a manner that constitutes a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries where the same conditions prevail or a disguised restriction on international trade. As we emphasized in United States—Gasoline [adopted 20 May 1996, WT/DS2/AB/ R, p. 30], WTO Members are free to adopt their own policies aimed at protecting the environment as long as, in so doing, they fulfill their obligations and respect the rights of other Members under the WTO Agreement,” “186. 我们在本次上诉中所决定的仅仅是：尽管美国在本次上诉中争议的措施服务于根据 1994 年《关税与贸易总协定》第 XX 条第(g)款认可的合法环境目标，但美国以一种构成对 WTO 成员之间的任意和不合理歧视的方式实施了该措施，这与第 XX 条的总则要求相悖。基于本报告中列出的所有具体理由，该措施不符合 1994 年《关税与贸易总协定》第 XX 条对服务于某些认可的合法环境目的的措施所提供的豁免，但同时又未以构成对相同条件下国家之间的任意或不合理歧视的方式实施，或未构成对国际贸易的隐性限制。正如我们在美国—汽油案中强调的[1996 年 5 月 20 日通过，WT/DS2/AB/R，第。 “WTO 成员可以自由采取旨在保护环境的政策，只要在这样做的过程中，他们履行自己的义务并尊重其他成员在 WTO 协议下的权利。”
5. A GATT Dispute: The Tuna-dolphin Dispute 5. 一起 GATT 争端：金枪鱼-海豚争端
This case still attracts a lot of attention because of its implications for environmental disputes. It was handled under the old GATT dispute settlement procedure. Key questions are: 此案仍然引起了广泛关注，因为它对环境争端的影响。该案是在旧的 GATT 争端解决程序下处理的。关键问题是：
can one country tell another what its environmental regulations should be? and 一个国家能否告诉另一个国家其环境法规应该是什么？
do trade rules permit action to be taken against the method used to produce goods (rather than the quality of the goods themselves)? 贸易规则是否允许对生产商品的方法采取行动（而不是对商品本身的质量）？
In eastern tropical areas of the Pacific Ocean, schools of yellowfin tuna often swim beneath schools of dolphins. When tuna is harvested with purse seine nets, dolphins are trapped in the nets. They often die unless they are released. 在太平洋东部热带地区，黄鳍金枪鱼的鱼群常常在海豚群下游动。当金枪鱼被围网捕捞时，海豚会被困在网中。它们通常会死亡，除非被释放。
The US Marine Mammal Protection Act sets dolphin protection standards for the domestic American fishing fleet and for countries whose fishing boats catch yellowfin tuna in that part of the Pacific Ocean. If a country exporting tuna to the United States cannot prove to US authorities that it meets the dolphin protection standards set out in US law, the US government must embargo all imports of the fish from that country. In this dispute, Mexico was the exporting country concerned. Its exports of tuna to the US were banned. Mexico complained in 1991 under the GATT dispute settlement procedure. The embargo also applies to “intermediary” countries handling the tuna en route from Mexico to the United States. Often the tuna is processed and canned in one of these countries. In this dispute, the “intermediary” countries facing the embargo were Costa Rica, Italy, Japan and Spain, and earlier France, the Netherlands Antilles, and the United Kingdom. Others, including Canada, Colombia, the Republic of Korea, and members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), were also named as “intermediaries”. 美国海洋哺乳动物保护法为美国国内渔船和在太平洋该地区捕捞黄鳍金枪鱼的国家设定了海豚保护标准。如果一个向美国出口金枪鱼的国家无法向美国当局证明其符合美国法律规定的海豚保护标准，则美国政府必须对该国的所有鱼类进口实施禁运。在此争端中，墨西哥是相关的出口国。其对美国的金枪鱼出口被禁止。墨西哥在 1991 年根据《关税与贸易总协定》（GATT）争端解决程序提出投诉。禁运也适用于在金枪鱼从墨西哥运往美国途中处理的“中介”国家。这些国家通常会对金枪鱼进行加工和罐装。在此争端中，面临禁运的“中介”国家包括哥斯达黎加、意大利、日本和西班牙，以及之前的法国、荷兰安地卡和英国。其他国家，包括加拿大、哥伦比亚、韩国和东南亚国家联盟（ASEAN）成员国，也被列为“中介”。
Mexico asked for a panel in February 1991. A number of “intermediary” countries also expressed an interest. The panel reported to GATT members in September 1991. It concluded: 墨西哥于 1991 年 2 月请求设立一个小组。一些“中介”国家也表示了兴趣。该小组于 1991 年 9 月向关贸总协定成员报告。它得出结论：
that the US could not embargo imports of tuna products from Mexico simply because Mexican regulations on the way tuna was produced did not satisfy US regulations. (But the US could apply its regulations on the quality or content of the tuna imported.) This has become known as a “product” versus “process” issue. 美国不能仅仅因为墨西哥关于金枪鱼生产的规定不符合美国规定，就对来自墨西哥的金枪鱼产品实施禁运。（但美国可以对进口金枪鱼的质量或成分适用其规定。）这被称为“产品”与“过程”问题。
that GATT rules did not allow one country to take trade action for the purpose of attempting to enforce its own domestic laws in another country- 《关税及贸易总协定》（GATT）规则不允许一个国家为了试图在另一个国家强制执行其国内法律而采取贸易行动
even to protect animal health or exhaustible natural resources. The term used here is “cxtra-territoriality”. What was the reasoning behind this ruling? If the US arguments were accepted, then any country could ban imports of a product from another country merely because the exporting country has different environmental, health and social policies from its own. This would create a virtually open-ended route for any country to apply trade restrictions unilaterally-and to do so not just to enforce its own laws domestically, but to impose its own standards on other countries. The door would be opened to a possible flood of protectionist abuses. This would conflict with the main purpose of the multilateral trading system-to achieve predictability through trade rules. 甚至保护动物健康或不可再生自然资源。这里使用的术语是“超领土性”。这一裁决背后的理由是什么？如果接受美国的论点，那么任何国家都可以仅仅因为出口国的环境、健康和社会政策与其自身不同而禁止从另一个国家进口某种产品。这将为任何国家单方面施加贸易限制创造几乎无限的途径——不仅是为了在国内执行自己的法律，还为了将自己的标准强加于其他国家。这将为可能的保护主义滥用打开大门。这将与多边贸易体系的主要目的相冲突——通过贸易规则实现可预测性。
The panel’s task was restricted to examining how GATT rules applied to the issue. It was not asked whether the policy was environmentally correct or not. It suggested that the US policy could be made compatible with GATT rules if members agreed on amendments or reached a decision to waive the rules specially for this issue. That way, the members could negotiate the specific issues, and could set limits that would prevent protectionist abuse. 小组的任务仅限于审查 GATT 规则如何适用于该问题。并没有被要求判断该政策是否符合环保标准。它建议，如果成员国就修正案达成一致或决定特别为此问题放弃规则，美国的政策可以与 GATT 规则兼容。这样，成员国可以就具体问题进行谈判，并可以设定限制，以防止保护主义滥用。
The panel was also asked to judge the US policy of requiring tuna products to be labelled “dolphin-safe” (leaving to consumers the choice of whether or not to buy the product). It concluded that this did not violate GATT rules because it was designed to prevent deceptive advertising practices on all tuna products, whether imported or domestically produced. 该小组还被要求判断美国要求金枪鱼产品标注“海豚安全”的政策（让消费者自行选择是否购买该产品）。它得出的结论是，这并不违反《关税与贸易总协定》（GATT）规则，因为该政策旨在防止对所有金枪鱼产品（无论是进口还是国内生产）进行欺骗性广告行为。
Under the present WTO system, if WTO members, meeting as the Dispute Settlement Body, do not by consensus reject a panel report after 60 days, it is automatically adopted. That was not the case under the old GATT. Mexico decided not to pursue the case and the panel report was never adopted even though some of the “intermediary” countries pressed for its adoption. Mexico and the United States held their own bilateral consultations aimed at reaching agreement outside GATT. In 1992, the European Union lodged its own complaint. This led to a second panel report circulated to GATT members in mid-1994. The report upheld some of the findings of the first panel and modified others. Although the European Union and other countries pressed for the report to be adopted, the United States told a series of meetings of the 在现行的 WTO 体系下，如果 WTO 成员国作为争端解决机构在 60 天内未通过共识拒绝小组报告，则该报告将自动通过。这在旧的关税及贸易总协定（GATT）下并非如此。墨西哥决定不继续追究此案，因此小组报告从未被通过，尽管一些“中介”国家推动其通过。墨西哥和美国进行了双边磋商，旨在达成 GATT 之外的协议。1992 年，欧盟提出了自己的投诉。这导致了 1994 年中期向 GATT 成员国发布的第二份小组报告。该报告维持了第一份小组的一些发现，并修改了其他发现。尽管欧盟和其他国家推动报告的通过，美国在一系列会议上表示反对。
GATT Council and the final meeting of GATT Contracting Parties (i. e. members) that it had not had time to complete its studies of the report. There was therefore no consensus to adopt the report, a requirement under the old GATT system. On 1 January 1995, GATT made way for the WTO. 关税及贸易总协定（GATT）理事会和 GATT 缔约方（即成员国）的最后一次会议表示，由于没有时间完成对报告的研究，因此没有达成一致意见来通过该报告，这是旧 GATT 体系下的要求。1995 年 1 月 1 日，GATT 让位于世界贸易组织（WTO）。
6. Other Substantive Issues 6. 其他实质性问题
Labelling environmentally-friendly products is an important environmental policy instrument. For the WTO, the key point is that labelling requirements and practices should not discriminate-either between trading partners (mostfavoured nation treatment should apply), or between domestically-produced goods or services and imports (national treatment). One area where the Trade and Environment Committee needs further discussion is how to handle-under the rules of the WTO Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement-labelling used to describe whether for the way a product is produced (as distinct from the product itself) is environmentally-friendly. Like non-discrimination, it is an important WTO principle, WTO members thus should provide as much information as possible about the environmental policies they have adopted or actions they may take, when these can have a significant impact on trade. They should do this by notifying the WTO, but the task should not be more of a burden than is normally required for other policies affecting trade. The Trade and Environment Committee says WTO rules do not need changing for this purpose. The WTO Secretariat is to compile from its Central Registry of Notifications all information on trade-related environmental measures that members have submitted. These are to be put in a single database which all WTO members can access. 对环保产品的标签化是一个重要的环境政策工具。对于 WTO 而言，关键点在于标签要求和实践不应歧视——无论是在贸易伙伴之间（应适用最惠国待遇），还是在国内生产的商品或服务与进口商品之间（应适用国民待遇）。贸易与环境委员会需要进一步讨论的一个领域是如何根据 WTO 技术性贸易壁垒协议的规则处理用于描述产品生产方式（与产品本身不同）是否环保的标签。与非歧视原则一样，这也是 WTO 的重要原则，因此 WTO 成员应尽可能提供关于他们所采取的环境政策或可能采取的行动的信息，当这些对贸易产生重大影响时。他们应通过通知 WTO 来做到这一点，但这一任务不应比通常对其他影响贸易的政策所要求的负担更重。贸易与环境委员会表示，为此目的不需要修改 WTO 规则。 WTO 秘书处将从其中央通知登记处汇编所有成员提交的与贸易相关的环境措施信息。这些信息将被放入一个所有 WTO 成员都可以访问的单一数据库中。
Domestically prohibited goods, including dangerous chemicals, is a concern of a number of developing countries, which are worried that certain hazardous or toxic products are being exported to their markets without them being fully informed about the environmental or public health dangers the products may pose. Developing countries want to be fully informed so as to be in a position to decide whether or not to import them. A number of international agreements now exist ( e,g\mathrm{e}, \mathrm{g}, the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, and the London Guidelines for Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade). The WTO’s 国内禁止的商品，包括危险化学品，令许多发展中国家感到担忧，这些国家担心某些危险或有毒产品在未充分告知其可能对环境或公共健康造成危害的情况下被出口到其市场。发展中国家希望能够充分了解，以便能够决定是否进口这些产品。目前已经存在一些国际协议（ e,g\mathrm{e}, \mathrm{g} ，关于危险废物跨界转移及其处置的巴塞尔公约，以及国际贸易中化学品信息交流的伦敦指南）。WTO 的
Trade and Environment Committce docs not intend to duplicate their work but it also notes that the WTO could play a complementary role. 贸易与环境委员会并不打算重复他们的工作，但也指出 WTO 可以发挥互补作用。
Liberalization and sustainable development are good for each other. The Trade and Environment Committee is analysing the relationship between trade liberalization (including the Uruguay Round commitments) and the protection of the environment. Members say the removal of trade restrictions and distortions can yield benefits both for the multilateral trading system and the environment. Further work is scheduled. 自由化与可持续发展是相辅相成的。贸易与环境委员会正在分析贸易自由化（包括乌拉圭回合承诺）与环境保护之间的关系。成员国表示，消除贸易限制和扭曲可以为多边贸易体系和环境带来好处。进一步的工作已安排。
Last but not the least, discussions in the Trade and Environment Committee on intellectual property and services have broken new ground since there was very little understanding of how the rules of the trading system might affect or be affected by environmental policies in these areas. On services, the committee says further work is needed to examine the relationship between the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and environmental protection policies in the sector. The committee says that the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) helps countries obtain environmentallysound technology and products. More work is scheduled on this, including on the relationship between the TRIPS Agreement and the Convention of Biological Diversity. 最后但同样重要的是，贸易与环境委员会在知识产权和服务方面的讨论开辟了新领域，因为对贸易体系规则如何影响或受到这些领域环境政策的影响几乎没有理解。关于服务，委员会表示需要进一步研究《服务贸易总协定》（GATS）与该部门环境保护政策之间的关系。委员会指出，《与贸易有关的知识产权协议》（TRIPS）帮助各国获得环保技术和产品。对此还计划进行更多工作，包括研究 TRIPS 协议与生物多样性公约之间的关系。
Chapter 4 第四章
The WTO Agreements and Dispute Settlement WTO 协议与争端解决
The WTO agreements cover goods, services and intellectual property, which spell out the principles of liberalization, and the permitted exceptions, and include individual countries’ commitments to lower customs tariffs and other trade barriers, and to open and keep open services markets. They also set procedures for settling disputes, prescribe special treatment for developing countries, and require governments to make their trade policies transparent by notifying the WTO about laws in force and measures adopted, and through regular reports by the secretariat on countries’ trade policies. These agreements are often called the WTO’s trade rules, and the WTO is often described as “rules-based”, a system based on rules. It is nonetheless important to note that the rules are actually agreements that member governments negotiated. WTO 协议涵盖商品、服务和知识产权，明确了自由化的原则和允许的例外，并包括各国降低关税和其他贸易壁垒的承诺，以及开放和保持服务市场的承诺。它们还设定了解决争端的程序，为发展中国家规定了特殊待遇，并要求各国政府通过向 WTO 通报现行法律和采取的措施，以及通过秘书处定期报告各国的贸易政策，使其贸易政策透明。这些协议通常被称为 WTO 的贸易规则，WTO 常被描述为“基于规则”的系统，即基于规则的系统。然而，重要的是要注意，这些规则实际上是成员国政府谈判达成的协议。
I . A Unique Contribution of WTO Dispute Settlement WTO 争端解决的独特贡献
Dispute settlement is the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and the WTO’s unique contribution to the stability of the global economy. Without a means of settling disputes, the rules-based system would be less effective because the rules could not be enforced. The WTO’s procedure underscores the rule of law, and it makes the trading system more secure and predictable, which may be perfected along with practice. ^((1)){ }^{(1)} The system is based on clearly-defined rules, with timetables for completing a case. First rulings are 争端解决是多边贸易体系的核心支柱，也是世贸组织对全球经济稳定的独特贡献。如果没有解决争端的机制，基于规则的体系将会变得不那么有效，因为规则无法得到执行。世贸组织的程序强调法治，使得贸易体系更加安全和可预测，这可以随着实践而完善。 ^((1)){ }^{(1)} 该体系基于明确定义的规则，并设有完成案件的时间表。初步裁决是
made by a panel and endorsed (or rejected) by the WTO’s full membership. Appeals bascd on points of law are possible. 由一个小组作出，并由 WTO 的全体成员批准（或拒绝）。基于法律问题的上诉是可能的。
However, the point is not to pass judgement. The priority is to settle disputcs, through consultations if possible. By January 2008, only about 136 of the 369 cases had reached the full pancl process. Most of the rest have either been notified as settled “out of court” or remain in a prolonged consultation phase-some since 1995. 然而，关键不是做出判断。优先事项是解决争端，如果可能的话，通过协商来解决。到 2008 年 1 月，仅有大约 136 个案件进入了完整的审理程序，其余大多数要么被通知为“庭外和解”，要么仍处于漫长的协商阶段——有些自 1995 年以来就一直如此。
Disputes in the WTO are essentially about broken promises. WTO members have agreed that if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally. That means abiding by the agreed procedures, and respecting judgements. A dispute arises when one country adopts a trade policy measure or takes some action that one or more fellow-WTO members considers to be breaking the WTO agreements, or to be a failure to live up to obligations. A third group of countries can declare that they have an interest in the case and enjoy some rights. 在 WTO 中的争端本质上是关于破坏承诺。WTO 成员国已达成一致，如果他们认为其他成员违反了贸易规则，他们将使用多边争端解决机制，而不是单方面采取行动。这意味着遵守商定的程序，并尊重裁决。当一个国家采取贸易政策措施或采取某些行动，而一个或多个 WTO 成员认为这违反了 WTO 协议或未能履行义务时，就会产生争端。第三组国家可以声明他们对该案件有兴趣并享有某些权利。
A procedure for settling disputes existed under the old GATT, but it had no fixed timetables, rulings were easier to block, and many cases dragged on for a long time inconclusively. The Uruguay Round agreement introduced a more structured process with more clearly defined stages in the procedure. It introduced greater discipline for the length of time a case should take to be settled, with flexible deadlines set in various stages of the procedure. The agreement emphasizes that prompt settlement is essential if the WTO is to function effectively. It sets out in considerable detail the procedures and the timetable to be followed in resolving disputes. If a case runs its full course to a first ruling, it should not normally take more than about one year- 15 months if the case is appealed. The agreed time limits are flexible, and if the case is considered urgent (e, g. if perishable goods are involved), it is accelerated as much as possible. 在旧的关税及贸易总协定（GATT）下存在解决争端的程序，但没有固定的时间表，裁决更容易被阻止，许多案件拖延很长时间而没有结果。乌拉圭回合协议引入了一个更为结构化的程序，程序中的各个阶段更加明确。它对案件解决所需的时间引入了更大的纪律，在程序的各个阶段设定了灵活的截止日期。该协议强调，如果世界贸易组织（WTO）要有效运作，迅速解决争端是至关重要的。它详细列出了在解决争端时应遵循的程序和时间表。如果一个案件经过完整的程序获得第一次裁决，通常不应超过一年——如果案件上诉，则不应超过 15 个月。商定的时间限制是灵活的，如果案件被认为是紧急的（例如，涉及易腐烂的货物），则会尽可能加快处理。
The Uruguay Round agreement also made it impossible for the country losing a case to block the adoption of the ruling. Under the previous GATT procedure, rulings could only be adopted by consensus, meaning that a single 乌拉圭回合协议还使得败诉国无法阻止裁决的通过。在之前的关贸总协定程序下，裁决只能通过共识通过，这意味着单个
objection could block the ruling. Now, rulings are automatically adopted unless there is a consensus to reject a ruling-any country wanting to block a ruling has to persuade all other WTO members (including its adversary in the case) to share its view. 异议可能会阻止裁决。现在，裁决会自动通过，除非有共识拒绝裁决——任何希望阻止裁决的国家必须说服所有其他 WTO 成员（包括案件中的对手）分享其观点。
Although much of the procedure does resemble a court or tribunal, the preferred solution is for the countrics concerned to discuss their problems and settle the dispute by themselves. The first stage is therefore consultations between the governments concerned, and even when the case has progressed to other stages, consultation and mediation are still always possible. 尽管程序在很大程度上类似于法院或法庭，但首选的解决方案是相关国家讨论他们的问题并自行解决争端。因此，第一阶段是相关政府之间的磋商，即使案件已经进入其他阶段，磋商和调解仍然始终是可能的。
2. Settling Disputes 2. 解决争端
Settling disputes is the responsibility of the Dispute Settlement Body, the General Council in another guise, which consists of all WTO members. The Dispute Settlement Body has the sole authority to establish “panels” of experts to consider the case, and to accept or reject the panels’ findings or the results of an appeal. It monitors the implementation of the rulings and recommendations, and has the power to authorize retaliation when a country does not comply with a ruling. 解决争端的责任在于争端解决机构，即以另一种形式存在的总理事会，该机构由所有 WTO 成员组成。争端解决机构拥有唯一的权力来建立“专家小组”以审理案件，并接受或拒绝小组的调查结果或上诉结果。它监测裁决和建议的实施，并有权在一个国家不遵守裁决时授权报复。
First stage: consultation (up to 60 days). Before taking any other actions the countries in dispute have to talk to each other to see if they can settle their differences by themselves. If that fails, they can also ask the WTO director-general to mediate or try to help in any other way. 第一阶段：咨询（最长 60 天）。在采取任何其他行动之前，争议国必须相互沟通，看看是否可以自行解决分歧。如果失败，他们还可以请求 WTO 总干事进行调解或以其他方式提供帮助。
Second stage: the panel (up to 45 days for a panel to be appointed, plus 6 months for the panel to conclude). If consultations fail, the complaining country can ask for a panel to be appointed. The country “in the dock” can block the creation of a panel once, but when the Dispute Settlement Body meets for a second time, the appointment can no longer be blocked (unless there is a consensus against appointing the panel). 第二阶段：小组（小组的任命最长为 45 天，此外小组的结论最长为 6 个月）。如果磋商失败，投诉国可以请求任命小组。“被告”国可以阻止小组的创建一次，但当争端解决机构第二次召开会议时，任命将不再被阻止（除非有反对任命小组的共识）。
Officially, the panel is helping the Dispute Settlement Body make rulings or recommendations. But because the panel’s report can only be rejected by consensus in the Dispute Settlement Body, its conclusions are difficult to overturn. The panel’s findings have to be based on the agreements cited. The panel’s final report should normally be given to the parties to the dispute within six months. In cases of urgency, including those concerning perishable goods, 正式来说，专家组正在帮助争端解决机构作出裁决或建议。但由于专家组的报告只能在争端解决机构内通过共识被拒绝，其结论很难被推翻。专家组的发现必须基于所引用的协议。专家组的最终报告通常应在六个月内提供给争端各方。在紧急情况下，包括涉及易腐商品的情况，
the deadline is shortened to three months. 截止日期缩短至三个月。
The agrecment describes in some detail how the panels are to work, including the main stages as follows: 该协议详细描述了小组的工作方式，包括以下主要阶段：
Before the first hearing: each side in the dispute presents its case in writing to the panel. 在第一次听证会之前：争议双方向小组书面陈述各自的案件。
First hearing: the case for the complaining country and defence: the complaining country (or countries), the responding country, and those that have announced they have an interest in the dispute, make their case at the panel’s first hearing. 首次听证会：投诉国的案件和辩护：投诉国（或国家）、被诉国以及那些已宣布对争端有兴趣的国家，在小组的首次听证会上陈述他们的案件。
Rebuttals: the countries involved submit written rebuttals and present oral arguments at the panel’s second meeting. 反驳：相关国家提交书面反驳并在小组的第二次会议上进行口头辩论。
Experts: if one side raises scientific or other technical matters, the panel may consult experts or appoint an expert review group to prepare an advisory report. 专家：如果一方提出科学或其他技术问题，专家组可以咨询专家或任命专家评审小组以准备咨询报告。
First draft: the panel submits the descriptive (factual and argument) sections of its report to the two sides, giving them two weeks to comment. This report does not include findings and conclusions. 初稿：小组将报告的描述性（事实和论点）部分提交给双方，给予他们两周的时间进行评论。该报告不包括发现和结论。
Interim report: The panel then submits an interim report, including its findings and conclusions, to the two sides, giving them one week to ask for a review. 临时报告：小组随后向双方提交临时报告，包括其发现和结论，给予他们一周的时间请求复审。
Review: The period of review must not exceed two weeks. During that time, the panel may hold additional meetings with the two sides. 审查：审查期不得超过两周。在此期间，专家组可以与双方举行额外会议。
Final report: A final report is submitted to the two sides and three weeks later, it is circulated to all WTO members. If the panel decides that the disputed trade measure does break a WTO agreement or an obligation, it recommends that the measure be made to conform with WTO rules. The panel may suggest how this could be done. 最终报告：最终报告提交给双方，三周后，报告被分发给所有 WTO 成员。如果小组决定争议的贸易措施确实违反了 WTO 协议或义务，它建议该措施应符合 WTO 规则。小组可以建议如何实现这一点。
The report becomes a ruling: The report becomes the Dispute Settlement Body’s ruling or recommendation within 60 days unless a consensus rejects it. Both sides can appeal the report (and in some cases both sides do). 报告成为裁决：除非达成共识予以拒绝，否则报告将在 60 天内成为争端解决机构的裁决或建议。双方均可对报告提出上诉（在某些情况下双方都会上诉）。
3. Appeals 3. 上诉
Either side can appeal a panel’s ruling. Sometimes both sides do so. Appeals have to be based on points of law such as legal interpretation-they cannot re- 任何一方都可以对小组的裁决提出上诉。有时双方都会这样做。上诉必须基于法律问题，例如法律解释——它们不能重新审查事实。
examine existing evidence or examine new issues. 审查现有证据或审查新问题。
Each appeal is heard by three members of a permanent seven-member Appcllate Body set up by the Dispute Settlement Body and broadly representing the range of WTO membership. Members of the Appellate Body have four-year tcrms. They have to be individuals with recognized standing in the field of law and international trade, not affiliated with any government. 每个上诉由争端解决机构设立的常设七人上诉机构的三名成员审理，该机构广泛代表了 WTO 成员的范围。上诉机构成员的任期为四年。他们必须是法律和国际贸易领域具有公认地位的个人，不得与任何政府有联系。
The appeal can uphold, modify or reverse the panel’s legal findings and conclusions. Normally appeals should not last more than 60 days, with an absolute maximum of 90 days. 上诉可以维持、修改或推翻小组的法律发现和结论。通常，上诉不应超过 60 天，绝对最长不超过 90 天。
The Dispute Settlement Body has to accept or reject the appeals report within 30 days-and rejection is only possible by consensus. 争端解决机构必须在 30 天内接受或拒绝上诉报告——拒绝只能通过共识实现。
4. Post Ruling 4. 裁决后
The case has been decided: what next? Go directly to jail. Do not pass Go, do not collect. … Well, not exactly. But the sentiments apply. If a country has done something wrong, it should swiftly correct its fault. And if it continues to break an agreement, it should offer compensation or suffer a suitable penalty that has some bite. 案件已决定：接下来怎么办？直接入狱。不要经过“起点”，也不要收集……好吧，实际上不是这样。但这种情绪是适用的。如果一个国家做错了事情，它应该迅速纠正其错误。如果它继续违反协议，它应该提供赔偿或承受适当的惩罚，以便有一定的威慑力。
Even once the case has been decided, there is more to do before trade sanctions (the conventional form of penalty) are imposed. The priority at this stage is for the losing “defendant” to bring its policy into line with the ruling or recommendations. The dispute settlement agreement stresses that “prompt compliance with recommendations or rulings of the DSB [Dispute Settlement Body] is essential in order to ensure effective resolution of disputes to the benefit of all Members”. 即使案件已经裁决，在实施贸易制裁（传统形式的惩罚）之前还有更多工作要做。此阶段的优先事项是败诉的“被告”将其政策与裁决或建议保持一致。争端解决协议强调，“迅速遵守争端解决机构（DSB）的建议或裁决对于确保有效解决争端以惠及所有成员至关重要”。
If the country that is the target of the complaint loses, it must follow the recommendations of the panel report or the appeal report. It must state its intention to do so at a Dispute Settlement Body meeting held within 30 days of the report’s adoption. If complying with the recommendation immediately proves impractical, the member will be given a “reasonable period of time” to do so. If it fails to act within this period, it has to enter into negotiations with the complaining country (or countries) in order to determine mutuallyacceptable compensation-for instance, tariff reductions in areas of particular interest to the complaining side. If after 20 days, no satisfactory compensation is 如果被投诉的国家败诉，它必须遵循小组报告或上诉报告的建议。它必须在报告通过后的 30 天内，在争端解决机构会议上表明其意图。如果立即遵守建议被证明不切实际，成员将获得一个“合理的时间段”来执行。如果在此期间未采取行动，则必须与投诉国（或国家）进行谈判，以确定双方都能接受的赔偿——例如，在投诉方特别关注的领域减少关税。如果在 20 天后，仍未能提供令人满意的赔偿，
agrecd, the complaining side may ask the Dispute Settlement Body for permission to impose limited trade sanctions (" suspend concessions or obligations") against the other side. The Dispute Settlement Body must grant this authorization within 30 days of the expiry of the"reasonable period of time" unless there is a consensus against the request. 根据协议，投诉方可以请求争端解决机构授权对另一方实施有限的贸易制裁（“暂停让步或义务”）。争端解决机构必须在“合理期限”到期后的 30 天内授予此授权，除非对该请求存在共识反对。
In principle, the sanctions should be imposed in the same sector as the dispute. If this is not practical or if it would not be effective, the sanctions can be imposed in a different sector of the same agreement. In turn, if this is not effective or practicable and if the circumstances are serious enough, the action can be taken under another agreement. The objective is to minimize the chances of actions spilling over into unrelated sectors while at the same time allowing the actions to be effective. In any case, the Dispute Settlement Body monitors how adopted rulings are implemented. Any outstanding case remains on its agenda until the issue is resolved. 原则上，制裁应在与争端相同的领域内实施。如果这不切实际或无效，则可以在同一协议的不同领域实施制裁。反过来，如果这也无效或不切实际，并且情况严重，则可以根据另一项协议采取行动。目标是尽量减少行动蔓延到无关领域的可能性，同时确保行动的有效性。在任何情况下，争端解决机构都会监测已通过裁决的实施情况。任何未解决的案件将保留在其议程上，直到问题得到解决。
II. The Panel Process II. 小组程序
Panels are like tribunals. But unlike in a normal tribunal, the panellists are usually chosen in consultation with the countries in dispute. Only if the two sides cannot agree does the WTO director-general appoint them. Panels consist of three (possibly five) experts from different countries who examine the evidence and decide who is right and who is wrong. The panel’s report is passed to the Dispute Settlement Body, which can only reject the report by consensus. Panellists for each case can be chosen from a permanent list of well-qualified candidates, or from elsewhere; they serve in their individual capacities and can never receive instructions from any government. 小组类似于法庭。但与普通法庭不同的是，小组成员通常是在争议国的协商下选定的。只有当双方无法达成一致时，WTO 总干事才会任命他们。小组由来自不同国家的三名（可能是五名）专家组成，他们审查证据并决定谁是对的，谁是错的。小组的报告提交给争端解决机构，该机构只能通过共识拒绝该报告。每个案件的小组成员可以从一份合格候选人的永久名单中选择，或从其他地方选择；他们以个人身份服务，永远不能接受任何政府的指示。
The various stages a dispute can go through in the WTO. At all stages, countries in dispute are encouraged to consult each other in order to settle “out of court”. At all stages, the WTO director-general is available to offer his good offices, to mediate or to help achieve a conciliation. See below a case study of the timetable in practice. 争端在 WTO 中可以经历的各个阶段。在所有阶段，争端国家被鼓励相互咨询，以便“庭外和解”。在所有阶段，WTO 总干事可以提供良好办公室，进行调解或帮助达成和解。请参见下面的案例研究，了解实际中的时间表。
On 23 January 1995, Venezuela complained to the Dispute Settlement Body that the United States was applying rules that discriminated against gasoline imports, and formally requested consultations with the United States. Just over 1995 年 1 月 23 日，委内瑞拉向争端解决机构投诉，称美国实施了歧视汽油进口的规则，并正式请求与美国进行磋商。刚刚超过
a year later (on 29 January 1996) the dispute panel completed its final report. By then, Brazil had joined the case, lodging its own complaint in April 1996. The same panel considered both complaints. The United States appealed. The Appellate Body completed its report, and the Dispute Settlement Body adopted the report on 20 May 1996, one year and four months after the complaint was first lodged. 一年后（1996 年 1 月 29 日），争端小组完成了最终报告。到那时，巴西已加入此案，并于 1996 年 4 月提出了自己的投诉。相同的小组考虑了这两项投诉。美国提出上诉。上诉机构完成了其报告，争端解决机构于 1996 年 5 月 20 日采纳了该报告，这比首次提出投诉晚了一年零四个月。
The United States and Venezuela then took six and a half months to agree on what the United States should do. The agreed period for implementing the solution was 15 months from the date the appeal was concluded, 20 May 1996 to 20 August 1997. The case arose because the United States applied stricter rules on the chemical characteristics of imported gasoline than it did for domesticallyrefined gasoline. 美国和委内瑞拉花了六个半月达成一致，确定美国应采取的措施。达成的解决方案实施期限为自上诉结束之日起 15 个月，即从 1996 年 5 月 20 日至 1997 年 8 月 20 日。此案的产生是因为美国对进口汽油的化学特性施加了比对国内精炼汽油更严格的规则。
Venezuela (and later Brazil) said this was unfair because US gasoline did not have to meet the same standards-it violated the " national treatment" principle and could not be justified under exceptions to normal WTO rules for health and environmental conservation measures. The dispute panel agreed with Venezuela and Brazil. The appeal report upheld the panel’s conclusions (making some changes to the panel’s legal interpretation). The United States agreed with Venezuela that it would amend its regulations within 15 months and on 26 August 1997 it reported to the Dispute Settlement Body that a new regulation had been signed on 19 August. 委内瑞拉（后来巴西）表示这不公平，因为美国的汽油不需要满足相同的标准——这违反了“国民待遇”原则，并且不能在健康和环境保护措施的正常 WTO 规则例外下得到辩解。争端小组同意委内瑞拉和巴西的观点。上诉报告支持了小组的结论（对小组的法律解释进行了某些修改）。美国同意委内瑞拉的观点，表示将在 15 个月内修订其法规，并于 1997 年 8 月 26 日向争端解决机构报告，称新法规已于 8 月 19 日签署。
III. The WTO Agreements III. WTO 协议
The WTO agreements may be simplified into a structure with six main parts: an umbrella agreement (the Agreement Establishing the WTO); agreements for each of the three broad areas of trade that the WTO covers (goods, services and intellectual property); dispute settlement; and reviews of governments’ trade policies. WTO 协议可以简化为一个包含六个主要部分的结构：一项总协议（建立 WTO 的协议）；涵盖 WTO 所涉及的三个广泛贸易领域（货物、服务和知识产权）的协议；争端解决；以及对各国贸易政策的审查。
The agreements for the two largest areas-goods and services-share a common three-part outline, even though the detail is sometimes quite different. They start with broad principles: the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), for goods, and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). The third area, Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 这两个最大领域——货物和服务的协议共享一个共同的三部分大纲，尽管细节有时相当不同。它们以广泛的原则开始：货物的《关税及贸易总协定》（GATT）和服务的《服务贸易总协定》（GATS）。第三个领域是与贸易有关的知识产权方面。
(TRIPS), also falls into this category although at present it has no additional parts. Then come extra agreements and annexes dealing with the special requirements of specific sectors or issues. Finally, there are the detailed and lengthy schedules (or lists) of commitments made by individual countries allowing specific foreign products or service-providers access to their markets. For GATT, these take the form of binding commitments on tariffs for goods in general, and combinations of tariffs and quotas for some agricultural goods. For GATS, the commitments state how much access foreign service providers are allowed for specific sectors, and they include lists of types of services where individual countries say they are not applying the MFN principle of nondiscrimination. （TRIPS）也属于这一类别，尽管目前它没有附加部分。接下来是处理特定行业或问题特殊要求的额外协议和附件。最后，还有各国所作的承诺的详细和冗长的时间表（或清单），允许特定外国产品或服务提供者进入其市场。对于关贸总协定（GATT），这些承诺以对商品的一般关税的约束性承诺和对某些农产品的关税与配额的组合形式出现。对于服务贸易总协定（GATS），承诺说明外国服务提供者在特定行业的准入程度，并包括各国表示不适用最惠国原则的服务类型清单。
Underpinning these are dispute settlement, which is based on the agreements and commitments, and trade policy reviews, an exercise in transparency. ^((1)){ }^{(1)} Much of the Uruguay Round dealt with the first two parts: general principles and principles for specific sectors. At the same time, market access negotiations were possible for industrial goods. Once the principles had been worked out, negotiations could proceed on the commitments for sectors such as agriculture and services. 这些的基础是争端解决，这基于协议和承诺，以及贸易政策审查，这是一项透明度的工作。 ^((1)){ }^{(1)} 乌拉圭回合的大部分内容涉及前两个部分：一般原则和特定部门的原则。同时，工业品的市场准入谈判也是可能的。一旦原则确定，谈判就可以在农业和服务等部门的承诺上进行。
1. The Final Act 最终法案
The Final Act Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Final Act) was signed in Marrakesh, Morocco in 1994, which concluded the Uruguay Round and established the WTO. It acts as a cover note and everything else is attached to it. Foremost is the Agreement Establishing the WTO (or the WTO Agreement), which serves as an umbrella agreement. Annexed are the agreements on goods, services and intellectual property, dispute settlement, trade policy review mechanism and the plurilateral agreements. The schedules of commitments also form part of the Uruguay Round agreements. 《乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判结果的最终法案》（最终法案）于 1994 年在摩洛哥马拉喀什签署，标志着乌拉圭回合的结束并建立了世界贸易组织（WTO）。它作为一个封面文件，其他所有内容均附在其后。最重要的是建立 WTO 的协议（或 WTO 协议），它作为一个总协议。附录中包括有关货物、服务和知识产权的协议、争端解决、贸易政策审查机制以及多边协议。承诺清单也是乌拉圭回合协议的一部分。
2. Marrakesh Declaration 2. 马拉喀什宣言
Representing the 124 Governments and the European Communities 代表 124 个政府和欧洲共同体
participating in the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, on the occasion of the final session of the Trade Negotiations Committee at Ministerial level held at Marrakesh from 12 to 15 April 1994, recalling the Ministerial Declaration adopted at Punta del Este, Uruguay on 20 September 1986 to launch the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, recalling the progress achieved at the Ministerial meetings held at Montreal, Canada and Brussels, Belgium in December of 1988 and 1990 respectively, noting that the negotiations were substantially concluded on 15 December 1993, determined to build upon the success of the Uruguay Round through the participation of their economies in the world trading system, based upon open, market-oriented policies and the commitments set out in the Uruguay Round Agreements and Decisions, adopted the following declaration on April 15, 1994. 参与乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判，值此 1994 年 4 月 12 日至 15 日在马拉喀什举行的部长级贸易谈判委员会最后一次会议之际，重申 1986 年 9 月 20 日在乌拉圭蓬塔德尔埃斯特通过的部长宣言，以启动乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判，重申 1988 年和 1990 年分别在加拿大蒙特利尔和比利时布鲁塞尔举行的部长会议上取得的进展，注意到谈判于 1993 年 12 月 15 日基本结束，决心通过其经济体参与基于开放、市场导向政策以及乌拉圭回合协议和决定中列出的承诺的世界贸易体系，建立在乌拉圭回合成功的基础上，特此于 1994 年 4 月 15 日通过以下声明。
Ministers salute the historic achievement represented by the conclusion of the Round, which they believe will strengthen the world economy and lead to more trade, investment, employment and income growth throughout the world. In particular, they welcome: 部长们对本轮谈判的成功结束所代表的历史成就表示赞赏，他们相信这将加强世界经济，并在全球范围内带来更多的贸易、投资、就业和收入增长。特别是，他们欢迎：
the stronger and clearer legal framework they have adopted for the conduct of international trade, including a more effective and reliable dispute settlement mechanism, 他们为国际贸易的开展所采用的更强大和更清晰的法律框架，包括更有效和可靠的争端解决机制，
the global reduction by 40 per cent of tariffs and wider marketopening agreements on goods, and the increased predictability and security represented by a major expansion in the scope of tariff commitments, and 全球关税减少 40%以及更广泛的商品市场开放协议，关税承诺范围的重大扩展所代表的可预测性和安全性的提高，
the establishment of a multilateral framework of disciplines for trade in services and for the protection of trade-related intellectual property rights, as well as the reinforced multilateral trade provisions in agriculture and in textiles and clothing. 建立服务贸易的多边规则框架以及保护与贸易相关的知识产权的机制，同时加强农业、纺织和服装领域的多边贸易条款。
Ministers affirm that the establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO) ushers in a new era of global economic cooperation, reflecting the widespread desire to operate in a fairer and more open multilateral trading system for the benefit and welfare of their peoples. Ministers express their determination to resist protectionist pressures of all kinds. They believe that the 部长们确认，世界贸易组织（WTO）的成立开启了全球经济合作的新纪元，反映了各国普遍希望在一个更公平、更开放的多边贸易体系中运作，以造福和惠及各国人民。部长们表达了抵制各种形式保护主义压力的决心。他们相信，
trade liberalization and strengthened rules achieved in the Uruguay Round will lead to a progressively more open world trading environment. Ministers undertake, with immediate effect and until the entry into force of the WTO, not to take any trade measures that would undermine or adversely affect the results of the Uruguay Round negotiations or their implementation. 乌拉圭回合所取得的贸易自由化和加强的规则将导致一个逐渐更加开放的世界贸易环境。各国部长承诺，自即日起，直到世界贸易组织生效，不采取任何可能破坏或对乌拉圭回合谈判结果或其实施产生不利影响的贸易措施。
Ministers confirm their resolution to strive for greater global coherence of policies in the fields of trade, money and finance, including cooperation between the WTO, the IMF and the World Bank for that purpose. 部长们确认他们决心在贸易、货币和金融领域努力实现更大的全球政策一致性，包括为此目的在 WTO、国际货币基金组织和世界银行之间的合作。
Ministers welcome the fact that participation in the Uruguay Round was considerably wider than in any previous multilateral trade negotiation and, in particular, that developing countries played a notably active role in it. This has marked a historic step towards a more balanced and integrated global trade partnership. Ministers note that during the period these negotiations were underway significant measures of economic reform and autonomous trade liberalization were implemented in many developing countries and formerly centrally planned economies. 部长们欢迎乌拉圭回合的参与范围显著超过以往任何多边贸易谈判，特别是发展中国家在其中发挥了显著的积极作用。这标志着朝着更加平衡和综合的全球贸易伙伴关系迈出了历史性的一步。部长们指出，在这些谈判进行期间，许多发展中国家和曾经的中央计划经济体实施了重大经济改革和自主贸易自由化措施。
Ministers recall that the results of the negotiations embody provisions conferring differential and more favourable treatment for developing economies, including special attention to the particular situation of leastdeveloped countries. Ministers recognize the importance of the implementation of these provisions for the least developed countries and declare their intention to continue to assist and facilitate the expansion of their trade and investment opportunities. They agree to keep under regular review by the Ministerial Conference and the appropriate organs of the WTO the impact of the results of the Round on the least-developed countries as well as on the net food-importing developing countries, with a view to fostering positive measures to enable them to achieve their development objectives. Ministers recognize the need for strengthening the capability of the GATT and the WTO to provide increased technical assistance in their areas of competence, and in particular to substantially expand its provision to the least-developed countries. 部长们回顾谈判结果体现了对发展中经济体的差别和更有利待遇的条款，包括对最不发达国家特定情况的特别关注。部长们认识到这些条款对最不发达国家实施的重要性，并声明他们将继续协助和促进这些国家的贸易和投资机会的扩展。他们同意由部长级会议和 WTO 的相关机构定期审查回合结果对最不发达国家以及净食品进口发展中国家的影响，以促进积极措施，使其能够实现发展目标。部长们认识到加强 GATT 和 WTO 在其职能领域提供更多技术援助的能力的必要性，特别是大幅扩大对最不发达国家的援助。
Ministers declare that their signature of the “Final Act Embodying the Results of the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations” and their adoption of associated Ministerial Decisions initiates the transition from the 部长们声明，他们签署的“体现乌拉圭回合多边贸易谈判结果的最终法案”及其通过的相关部长决策标志着过渡的开始
GATT to the WTO. They have in particular established a Preparatory Committee to lay the ground for the entry into force of the WTO Agreement and commit themselves to seek to complete all steps necessary to ratify the WTO Agreement so that it can enter into force by 1 January 1995 or as early as possible thereafter. Ministers have furthermore adopted a Decision on Trade and Environment. 从关贸总协定（GATT）到世界贸易组织（WTO）。他们特别成立了一个筹备委员会，为《WTO 协议》的生效奠定基础，并承诺寻求完成所有必要步骤以批准《WTO 协议》，以便该协议能够在 1995 年 1 月 1 日或尽早之后生效。部长们还通过了一项关于贸易与环境的决定。
Ministers express their sincere gratitude to His Majesty King Hassan II for his personal contribution to the success of this Ministerial Meeting, and to his Government and the people of Morocco for their warm hospitality and the excellent organization they have provided. The fact that this final Ministerial Meeting of the Uruguay Round has been held at Marrakesh is an additional manifestation of Morocco’s commitment to an open world trading system and to its fullest integration to the global economy. 部长们对哈桑二世国王陛下个人为本次部长会议成功所作的贡献表示衷心感谢，并对摩洛哥政府和人民的热情款待及出色的组织工作表示感谢。乌拉圭回合的最后一次部长会议在马拉喀什举行，进一步体现了摩洛哥对开放世界贸易体系的承诺以及其全面融入全球经济的决心。
With the adoption and signature of the Final Act and the opening for acceptance of the WTO Agreement, Ministers declare the work of the Trade Negotiations Committee to be complete and the Uruguay Round formally concluded. 随着最终法案的通过和《世界贸易组织协议》的签署及接受，部长们宣布贸易谈判委员会的工作已完成，乌拉圭回合正式结束。
3. The Agreements 3. 协议
The WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession, which include the followings. WTO 监督大约 60 项具有国际法律文本地位的不同协议。成员国必须签署并批准所有关于加入的 WTO 协议，包括以下内容。
The Agreement Establishing the WTO, which calls for a single institutional framework encompassing the GATT, as modified by the Uruguay Round, all agreements and arrangements concluded under its auspices and the complete results of the Uruguay Round. Its structure is headed by a Ministerial Conference meeting at least once every two years. A General Council oversees the operation of the agreement and ministerial decisions on a regular basis. This General Council acts as a Dispute Settlement Body and a Trade Policy Review Mechanism, which concern themselves with the full range of trade issues covered by the WTO, and has also established subsidiary bodies such as a Goods Council, a Services Council and a TRIPs Council. The WTO framework ensures a “single undertaking approach” to the results of the Uruguay Roundthus, membership in the WTO entails accepting all the results of the Round 建立世界贸易组织的协议要求一个单一的制度框架，涵盖《关税及贸易总协定》（GATT），以及乌拉圭回合所修改的内容、在其主持下达成的所有协议和安排，以及乌拉圭回合的完整结果。其结构由每至少每两年召开一次的部长级会议领导。一个总理事会定期监督协议的运作和部长级决策。该总理事会作为争端解决机构和贸易政策审议机制，关注世界贸易组织涵盖的全范围贸易问题，并已建立了商品理事会、服务理事会和与知识产权相关的贸易协议理事会等附属机构。世界贸易组织框架确保对乌拉圭回合结果采取“单一承诺方式”，因此，加入世界贸易组织意味着接受乌拉圭回合的所有结果。
without exception. 毫无例外。
Uruguay Round Protocol GATT 1994. The results of the market access negotiations in which participants have made commitments to eliminate or reduce tariff rates and non-tariff measures applicable to trade in goods are recorded in national schedules of concessions annexed to the Uruguay Round Protocol that forms an integral part of the Final Act. The Protocol has five appendices and its schedule annexed relating to a Member shall become a Schedule to the GATT 1994 relating to that Member on the day on which the Agreement Establishing the WTO enters into force for that Member. 乌拉圭回合议定书 GATT 1994。参与者在市场准入谈判中所作出的承诺，以消除或减少适用于货物贸易的关税和非关税措施的结果，记录在附属于乌拉圭回合议定书的国家让步清单中，该议定书是最终法案的组成部分。该议定书有五个附录，附属于某成员的清单将在该成员加入世界贸易组织协议生效之日成为与该成员相关的 GATT 1994 清单。
For non-agricultural products the tariff reduction agreed upon by each Member shall be implemented in five equal rate reductions, except as may be otherwise specified in a Member’s Schedule. The first such reduction shall be made effective on the date of entry into force of the Agreement Establishing the WTO. Each successive reduction shall be made effective on 1 January of each of the following years, and the final rate shall become effective no later than the date four years after the date of entry into force of the Agreement Establishing the WTO. However, participants may implement reduction in fewer stages or at earlier dates than those indicated in the Protocol, if they so wish. 对于非农业产品，各成员国达成的关税减让应分五个相等的比例进行，除非成员国的附表另有规定。第一次减让应在《建立世界贸易组织协议》生效之日生效。每次后续减让应在随后的每年 1 月 1 日生效，最终税率应在《建立世界贸易组织协议》生效之日起四年内生效。然而，参与方可以选择在比议定书中指明的阶段更少或更早的日期实施减让。
For agricultural products, as defined in Article 2 of the Agreement on Agriculture, the staging of reductions shall be implemented as specified in the relevant parts of the schedules. Details are given in the section of this paper concerning the Agricultural Agreement. A related Decision on Measures in Favour of Least-Developed Countries establishes, among other things, that these countries will not be required to undertake any commitments and concessions which are inconsistent with their individual development, financial and trade needs. Alongside other more specific provisions for flexible and favourable treatment, it also allows for the completion of their schedules of concessions and commitments in Market Access and in Services by April 1995 rather than 15 December 1993. 对于农业产品，如《农业协议》第 2 条所定义的，减让的分阶段实施应按照相关日程的规定进行。有关细节在本文关于农业协议的部分中给出。一项关于支持最不发达国家的措施的相关决定规定，这些国家不需要承担与其各自的发展、财政和贸易需求不一致的任何承诺和让步。除了其他更具体的灵活和优惠待遇条款外，该决定还允许这些国家在 1995 年 4 月之前完成其市场准入和服务领域的让步和承诺日程，而不是 1993 年 12 月 15 日。
The negotiations on agriculture have resulted in four main portions of the Agreement; the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA) itself; the concessions and commitments Members are to undertake on market access, domestic support and export subsidies; the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures; and 农业谈判产生了协议的四个主要部分；农业协议（AoA）本身；成员国在市场准入、国内支持和出口补贴方面应承担的让步和承诺；以及卫生和植物检疫措施协议；
the Ministerial Decision concerning Least-Developed and Net Food-Importing Developing countries. Overall, the results of the negotiations provide a framework for the long-term reform of agricultural trade and domestic policies over the years to come. It makes a decisive move towards the objective of increased market orientation in agricultural trade. The rules governing agricultural trade are strengthened which will lead to improved predictability and stability for importing and exporting countries alike. 关于最不发达国家和净食品进口发展中国家的部长决定。总体而言，谈判结果为未来几年的农业贸易和国内政策的长期改革提供了框架。这朝着农业贸易市场导向增强的目标迈出了决定性的一步。农业贸易的规则得到了加强，这将为进口国和出口国带来更好的可预测性和稳定性。
The agricultural package also addresses many other issues of vital economic and political importance to many Members. These include provisions that encourage the use of less trade-distorting domestic support policies to maintain the rural economy, that allow actions to be taken to ease any adjustment burden, and also the introduction of tightly prescribed provisions that allow some flexibility in the implementation of commitments. Specific concerns of developing countries have been addressed including the concerns of net-food importing countries and least-developed countries. It provides for commitments in the area of market access, domestic support and export competition. The text of the Agricultural Agreement is mirrored in the GATT Schedules of legal commitments relating to individual countries. 农业方案还涉及许多对许多成员国至关重要的经济和政治问题。这些问题包括鼓励使用较少扭曲贸易的国内支持政策以维持农村经济的条款，允许采取措施以减轻任何调整负担，以及引入严格规定的条款以允许在履行承诺时有一定的灵活性。发展中国家的具体关切得到了关注，包括净食品进口国和最不发达国家的关切。它在市场准入、国内支持和出口竞争领域提供了承诺。农业协议的文本在与各国相关的关税及贸易总协定（GATT）法律承诺清单中得到了反映。
In the area of market access, non-tariff border measures are replaced by tariffs that provide substantially the same level of protection. Tariffs resulting from this “tariffication” process, as well as other tariffs on agricultural products, are to be reduced by an average 36 per cent in the case of developed countries and 24 per cent in the case of developing countries, with minimum reductions for each tariff line being required. Reductions are to be undertaken over six years in the case of developed countries and over ten years in the case of developing countries. Least-developed countries are not required to reduce their tariffs. The tariffication package also provides for the maintenance of current access opportunities and the establishment of minimum access tariff quotas (at reduced-tariff rates) where current access is less than 3 per cent of domestic consumption. These minimum access tariff quotas are to be expanded to 5 per cent over the implementation period. In the case of “tariffied” products “special safeguard” provisions will allow additional duties to be applied in case shipments at prices denominated in domestic currencies below a certain reference level or in 在市场准入领域，非关税边界措施被替代为提供实质上相同保护水平的关税。由于这一“关税化”过程而产生的关税，以及对农业产品的其他关税，发达国家的平均减幅为 36%，发展中国家的平均减幅为 24%，并要求每个关税项的最低减幅。发达国家的减幅将在六年内进行，发展中国家的减幅将在十年内进行。最不发达国家不需要减少其关税。关税化方案还规定维持当前的准入机会，并在当前准入低于国内消费的 3%时建立最低准入关税配额（以减税率）。这些最低准入关税配额将在实施期间扩大至 5%。对于“关税化”产品，“特殊保障”条款将允许在以国内货币计价的货物价格低于某一参考水平时征收额外关税。
case of a surge of imports. The trigger in the safeguard for import surges depends on the “import penetration” currently existing in the market, i. e. where imports currently make up a large proportion of consumption, the import surge required to trigger the special safeguard action is lower. 在进口激增的情况下，触发进口激增的保障措施取决于市场上当前存在的“进口渗透率”，即当进口在消费中占据较大比例时，触发特别保障措施所需的进口激增幅度较低。
Domestic support measures that have, at most, a minimal impact on trade (“green box” policies) are excluded from reduction commitments. Such policies include general government services, for example in the areas of research, disease control, infrastructure and food security. It also includes direct payments to producers, for example certain forms of “decoupled” (from production) income support, structural adjustment assistance, direct payments under environmental programmes and under regional assistance programmes. 对贸易影响最小的国内支持措施（“绿色箱”政策）被排除在减产承诺之外。这些政策包括一般政府服务，例如在研究、疾病控制、基础设施和食品安全等领域的服务。它还包括对生产者的直接支付，例如某些形式的“脱钩”（与生产无关）收入支持、结构调整援助、环境项目下的直接支付以及区域援助项目下的直接支付。
In addition to the green box policies, other policies need not be included in the Total Aggregate Measurement of Support (Total AMS) reduction commitments. These policies are direct payments under production-limiting programmes, certain government assistance measures to encourage agricultural and rural development in developing countries and other support which makes up only a low proportion ( 5 per cent in the case of developed countries and 10 per cent in the case of developing countries) of the value of production of individual products or, in the case of non-product-specific support, the value of total agricultural production. The Total AMS covers all support provided on either a product-specific or non-product-specific basis that does not qualify for exemption and is to be reduced by 20 per cent ( 13.3 per cent for developing countries with no reduction for least-developed countries) during the implementation period. 除了绿色箱政策外，其他政策不需要纳入总支持量（Total AMS）减少承诺。这些政策包括在生产限制计划下的直接支付、某些政府援助措施以鼓励发展中国家的农业和农村发展，以及其他仅占单个产品生产价值的低比例（发达国家为 5%，发展中国家为 10%）的支持，或者在非特定产品支持的情况下，占总农业生产价值的低比例。总支持量涵盖所有不符合豁免条件的产品特定或非产品特定基础上提供的支持，并将在实施期间减少 20%（发展中国家为 13.3%，对最不发达国家不进行减少）。
Members are required to reduce the value of mainly direct export subsidies to a level 36 per cent below the 1986-90 base period level over the six-year implementation period, and the quantity of subsidised exports by 21 per cent over the same period. In the case of developing countries, the reductions are two-thirds those of developed countries over a ten-year period (with no reductions applying to the least-developed countries) and subject to certain conditions, there are no commitments on subsidies to reduce the costs of marketing exports of agricultural products or internal transport and freight charges on export shipments. Where subsidised exports have increased since the 成员国需在六年的实施期内，将主要直接出口补贴的价值降低至 1986-90 年基期水平的 36%，并在同一时期内将补贴出口的数量减少 21%。对于发展中国家，减幅为发达国家的三分之二，实施期为十年（对最不发达国家不适用减幅），并在某些条件下，关于减少农业产品出口营销成本或出口货物内部运输和运费的补贴没有承诺。在补贴出口自此增加的情况下，
1986-90 base period, 1991-92 may be used, in certain circumstances, as the beginning point of reductions although the end-point remains that based on the 1986-90 basc period level. The Agreement on Agriculture provides for some limited flexibility between years in terms of export subsidy reduction commitments and contains provisions aimed at preventing the circumvention of the export subsidy commitments and sets out criteria for food aid donations and the use of export credits. 1986-90 基期，1991-92 在某些情况下可以作为减排的起点，尽管终点仍然基于 1986-90 基期水平。《农业协议》规定了在出口补贴减免承诺方面的年度有限灵活性，并包含旨在防止规避出口补贴承诺的条款，同时列出了食品援助捐赠和出口信贷使用的标准。
“Peace” provisions within the agreement include: an understanding that certain actions available under the Subsidies Agreement will not be applied with respect to green box policies and domestic support and export subsidies maintained in conformity with commitments; an understanding that “due restraint” will be used in the application of countervailing duty rights under the General Agreement; and setting out limits in terms of the applicability of nullification or impairment actions. These peace provisions will apply for a period of 9 years. The agreement sets up a committee that will monitor the implementation of commitments, and also monitor the follow-up to the Decision on Measures Concerning the Possible Negative Effects of the Reform Programme on Least-Developed and Net Food-Importing Developing Countries. The package is conceived as part of a continuing process with the long-term objective of securing substantial progressive reductions in support and protection. In this light, it calls for further negotiations in the fifth year of implementation which, along with an assessment of the first five years, would take into account non-trade concerns, special and differential treatment for developing countries, the objective to establish a fair and market-oriented agricultural trading system and other concerns and objectives noted in the preamble to the agreement. 协议中的“和平”条款包括：对补贴协议下某些可用行动的理解，即这些行动将不适用于符合承诺的绿色箱政策和国内支持及出口补贴；对《总协定》下反补贴税权利的适用将采取“适度克制”的理解；以及在无效或损害行动的适用性方面设定限制。这些和平条款将适用 9 年。该协议设立了一个委员会，负责监测承诺的实施，并监测关于改革方案对最不发达国家和净食品进口发展中国家可能产生的负面影响的决策的后续情况。该方案被视为一个持续过程的一部分，长期目标是确保支持和保护的实质性逐步减少。 在这种情况下，呼吁在实施的第五年进行进一步谈判，这将与对前五年的评估一起，考虑非贸易关切、对发展中国家的特殊和差别待遇、建立公平和市场导向的农业贸易体系的目标以及协议前言中提到的其他关切和目标。
The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade extends and clarifies the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade reached in the Tokyo Round. It seeks to ensure that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade. However, it recognizes that countries have the right to establish protection, at levels they consider appropriate, for example for human, animal or plant life or health or the environment, and should not be prevented from taking measures necessary 《技术性贸易壁垒协议》扩展并澄清了在东京回合达成的《技术性贸易壁垒协议》。该协议旨在确保技术谈判和标准，以及测试和认证程序，不会对贸易造成不必要的障碍。然而，它承认各国有权根据其认为适当的水平建立保护措施，例如保护人类、动物或植物的生命或健康或环境，并且不应被阻止采取必要的措施。
to ensure those levels of protection are met. The agreement therefore encourages countries to use international standards where these are appropriate, but it does not require them to change their levels of protection as a result of standardization. 以确保达到这些保护水平。因此，该协议鼓励各国在适当的情况下使用国际标准，但并不要求它们因标准化而改变其保护水平。
Innovative features of the revised agreement are that it covers processing and production methods related to the characteristics of the product itself. The coverage of conformity assessment procedures is enlarged and the disciplines made more precise. Notification provisions applying to local government and non-governmental bodies are elaborated in more detail than in the Tokyo Round agreement. A Code of Good Practice for the Preparation, Adoption and Application of Standards by standardizing bodies, which is open to acceptance by private sector bodies as well as the public sector, is included as an annex to the agreement. 修订协议的创新特点在于它涵盖了与产品本身特性相关的加工和生产方法。合格评定程序的覆盖范围扩大，规范更加明确。适用于地方政府和非政府机构的通知条款比东京回合协议中更为详细。协议附录中包含了一个标准化机构准备、采用和应用标准的良好实践规范，该规范可供私营部门和公共部门接受。
The Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Investment Measures recognizes that certain investment measures restrict and distort trade. It provides that no contracting party shall apply any TRIM inconsistent with Articles III (national treatment) and XI (prohibition of quantitative restrictions) of the GATT. To this end, an illustrative list of TRIMs agreed to be inconsistent with these articles is appended to the agreement. The list includes measures which require particular levels of local procurement by an enterprise (“local content requirements”) or which restrict the volume or value of imports such an enterprise can purchase or use to an amount related to the level of products it exports (“trade balancing requirements”). It further requires mandatory notification of all non-conforming TRIMs and their elimination within two years for developed countries, within five years for developing countries and within seven years for least-developed countries. It establishes a Committee on TRIMs which will, among other things, monitor the implementation of these commitments. The agreement also provides for consideration, at a later date, of whether it should be complemented with provisions on investment and competition policy more broadly. 投资措施相关贸易协议承认某些投资措施限制和扭曲贸易。该协议规定，任何缔约方不得适用与《关税与贸易总协定》第三条（国民待遇）和第十一条（禁止数量限制）不一致的任何 TRIM。为此，协议附录中列出了被一致认为与这些条款不一致的 TRIM 示例清单。该清单包括要求企业进行特定水平的本地采购的措施（“本地内容要求”）或限制企业可以购买或使用的进口量或价值与其出口产品水平相关的措施（“贸易平衡要求”）。此外，协议还要求对所有不符合的 TRIM 进行强制通知，并要求发达国家在两年内消除这些措施，发展中国家在五年内消除，最不发达国家在七年内消除。协议设立了一个 TRIM 委员会，该委员会将监测这些承诺的实施情况。 该协议还规定，稍后将考虑是否应补充更广泛的投资和竞争政策条款。
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures-also known as the SPS Agreement-entered into force with the establishment of the WTO. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints 《卫生与植物卫生措施协议》（也称为 SPS 协议）在 WTO 成立时生效。根据 SPS 协议，WTO 设定了限制条件。
on members’ policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the “transaction value” approach. In December 2013, the biggest agreement within the WTO was signed and known as the Bali Package. 关于成员国与食品安全（细菌污染物、农药、检验和标签）以及动物和植物健康（进口害虫和疾病）相关的政策。《关税估价协议》，正式称为《关税及贸易总协定第七条实施协议》，规定了成员国应遵循的关税估价方法。主要采用“交易价值”方法。2013 年 12 月，世界贸易组织内最大的协议签署，称为巴厘岛协议。
Chapter 5 第五章
General Agreement on Trade in Services 服务贸易总协定
The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) which forms part of the Final Act rests on three pillars. The first is a Framework Agreement containing basic obligations which apply to all member countries. The second concerns national schedules of commitments containing specific further national commitments which will be the subject of a continuing process of liberalization. The third is a number of annexes addressing the special situations of individual services sectors. 服务贸易总协定（GATS）作为最终法案的一部分，基于三个支柱。第一个是框架协议，包含适用于所有成员国的基本义务。第二个涉及国家承诺的国家清单，包含将成为持续自由化进程主题的具体进一步国家承诺。第三个是若干附录，针对各个服务部门的特殊情况。
Part I of the basic agreement defines its scope-specifically, services supplied from the territory of one party to the territory of another; services supplied in the territory of one party to the consumers of any other (for example, tourism); services provided through the presence of service providing entities of one party in the territory of any other (for example, banking); and services provided by nationals of one party in the territory of any other (for example, construction projects or consultancies). 基本协议的第一部分定义了其范围——具体而言，从一方领土向另一方领土提供的服务；在一方领土内向任何其他消费者提供的服务（例如，旅游）；通过一方服务提供实体在任何其他领土内的存在提供的服务（例如，银行业务）；以及由一方国民在任何其他领土内提供的服务（例如，建设项目或咨询服务）。
Part II sets out general obligations and disciplines. A basic MFN obligation states that each party “shall accord immediately and unconditionally to services and service providers of any other Party, treatment no less favourable than that it accords to like services and service providers of any other country”. However, it is recognized that MFN treatment may not be possible for every service activity and, therefore, it is envisaged that parties may indicate specific MFN exemptions. Conditions for such exemptions are included as an annex and provide for reviews after five years and a normal limitation of 10 years on their duration. Transparency requirements include publication of all relevant laws and 第二部分规定了一般义务和纪律。基本的最惠国义务规定，各方“应立即和无条件地给予任何其他缔约方的服务和服务提供者不低于其给予任何其他国家的类似服务和服务提供者的待遇”。然而，认识到并非所有服务活动都可能实现最惠国待遇，因此预见到各方可以指明具体的最惠国豁免。此类豁免的条件作为附录列出，并规定在五年后进行审查，且其持续时间通常限制为 10 年。透明度要求包括公布所有相关法律和
rcgulations. 规章。
Provisions to facilitate the increased participation of developing countries in world services trade envisage negotiated commitments on access to technology, improvements in access to distribution channels and information networks and the liberalization of market access in sectors and modes of supply of export interest. The provisions covering economic integration are analogous to those in Article XXIV of GATT, requiring arrangements to have “substantial sectoral coverage” and to “provide for the absence or elimination of substantially all discrimination” between the parties. Since domestic regulations, not border measures, provide the most significant influence on services trade, provisions spell out that all such measures of general application should be administered in a reasonable, objective and impartial manner. There would be a requirement that parties establish the means for prompt reviews of administrative decisions relating to the supply of services. 促进发展中国家在世界服务贸易中增加参与的条款设想了关于技术获取的谈判承诺、改善获取分销渠道和信息网络的条件以及在出口利益相关的部门和供应方式中市场准入的自由化。涵盖经济一体化的条款类似于《关税与贸易总协定》第 XXIV 条，要求安排具有“实质性的部门覆盖”并“提供各方之间实质上没有或消除所有歧视”。由于国内法规，而非边境措施，对服务贸易的影响最为显著，条款明确规定所有此类普遍适用的措施应以合理、客观和公正的方式实施。各方需建立机制，以便对与服务供应相关的行政决定进行及时审查。
The agreement contains obligations with respect to recognition requirements (educational background, for instance) for the purpose of securing authorizations, licenses or certification in the services area. It encourages recognition requirements achieved through harmonization and internationallyagreed criteria. Further provisions state that parties are required to ensure that monopolies and exclusive service providers do not abuse their positions. Restrictive business practices should be subject to consultations between parties with a view to their elimination. 该协议包含有关承认要求（例如教育背景）的义务，以便在服务领域获得授权、许可证或认证。它鼓励通过协调和国际公认标准实现的承认要求。进一步的条款规定，各方必须确保垄断和独占服务提供者不滥用其地位。限制性商业行为应在各方之间进行磋商，以期消除这些行为。
While parties are normally obliged not to restrict international transfers and payments for current transactions relating to commitments under the agreement, there are provisions allowing limited restrictions in the event of balance-ofpayments difficulties. However, where such restrictions are imposed they would be subject to conditions; including that they are non-discriminatory, that they avoid unnecessary commercial damage to other parties and that they are of a temporary nature. 虽然各方通常有义务不限制与协议下承诺相关的当前交易的国际转移和支付，但在出现国际收支困难的情况下，有条款允许有限的限制。然而，施加此类限制时需遵循条件；包括这些限制是非歧视性的，避免对其他方造成不必要的商业损害，并且具有临时性质。
The agreement contains both general exceptions and security exceptions provisions which are similar to Articles XX and XXI of the GATT. It also envisages negotiations with a view to the development of disciplines on tradedistorting subsidies in the services area. Part III contains provisions on market 该协议包含一般例外和安全例外条款，这些条款类似于《关税与贸易总协定》第 XX 和 XXI 条。它还设想进行谈判，以期在服务领域制定关于扭曲贸易的补贴的规则。第三部分包含有关市场的条款。
access and national treatment which would not be general obligations but would be commitments made in national schedules. Thus, in the case of market access, each party “shall accord services and service providers of other Parties treatment no less favourable than that provided for under the terms, limitations and conditions agreed and specified in its schedule”. The intention of the marketaccess provision is to progressively eliminate the following types of measures: limitations on numbers of service providers, on the total value of service transactions or on the total number of service operations or people employed. Equally, restrictions on the kind of legal entity or joint venture through which a service is provided or any foreign capital limitations relating to maximum levels of foreign participation are to be progressively eliminated. 进入和国民待遇将不是一般义务，而是在国家日程中作出的承诺。因此，在市场准入的情况下，各方“应给予其他缔约方的服务和服务提供者不低于其日程中约定和规定的条款、限制和条件下提供的待遇”。市场准入条款的意图是逐步消除以下类型的措施：对服务提供者数量、服务交易总值或服务操作总数或雇佣人数的限制。同样，提供服务的法律实体或合资企业的种类限制，以及与外资参与的最高水平相关的任何外资限制也应逐步消除。
The national-treatment provision contains the obligation to treat foreign service suppliers and domestic service suppliers in the same manner. However, it does provide the possibility of different treatment being accorded the service providers of other parties to that accorded to domestic service providers. However, in such cases the conditions of competition should not, as a result, be modified in favour of the domestic service providers. 国家待遇条款包含了对外国服务供应商和国内服务供应商以相同方式对待的义务。然而，它确实提供了对其他缔约方的服务提供者与对国内服务提供者的不同对待的可能性。然而，在这种情况下，竞争条件不应因此而向国内服务提供者倾斜。
Part IV of the agreement establishes the basis for progressive liberalization in the services area through successive rounds of negotiations and the development of national schedules. It also permits, after a period of three years, parties to withdraw or modify commitments made in their schedules. Where commitments are modified or withdrawn, negotiations should be undertaken with interested parties to agree on compensatory adjustments. Where agreement cannot be reached, compensation would be decided by arbitration. 协议的第四部分建立了通过连续的谈判轮次和国家时间表的发展，在服务领域逐步自由化的基础。它还允许各方在三年期满后撤回或修改其时间表中作出的承诺。在承诺被修改或撤回的情况下，应与相关方进行谈判，以达成补偿调整。如果无法达成协议，补偿将通过仲裁决定。
Part VV of the agreement contains institutional provisions, including consultation and dispute settlement and the establishment of a Council on Services. The responsibilities of the Council are set out in a Ministerial Decision. 协议的第 VV 部分包含机构条款，包括协商和争端解决以及服务委员会的设立。委员会的职责在部长决定中列出。
The first of the annexes to the agreement concerns the movement of labour. It permits parties to negotiate specific commitments applying to the movement of people providing services under the agreement. It requires that people covered by a specific commitment shall be allowed to provide the service in accordance with the terms of the commitment. Nevertheless, the agreement 协议附件的第一部分涉及劳动力的流动。它允许各方就根据协议提供服务的人员的流动进行具体承诺的谈判。它要求受具体承诺覆盖的人员应被允许根据承诺的条款提供服务。然而，该协议
would not apply to measures affecting employment, citizenship, residence or employment on a permanent basis. The annex on financial services (largely banking and insurance) lays down the right of parties, notwithstanding other provisions, to take prudential measures, including for the protection of investors, deposit holders and policy holders, and to ensure the integrity and stability of the financial system. However, a further understanding on financial services would allow those participants who choose to do so to undertake commitments on financial services through a different method. With respect to market access, the understanding contains more detailed obligations on, among other things, monopoly rights, cross-border trade (certain insurance and reinsurance policy writing as well as financial data processing and transfer), the right to establish or expand a commercial presence, and the temporary entry of personnel. The provisions on national treatment refer explicitly to access to payments and clearing systems operated by public entities and to official funding and refinancing facilities. They also relate to membership of, or participation in, self-regulatory bodies, securities or futures exchanges and clearing agencies. 不适用于影响就业、公民身份、居住或永久性就业的措施。关于金融服务的附录（主要涉及银行和保险）规定了各方的权利，尽管有其他条款，仍可采取审慎措施，包括保护投资者、存款人和保单持有人的措施，以及确保金融系统的完整性和稳定性。然而，关于金融服务的进一步理解将允许选择这样做的参与者通过不同的方法承担金融服务的承诺。关于市场准入，该理解包含了更详细的义务，包括垄断权、跨境贸易（某些保险和再保险保单的签发以及金融数据处理和转移）、建立或扩展商业存在的权利，以及人员的临时入境。关于国民待遇的条款明确提到对公共实体运营的支付和清算系统的访问，以及官方资金和再融资设施。 它们还涉及自律组织、证券或期货交易所和清算机构的成员资格或参与。
The annex on telecommunications relates to measures which affect access to and use of public telecommunications services and networks. In particular, it requires that such access be accorded to another party, on reasonable and nondiscriminatory terms, to permit the supply of a service included in its schedule. Conditions attached to the use of public networks should be no more than is necessary to safeguard the public service responsibilities of their operators, to protect the technical integrity of the network and to ensure that foreign service suppliers do not supply services unless permitted to do so through a specific commitment. The annex also encourages technical cooperation to assist developing countries in the strengthening of their own domestic telecommunications sectors. The annex on air-transport services excludes from the agreement’s coverage traffic rights (largely bilateral air-service agreements conferring landing rights) and directly related activities which might affect the negotiation of traffic rights. Nevertheless, the annex, in its current form, also states that the agreement should apply to aircraft repair and maintenance services, the marketing of air-transport services and computer-reservation services. The operation of the annex would be reviewed at least every five years. 关于电信的附录涉及影响公共电信服务和网络的访问和使用的措施。特别是，它要求以合理和非歧视的条款向另一方提供此类访问，以允许提供其时间表中包含的服务。附加在公共网络使用上的条件不应超过维护其运营商的公共服务责任、保护网络的技术完整性以及确保外国服务供应商在未通过特定承诺获得许可的情况下不得提供服务所必需的条件。该附录还鼓励技术合作，以协助发展中国家加强其国内电信部门。关于航空运输服务的附录排除了协议覆盖范围内的交通权（主要是授予着陆权的双边航空服务协议）和可能影响交通权谈判的直接相关活动。 然而，附录在其当前形式中也声明，该协议应适用于飞机维修和保养服务、航空运输服务的营销以及计算机预订服务。附录的实施将至少每五年进行一次审查。
In the final days of the services negotiations, three Decisions were takenon Financial Serviccs, Professional Services and the Movement of Natural Persons. The Decision on Financial Services confirmed that commitments in this sector would be implemented on an MFN basis, and permits Members to revise and finalize their schedules of commitments and their MFN exemptions six months after the entry into force of the Agreement. Contrary to some media reports, the audio-visual and maritime sectors have not been removed from the scope of the GATS. 在服务谈判的最后阶段，关于金融服务、专业服务和自然人流动的三项决定被作出。关于金融服务的决定确认该领域的承诺将以最惠国待遇（MFN）为基础实施，并允许成员在协议生效六个月后修订和最终确定其承诺清单及其最惠国待遇豁免。与一些媒体报道相反，视听和海事领域并未被排除在《服务贸易总协定》（GATS）的范围之外。
Chapter 6 第六章
Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 与贸易有关的知识产权方面的协议
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round and is Annex 1C of the Marrakesh Agreement. It sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property regulation and remains one of the most influential international instruments with regard to international trade as well as the protection of intellectual property (IP) to date. ^(1){ }^{\mathbb{1}} In order to be accepted by the WTO, national IP laws must comply with TRIPS, which is in compliance with and goes beyond the provisions of the Berne Convention except for those on moral rights. It includes the protection of computer programs and databases; ^((2)){ }^{(2)} introduces the right of rental for computer programs, cinematographic works and phonograms; and protects performers, phonogram producers and broadcasters. Meanwhile, the exceptions to copyright are available to signatories of the TRIPs Agreement, which incorporates the Berne Convention. The public interest is recognised; most importantly, repeating the three-step test of the Berne Convention, Article 13 TRIPS requires members to confine limitations or exceptions to exclusive rights to certain special cases that do not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the right holder. 与贸易有关的知识产权协议（TRIPS）是在乌拉圭回合结束时谈判达成的，是马拉喀什协议的附件 1C。它为许多形式的知识产权监管设定了最低标准，并且至今仍然是与国际贸易以及知识产权（IP）保护相关的最具影响力的国际文书之一。为了被世贸组织接受，国家知识产权法律必须遵守 TRIPS，该协议符合并超越了《伯尔尼公约》的条款，除了有关道德权利的条款。它包括对计算机程序和数据库的保护；引入了计算机程序、电影作品和音像制品的租赁权；并保护表演者、音像制品制作人和广播公司。同时，版权的例外条款适用于 TRIPS 协议的缔约方，该协议纳入了《伯尔尼公约》。 公共利益被认可；最重要的是，重复伯尔尼公约的三步测试，TRIPS 第 13 条要求成员国将对专有权的限制或例外限制在某些特殊情况下，这些情况不与作品的正常利用相冲突，并且不不合理地损害权利人的合法利益。
This so called “three-step test” may prove to be extremely important if any 这种所谓的“三步测试”在任何情况下可能会变得极为重要
nation attempts to cxtend the exceptions to copyright, because, unless the WTO decides that its modifications comply with the test, it is likely to face trade sanctions. For instance, although China strove to build up an understanding of the correct application of the test, the limitations and exceptions in its first copyright law 1990 were criticised as being too broad and so likely to damage copyright owncrs’ exploitation of works and thus required revision to accede to the WTO. 国家试图扩大版权的例外，因为，除非 WTO 决定其修改符合标准，否则可能面临贸易制裁。例如，尽管中国努力建立对该标准正确应用的理解，但其 1990 年第一部版权法中的限制和例外被批评为过于宽泛，可能会损害版权拥有者对作品的利用，因此需要修订以加入 WTO。
The TRIPS agreement recognises that widely varying standards in the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights and the lack of a multilateral framework of principles, rules and disciplines dealing with international trade in counterfeit goods have been a growing source of tension in international economic relations. Rules and disciplines were needed to cope with these tensions. To that end, the agreement addresses the applicability of basic GATT principles and those of relevant international intellectual property agreements; the provision of adequate intellectual property rights; the provision of effective enforcement measures for those rights; multilateral dispute settlement; and transitional arrangements. TRIPS 协议承认，知识产权保护和执行标准的广泛差异，以及缺乏处理假冒商品国际贸易的多边原则、规则和纪律框架，已成为国际经济关系中日益紧张的来源。需要规则和纪律来应对这些紧张局势。为此，该协议涉及基本 GATT 原则及相关国际知识产权协议的适用性；提供足够的知识产权；为这些权利提供有效的执行措施；多边争端解决；以及过渡安排。
Part I of the agreement sets out general provisions and basic principles, notably a national-treatment commitment under which the nationals of other parties must be given treatment no less favourable than that accorded to a party’s own nationals with regard to the protection of intellectual property. It also contains a MFN clause, a novelty in an international intellectual property agreement, under which any advantage a party gives to the nationals of another country must be extended immediately and unconditionally to the nationals of all other parties, even if such treatment is more favourable than that which it gives to its own nationals. 协议的第一部分规定了一般条款和基本原则，特别是国家待遇承诺，根据该承诺，其他缔约国的国民在知识产权保护方面必须获得不低于缔约国自己国民的待遇。它还包含了最惠国条款，这是国际知识产权协议中的新颖之处，根据该条款，任何一方给予其他国家国民的任何优惠，必须立即无条件地扩展到所有其他缔约方的国民，即使这种待遇比其给予自己国民的待遇更为优厚。
Part II addresses each intellectual property right in succession. With respect to copyright, parties are required to comply with the substantive provisions of the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works, in its latest yersion (Paris 1971), though they will not be obliged to protect moral rights as stipulated in Article 6b is of that Convention. It ensures that computer programs will be protected as literary works under the Berne Convention and lays down on what basis data bases should be protected by copyright. Important 第二部分依次讨论每项知识产权。关于版权，各方需遵守《伯尔尼公约》关于文学和艺术作品保护的实质性条款，按照其最新版本（1971 年巴黎），尽管他们不必保护该公约第 6b 条所规定的道德权利。它确保计算机程序将作为文学作品受到《伯尔尼公约》的保护，并规定了数据库应以何种基础受到版权保护。重要
additions to cxisting international rules in the area of copyright and related rights are the provisions on rental rights. The draft requires authors of computer programmes and producers of sound recordings to be given the right to authorize or prohibit the commercial rental of their works to the public. A similar exclusive right applies to films where commercial rental has led to widespread copying which is materially impairing the right of reproduction. The draft also requires performers to be given protection from unauthorized recording and broadcast of live performances (bootlegging). The protection for performers and producers of sound recordings would be for no less than 50 years. Broadcasting organizations would have control over the use that can be made of broadcast signals without their authorization. This right would last for at least 20 years. 对现有国际版权及相关权利规则的补充是关于租赁权的规定。草案要求计算机程序的作者和音频录制的制作人有权授权或禁止其作品的商业租赁给公众。类似的独占权适用于电影，因为商业租赁导致了广泛的复制，实质上损害了复制权。草案还要求对表演者提供保护，防止未经授权的录音和直播表演（盗录）。对表演者和音频录制制作人的保护期限不少于 50 年。广播组织将对未经其授权的广播信号使用拥有控制权。该权利的持续时间至少为 20 年。
With respect to trademarks and service marks, the agreement defines what types of signs must be eligible for protection as a trademark or service mark and what the minimum rights conferred on their owners must be. Marks that have become well-known in a particular country shall enjoy additional protection. In addition, the agreement lays down a number of obligations with regard to the use of trademarks and service marks, their term of protection, and their licensing or assignment. For example, requirements that foreign marks be used in conjunction with local marks would, as a general rule, be prohibited. 关于商标和服务标志，该协议定义了哪些类型的标志必须有资格作为商标或服务标志获得保护，以及赋予其所有者的最低权利。已在特定国家变得知名的标志应享有额外保护。此外，该协议规定了一系列关于商标和服务标志的使用、保护期限以及许可或转让的义务。例如，通常情况下，要求外国标志与本地标志一起使用的规定将被禁止。
In respect of geographical indications, the agreement lays down that all parties must provide means to prevent the use of any indication which misleads the consumer as to the origin of goods, and any use which would constitute an act of unfair competition. A higher level of protection is provided for geographical indications for wines and spirits, which are protected even where there is no danger of the public’s being misled as to the true origin. Exceptions are allowed for names that have already become generic terms, but any country using such an exception must be willing to negotiate with a view to protecting the geographical indications in question. Furthermore, provision is made for further negotiations to establish a multilateral system of notification and registration of geographical indications for wines. 关于地理标志，协议规定所有缔约方必须提供手段，以防止使用任何误导消费者关于商品来源的标志，以及任何构成不正当竞争的使用。对葡萄酒和烈酒的地理标志提供了更高水平的保护，即使在没有公众被误导关于真实来源的危险的情况下也受到保护。对于已经成为通用术语的名称允许例外，但任何使用此类例外的国家必须愿意进行谈判，以保护相关的地理标志。此外，还规定了进一步谈判的条款，以建立葡萄酒的地理标志的多边通知和注册系统。
Industrial designs are also protected under the agreement for a period of 10 years. Owners of protected designs would be able to prevent the manufacture, 工业设计也在该协议下受到保护，保护期为 10 年。受保护设计的所有者将能够阻止制造，
sale or importation of articles bearing or embodying a design which is a copy of the protected design. 销售或进口带有或体现受保护设计的设计的物品。
As regards patents, there is a general obligation to comply with the substantive provisions of the Paris Convention (1967). In addition, the agreement requires that 20 -ycar patent protection be available for all inventions, whether of products or processes, in almost all fields of technology. Inventions may be cxcluded from patentability if their commercial exploitation is prohibited for reasons of public order or morality; otherwise, the permitted exclusions are for diagnostic, therapeutic and surgical methods, and for plants and (other than microorganisms) animals and essentially biological processes for the production of plants or animals (other than microbiological processes). Plant varieties, however, must be protectable either by patents or by a sui generis system (such as the breeder’s rights provided in a UPOV Convention). Detailed conditions are laid down for compulsory licensing or governmental use of patents without the authorization of the patent owner. Rights conferred in respect of patents for processes must extend to the products directly obtained by the process; under certain conditions alleged infringers may be ordered by a court to prove that they have not used the patented process. 关于专利，普遍义务是遵守《巴黎公约》（1967）的实质性条款。此外，该协议要求在几乎所有技术领域内，所有发明（无论是产品还是工艺）都应提供 20 年的专利保护。如果出于公共秩序或道德原因禁止其商业开发，则发明可能被排除在专利保护之外；否则，允许的排除包括诊断、治疗和外科方法，以及植物和（微生物以外的）动物及其生产植物或动物的本质生物过程（微生物过程除外）。然而，植物品种必须通过专利或特有的保护制度（如《植物新品种保护公约》中的育种者权利）进行保护。对于在未获得专利所有者授权的情况下强制许可或政府使用专利，规定了详细的条件。 与工艺专利相关的权利必须扩展到通过该工艺直接获得的产品；在某些条件下，法院可以命令被指控的侵权者证明他们没有使用该专利工艺。
With respect to the protection of layout designs of integrated circuits, the agreement requires parties to provide protection on the basis of the Washington Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits which was opened for signature in May 1989, but with a number of additions: protection must be available for a minimum period of 10 years; the rights must extend to articles incorporating infringing layout designs; innocent infringers must be allowed to use or sell stock in hand or ordered before learning of the infringement against a suitable royalty: and compulsory licensing and government use is only allowed under a number of strict conditions. 关于集成电路布图设计的保护，该协议要求各方根据 1989 年 5 月开放签署的《华盛顿集成电路知识产权条约》提供保护，但有若干附加条款：保护期必须至少为 10 年；权利必须扩展到包含侵权布图设计的物品；无辜侵权者必须被允许在得知侵权之前使用或销售手中库存或已订购的产品，并支付适当的特许权使用费；强制许可和政府使用仅在若干严格条件下允许。
Trade secrets and know-how which have commercial value must be protected against breach of confidence and other acts contrary to honest commercial practices. Test data submitted to governments in order to obtain marketing approval for pharmaceutical or agricultural chemicals must also be protected against unfair commercial use. 商业价值的商业秘密和专有技术必须受到保护，以防止违反保密义务和其他与诚实商业惯例相悖的行为。为了获得药品或农业化学品的市场批准而提交给政府的测试数据也必须受到保护，以防止不正当的商业使用。
The final section in this part of the agreement concerns anti-competitive 本协议这一部分的最后一节涉及反竞争行为
practices in contractual licences. It provides for consultations between governments where there is reason to believe that licensing practices or conditions pertaining to intellectual property rights constitute an abuse of these rights and have an adverse effect on competition. Remedies against such abuses must be consistent with the other provisions of the agreement. 合同许可的实践。它规定了在有理由相信与知识产权相关的许可实践或条件构成对这些权利的滥用并对竞争产生不利影响的情况下，各国政府之间应进行磋商。对这种滥用的救济措施必须与协议的其他条款一致。
Part III of the agreement sets out the obligations of member governments to provide procedures and remedies under their domestic law to ensure that intellectual property rights can be effectively enforced, by foreign right holders as well as by their own nationals. Procedures should permit effective action against infringement of intellectual property rights but should be fair and equitable, not unnecessarily complicated or costly, and should not entail unreasonable time-limits or unwarranted delays. They should allow for judicial review of final administrative decisions. There is no obligation to put in place a judicial system distinct from that for the enforcement of laws in general, nor to give priority to the enforcement of intellectual property rights in the allocation of resources or staff. The civil and administrative procedures and remedies spelled out in the text include provisions on evidence of proof, injunctions, damages and other remedies which would include the right of judicial authorities to order the disposal or destruction of infringing goods. Judicial authorities must also have the authority to order prompt and effective provisional measures, in particular where any delay is likely to cause irreparable harm to the right holder, or where evidence is likely to be destroyed. Further provisions relate to measures to be taken at the border for the suspension by customs authorities of release, into domestic circulation, of counterfeit and pirated goods. Finally, parties should provide for criminal procedures and penalties at least in cases of wilful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale. Remedies should include imprisonment and fines sufficient to act as a deterrent. 协议第三部分规定了成员政府的义务，要求其根据国内法提供程序和救济，以确保知识产权能够有效地被外国权利人以及本国国民执行。程序应允许对知识产权侵权行为采取有效行动，但应公平合理，不得不必要地复杂或昂贵，并且不应设定不合理的时间限制或不当延误。应允许对最终行政决定进行司法审查。没有义务建立一个与一般法律执行不同的司法系统，也没有义务在资源或人员分配上优先考虑知识产权的执行。文本中列出的民事和行政程序及救济包括关于证据证明、禁令、损害赔偿和其他救济的条款，其中包括司法机关有权命令处置或销毁侵权商品的权利。 司法机关还必须有权下令采取迅速有效的临时措施，特别是在任何延误可能对权利人造成不可弥补的损害，或证据可能被销毁的情况下。进一步的规定涉及海关当局在边境采取的措施，以暂停假冒和盗版商品进入国内流通的释放。最后，各方应规定刑事程序和处罚，至少在故意商标假冒或大规模版权盗版的情况下。救济措施应包括足以起到威慑作用的监禁和罚款。
The agreement would establish a Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights to monitor the operation of the agreement and governments’ compliance with it. Dispute settlement would take place under the integrated GATT dispute-settlement procedures as revised in the Uruguay Round. 该协议将建立一个与贸易相关的知识产权委员会，以监测协议的实施及各国政府的遵守情况。争端解决将根据在乌拉圭回合中修订的综合关贸总协定争端解决程序进行。
With respect to the implementation of the agreement, it envisages a one- 关于协议的实施，它设想了一种一-
year transition period for developed countries to bring their legislation and practices into conformity. Developing countries and countries in the process of transformation from a centrally-planned into a market cconomy would have a five-year transition period, and least-developed countries 11 years. Developing countries which do not at present provide product patent protection in an area of technology would have up to 10 years to introduce such protection. However, in the case of pharmaceutical and agricultural chemical products, they must accept the filing of patent applications from the beginning of the transitional period. Though the patent need not be granted until the end of this period, the novelty of the invention is preserved as of the date of filing the application. If authorization for the marketing of the relevant pharmaceutical or agricultural chemical is obtained during the transitional period, the developing country concerned must offer an exclusive marketing right for the product for five years, or until a product patent is granted, whichever is shorter. Subject to certain exceptions, the general rule is that the obligations in the agreement would apply to existing intellectual property rights as well as to new ones. 发达国家有一年的过渡期，以使其立法和实践符合要求。发展中国家和正在从计划经济向市场经济转型的国家将有五年的过渡期，最不发达国家则有 11 年。当前在某一技术领域不提供产品专利保护的发展中国家将有最多 10 年的时间来引入此类保护。然而，在制药和农业化学产品的情况下，它们必须从过渡期开始接受专利申请的提交。尽管在此期间不必授予专利，但发明的新颖性自申请提交之日起得以保留。如果在过渡期内获得相关制药或农业化学产品的市场营销授权，相关发展中国家必须为该产品提供五年的独占营销权，或直到授予产品专利，以较短者为准。 根据某些例外，一般规则是协议中的义务适用于现有的知识产权以及新的知识产权。
Please see Appendix for full text of the TRIPS. 请参见附录以获取 TRIPS 的完整文本。
Exercises 练习
I. Please make the best choice to fill in the blanks: 一. 请做出最佳选择以填空：
It did not take long for the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to give birth to an unofficial, qquad\qquad international organization, also known informally as GATT. 关税及贸易总协定很快就催生了一个非官方的国际组织，非正式地称为 GATT。
A. de montfort A. 德蒙福特
B. de facto B. 事实上的
C. de jure C. 法律上
D. de javu D. 既视感
The WTO requires member countrics give their trading partners qquad\qquad status. WTO 要求成员国给予其贸易伙伴 qquad\qquad 地位。
A, not discriminate A，不歧视
B. equal B. 平等
C. national treatment C. 国民待遇
D. MFN D. 最惠国待遇
The principle of trade without discrimination consists of two parts, MFN and national treatment, i. e. treating other people equally, and treating foreigners and locals equally; “i.e.” means qquad\qquad , 贸易无歧视原则由两个部分组成，即最惠国待遇和国民待遇，即平等对待他人，以及平等待遇外国人和当地人；“即”意味着 qquad\qquad ，
A. that is A. 即
B. for example 例如
C. in other words C. 换句话说
D. including 包括
The qquad\qquad trading system is an attempt by governments to make the business environment stable and predictable. qquad\qquad 贸易体系是各国政府试图使商业环境稳定和可预测的一种努力。
A. plurilateral A. 多边
B. transparent B. 透明
C. multilateral C. 多边
D. fair D. 公平
It is qquad\qquad to deem trade rounds the one route to success. 将贸易回合视为成功的唯一途径是 qquad\qquad 。
A. formed A. 形成
B. fabricated B. 伪造的
C. made C. 制定
D. constructed D. 建造的
WTO members enjoy the privileges that other member countries give to them and the security that the trading rules provide, and they had to make commitments to open their markets and to qquad\qquad the rules in return. WTO 成员享有其他成员国给予他们的特权和贸易规则提供的安全，他们必须承诺开放市场并 qquad\qquad 规则作为回报。
A. abide by 遵守
B. implement B. 实施
C. bind C. 约束
D. enforce D. 执行
The WTO agreements include numerous provisions giving developing and least developed countries special rights or extra leniency, i.e. qquad\qquad . WTO 协议包括许多条款，赋予发展中国家和最不发达国家特殊权利或额外宽容，即 qquad\qquad 。
A. preferential treatment A. 优惠待遇
B. favourable treatment B. 有利待遇
C. exceptional treatment C. 特殊待遇
D. special and differential treatment D. 特别和差别待遇
Part 4 of the GATT includes provisions on the concept of qquad\qquad in trade negotiations between developed and developing countries, i. e. when developed countries grant trade concessions to developing countries they should not expect the developing countries to make matching offers in return. Both GATT and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) allow developing countries some preferential treatment. 《关税及贸易总协定》第四部分包括关于发达国家与发展中国家之间贸易谈判中 qquad\qquad 概念的规定，即发达国家在向发展中国家提供贸易让步时，不应期望发展中国家作出相应的回报。无论是《关税及贸易总协定》还是《服务贸易总协定》都允许发展中国家享有一定的优惠待遇。
A. non-discriminate A. 非歧视
B. non-reciprocity B. 非互惠性
C. non-uniformity C. 不统一性
D. quid pro quo D. 对价
The WTO Committee on Trade and Development has a wide-ranging WTO 贸易与发展委员会的职能广泛 qquad\qquad , including how provisions favouring developing countries are being implemented, guidelines for technical cooperation, increased participation of developing countries in the trading system, and the position of least-developed countries. qquad\qquad ，包括有利于发展中国家的条款如何实施、技术合作的指导方针、发展中国家在贸易体系中的参与增加以及最不发达国家的地位。
A. authority A. 权威
B. instruction B. 指示
C. mandate C. 授权
D. power D. 权力
Developing countries have placed on the Doha Agenda a number of problems they face in implementing the present agreements and they complain that they still face qquad\qquad on selected products in important markets that continue to obstruct their important exports. 发展中国家在多哈议程上提出了他们在实施现有协议时面临的许多问题，他们抱怨在重要市场上仍然面临对某些产品的 qquad\qquad ，这继续阻碍他们的重要出口。
A. tariff escalation A. 关税升级
B. tariff peaks B. 关税峰值
C. made C. 制定
D. constructed D. 建造的
Article 24 of GATT allows regional trading arrangements to be set up as a special qquad\qquad , provided certain strict criteria are met; if a free trade area or customs union is created, duties and other trade barriers should be reduced or removed on substantially all sectors of trade in the group. 《关税及贸易总协定》第 24 条允许在满足某些严格标准的情况下设立区域贸易安排作为一种特殊 qquad\qquad ；如果建立自由贸易区或关税同盟，则应在该集团的几乎所有贸易领域减少或取消关税和其他贸易壁垒。
A. treatment A. 处理
B. limitation B. 限制
C. exception C. 例外
D. compromise 妥协
The WTO Secretariat is to qquad\qquad from its Central Registry of Notifications all information on trade-related environmental measures that members have submitted. These are to be put in a single database which all WTO members can access. WTO 秘书处将从其中央通知登记处 qquad\qquad 所有成员提交的与贸易相关的环境措施信息。这些信息将被放入一个所有 WTO 成员都可以访问的单一数据库中。
A. collect A. 收集
B. complete B. 完整
C. compose C. 组成
D. compile D. 编纂
Many developing countries believe that the discussion of labour standards has no place in the WTO framework and argue that the campaign to bring labour issues into the WTO is actually a qquad\qquad by industrial nations to undermine the comparative advantage of lower wage trading partners, and could undermine their ability to raise standards through economic development, particularly if it hampers their ability to trade. They also argue that proposed standards can be too high for them to meet at their level of development. 许多发展中国家认为，劳动标准的讨论在 WTO 框架内没有立足之地，并辩称将劳动问题引入 WTO 的运动实际上是工业国家的一种 qquad\qquad ，旨在削弱低工资贸易伙伴的比较优势，并可能削弱它们通过经济发展提高标准的能力，特别是如果这妨碍了它们的贸易能力。他们还辩称，提议的标准对他们的发展水平来说可能过高。
A. strategy A. 策略
B. bid B. 投标
C. tactic C. 策略
D. movement D. 运动
WTO members are convinced that an open, equitable and nondiscriminatory multilateral trading system has a key contribution to make to national and international efforts to better protect and qquad\qquad environmental resources and promote sustainable development. WTO 成员相信，开放、公平和无歧视的多边贸易体系对国家和国际努力更好地保护环境资源和促进可持续发展具有关键贡献。
A. sustain A. 维持
B. utilize B. 利用
C. conserve C. 保护
D. save D. 保存
Labelling requirements and practices should not discriminate-either between trading partners (MFN treatment), or between domesticallyproduced goods or services and imports (national treatment); WTO members should provide as much information as possible about the environmental policies they have adopted or actions they may take, when these can have a significant impact on trade, they should do this by notifying the WTO, but the task should not be more of a burden than is normally required for other policies affecting trade. In this sentence, 标签要求和实践不应歧视——无论是在贸易伙伴之间（最惠国待遇），还是在国内生产的商品或服务与进口商品之间（国民待遇）；WTO 成员应尽可能提供有关其已采取的环境政策或可能采取的行动的信息，当这些政策或行动可能对贸易产生重大影响时，他们应通过通知 WTO 来做到这一点，但这一任务不应比通常对其他影响贸易的政策所要求的负担更重。
“should” means qquad\qquad . “应”意味着 qquad\qquad 。
A. possibly will B. must A. 可能会 B. 必须
C. may C. 可能
D. better to 更好地
The WTO’s procedure qquad\qquad the rule of law, and it makes the trading system more secure and predictable. WTO 的程序 qquad\qquad 法治，使贸易体系更加安全和可预测。
A. overlooks A. 俯瞰
B. adopts B. 采用
C. follows C. 以下内容
D. underscores D. 强调
Scttling disputes is the responsibility of the Dispute Settlement Body, the Gencral Council in another guisc, which consists of all WTO members and has the sole authority to establish “panels” of experts to consider the case, and to accept or reject the panels’ findings or the results of an appeal. It monitors the implementation of the rulings and recommendations, and has the power to authorize qquad\qquad when a country does not comply with a ruling. 解决争端的责任在于争端解决机构，即一般理事会，该机构由所有 WTO 成员组成，拥有唯一的权力来建立“专家小组”以审议案件，并接受或拒绝小组的裁决或上诉结果。它监测裁决和建议的实施，并有权在一个国家不遵守裁决时授权 qquad\qquad 。
A. recommendation A. 建议
B. concession B. 特许权
C. regulation C. 监管
D. retaliation D. 报复
The WTO panellists are usually chosen in consultation with the countries in dispute, only if the two sides cannot agree does the WTO director-general appoint them. Panels consist of three (possibly five) experts from different countries who examine the evidence and decide who is right and who is wrong. The panel’s report is passed to the Dispute Settlement Body, which can only reject the report by qquad\qquad . Panellists for each case can be chosen from a permanent list of well-qualified candidates, or from elsewhere; they serve in their individual capacities and can never receive instructions from any government. WTO 小组成员通常是在与争议国家协商后选定的，只有在双方无法达成一致时，WTO 总干事才会任命他们。小组由来自不同国家的三名（可能是五名）专家组成，他们审查证据并决定谁是对的，谁是错的。小组的报告提交给争端解决机构，该机构只能通过 qquad\qquad 拒绝该报告。每个案件的小组成员可以从一份合格候选人的永久名单中选择，或从其他地方选择；他们以个人身份服务，永远不能接受任何政府的指示。
A. dissent A. 异议
B. consensus B. 共识
C. agreement C. 协议
D. disagreement D. 分歧
The main stages of the WTO dispute settlement arespecified, firstly, each side in the dispute presents its case in writing to the panel, then the complaining country (or countries), the responding country, and those that have announced they have an interest in the dispute, make their case at the panel’s first hearing, after that the countrics involved submit written WTO 争端解决的主要阶段如下：首先，争端双方向小组提交书面陈述，然后投诉国（或国家）、被投诉国以及那些宣布对争端有兴趣的国家在小组的第一次听证会上陈述他们的案件，之后相关国家提交书面材料 qquad\qquad and present oral arguments at the panel’s second meeting, qquad\qquad 并在小组的第二次会议上提出口头辩论
A. vindication A. 维权
B. plea B. 辩护
C, rebuttals C, 反驳
D. response D. 响应
If after 20 days, no satisfactory compensation is agreed, the complaining side may ask the Dispute Settlement Body for permission to impose limited 如果在 20 天后，未达成满意的赔偿，投诉方可以请求争端解决机构许可施加有限的
trade qquad\qquad (“suspend concessions or obligations”) against the other side. The Dispute Settlement Body must grant this authorization within 30 days of the expiry of the “reasonable period of time” unless there is a consensus against the request. 贸易 qquad\qquad （“暂停让步或义务”）对另一方。争端解决机构必须在“合理期限”到期后的 30 天内授予此授权，除非对该请求存在共识反对。
A. prohibitions A. 禁止事项
B. sanctions B. 制裁
C. punishment C. 惩罚
D. favours D. 偏好
GATS recognizes that MFN treatment may not be possible for every service activity and, therefore, it is qquad\qquad that parties may indicate specific MFN exemptions, for which conditions are included as an annex and provide for reviews after five years and a normal limitation of 10 years on their duration. GATS 承认并非所有服务活动都可以实现最惠国待遇，因此， qquad\qquad 各方可以指明特定的最惠国豁免，相关条件作为附录列出，并规定在五年后进行审查，且其持续时间通常限制为 10 年。
A. envisaged A. 设想的
B. permitted B. 允许
C. included C. 包括
D. expected D. 预期
GATS requires member countries to ensure that monopolies and exclusive service providers do not abuse their positions, and restrictive business practices should be subject to consultations between parties with a view to their qquad\qquad . GATS 要求成员国确保垄断和独占服务提供者不滥用其地位，限制性商业行为应在各方之间进行磋商，以期实现其 qquad\qquad 。
A. retrieval A. 检索
B. reduction B. 减少
C. defence C. 辩护
D. elimination D. 消除
GATS establishes the basis for progressive liberalization through successive rounds of negotiations and the development of national schedules and it also permits, after a period of three years, parties to withdraw or modify commitments made in their qquad\qquad ; negotiations should be undertaken with interested parties to agree on compensatory adjustments if commitments are modified or withdrawn, and compensation would be decided by arbitration if agreement cannot be reached, 《服务贸易总协定》（GATS）建立了通过连续的谈判轮次和国家清单的发展实现逐步自由化的基础，并且在三年期满后，允许各方撤回或修改其在 qquad\qquad 中作出的承诺；如果承诺被修改或撤回，应与相关方进行谈判以达成补偿调整的协议，如果无法达成一致，补偿将通过仲裁决定
A. agreement A. 协议
B. schedules B. 日程表
C. promises C. 承诺
D. timetable D. 时间表
GATS national-treatment provision contains the obligation to treat foreign service suppliers and domestic service suppliers in the same manner. However, it does provide the possibility of different treatment being GATS 国民待遇条款包含了对外国服务供应商和国内服务供应商进行同等对待的义务。然而，它确实提供了不同对待的可能性。 qquad\qquad the service providers of other parties to that qquad\qquad to domestic service providers. However, in such cases the conditions of competition should not, as a result, be modified in favour of the domestic service providers. qquad\qquad 其他方的服务提供者对该 qquad\qquad 给予国内服务提供者。然而，在这种情况下，竞争条件不应因此而向国内服务提供者倾斜。
A. differed A. 不同
B. provided B. 提供
C, accorded C，给予
D. clashed D. 冲突
GATS’ annex on financial services lays down the right of parties, qquad\qquad other provisions, to takc prudential measures, including for the protection of investors, deposit holders and policy holders, and to ensure the integrity and stability of the financial system. However, a further understanding on financial services would allow those participants who choose to do so to undertake commitments on financial services through a different method. GATS 关于金融服务的附录规定了各方的权利， qquad\qquad 其他条款，采取审慎措施，包括保护投资者、存款人和保单持有人的措施，以及确保金融系统的完整性和稳定性。然而，对金融服务的进一步理解将允许选择这样做的参与者通过不同的方法承担金融服务的承诺。
A. including 包括
B. notwithstanding C. embracing B. 尽管 C. 包括
D. counting D. 计数
The protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights should contribute to the promotion of technological qquad\qquad and to the transfer and dissemination of technology, to the mutual advantage of producers and users of technological knowledge and in a manner conducive to social and economic welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations. 知识产权的保护和执行应有助于促进技术 qquad\qquad ，以及技术的转移和传播，以便于技术知识的生产者和用户的共同利益，并以有利于社会和经济福利的方式，实现权利和义务的平衡。
A. development A. 发展
B. creation B. 创建
C. monopoly C. 垄断
D. originality D. 原创性
The provisions of Article 11 in respect of computer programs shall apply 第 11 条关于计算机程序的规定应适用 qquad\qquad to producers of phonograms and any other right holders in phonograms as determined in a Member’s law. If on 15 April 1994 a Member has in force a system of equitable remuneration of right holders in respect of the rental of phonograms, it may maintain such system provided that the commercial rental of phonograms is not giving rise to the material impairment of the exclusive rights of reproduction of right holders. qquad\qquad 对于音像制品的制作人和根据成员国法律确定的任何其他音像制品权利人。如果在 1994 年 4 月 15 日，某成员国实施了对音像制品权利人租赁的公平报酬制度，则该成员国可以维持该制度，前提是音像制品的商业租赁不会对权利人的复制专有权造成实质性损害。
A. same standards A. 相同标准
B. equality B. 平等
C. uniformity C. 一致性
D. necessary alterations D. 必要的修改
In cases in which a party to a proceeding voluntarily and without good reason refuses access to, or otherwise does not provide necessary information within a reasonable period, or significantly qquad\qquad a procedure relating to an enforcement action, a Member may accord judicial authorities the authority to make preliminary and final determinations, affirmative or negative, on the basis of the information presented to them, including the complaint or the allegation presented by the party adversely affected by the denial of access to information, subject to providing the parties an opportunity to be heard on the allegations or evidence. 在当事方自愿且没有正当理由拒绝访问或在合理期限内未提供必要信息的情况下，或显著 qquad\qquad 与执行行动相关的程序，成员国可以授予司法机关根据所提供的信息，包括因拒绝访问信息而受到不利影响的当事方提出的投诉或指控，作出初步和最终的裁定，无论是肯定的还是否定的，前提是给予各方就指控或证据进行陈述的机会。
A. accelerates A. 加速 BB. encumbers BB . 负担
C. simplifies C. 简化
D. confines D. 限制
The judicial authorities shall have the authority to adopt provisional moasures inauditaaltcra parte where appropriate, in particular where any dclay is likely to causc irrcparable harm to the right holder, or where there is a demonstrable risk of evidence being destroyed. “inauditaaltera parte” is a Latin term, which means qquad\qquad . 司法机关应有权在适当情况下采取不通知对方的临时措施，特别是在任何延迟可能对权利人造成不可弥补的损害，或在有明显证据被销毁的风险时。“不通知对方”是一个拉丁术语，意为 qquad\qquad 。
A. in the manner of pauper 以乞丐的方式
B. among others B. 其中包括
C. in the absence of the other C. 在缺乏其他的情况下
D. within the power D. 在权力范围内
Members shall provide for criminal procedures and penalties to be applied at least in cases of wilful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale. Remedies available shall include imprisonment and/or monetary fines sufficient to provide a deterrent, consistently with the level of penalties applied for crimes of a corresponding gravity. In appropriate cases, remedies available shall also include the seizure, qquad\qquad and destruction of the infringing goods and of any materials and implements the predominant use of which has been in the commission of the offence. Members may provide for criminal procedures and penalties to be applied in other cases of infringement of intellectual property rights, in particular where they are committed wilfully and on a commercial scale. 成员应当规定刑事程序和处罚，至少适用于故意的大规模商标伪造或版权盗版案件。可用的救济措施应包括监禁和/或足以起到威慑作用的罚款，且应与适用于相应严重犯罪的处罚水平一致。在适当的情况下，可用的救济措施还应包括对侵权商品及其主要用于实施犯罪的任何材料和工具的查封和销毁。成员可以规定在其他知识产权侵权案件中适用刑事程序和处罚，特别是在故意和大规模实施侵权的情况下。
A. forfeiture 没收
B. punishment B. 惩罚
C. arrest C. 逮捕
D. confiscation D. 没收
II. True or False : 二. 真或假：
The WTO came into being in 1995 and is the successor to the GATT established in the wake of the Second World War. 世界贸易组织（WTO）于 1995 年成立，是在第二次世界大战后建立的关税及贸易总协定（GATT）的继任者。
The WTO agreements are essentially contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits and helping producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business, while allowing governments to meet social and environmental objectives. WTO 协议本质上是合同，约束各国政府将其贸易政策保持在商定的限度内，并帮助商品和服务的生产者、出口商和进口商开展业务，同时允许各国政府实现社会和环境目标。
A ministerial decision adopted at the end of the Doha Round says better-off countries should accelerate implementing market access commitments on goods exported by the least-developed countries, and it seeks increased technical assistance for them. 在多哈回合结束时通过的一项部长级决定指出，富裕国家应加快实施对最不发达国家出口商品的市场准入承诺，并寻求为其提供更多的技术援助。
Trade without discrimination, freer, predictable, more competitive and more beneficial for less developed countries; those are the fundamental 无歧视的贸易，更自由、可预测，对发展中国家更具竞争力和更有利；这些是基本原则
principles run throughout all the WTO agreements. 原则贯穿所有 WTO 协议。
Trade rounds are progress by package and may have timetables for future work, including new or further negotiations in some areas and assessments or reviews of the situation at spccified times in other areas, which are so-called “built-in agenda”. 贸易回合是按包进展的，可能有未来工作的时间表，包括某些领域的新谈判或进一步谈判，以及在其他领域在特定时间的情况评估或审查，这被称为“内置议程”。
A WTO observer is a country currently negotiating the WTO membership. WTO 观察员是一个正在谈判加入 WTO 的国家。
About 60%60 \% of the WTO members are developing countries. 关于 60%60 \% 的 WTO 成员国是发展中国家。
The WTO Committee on Trade and Development has a wide-ranging mandate, including how provisions favouring developing countries are being implemented, guidelines for technical cooperation, increased participation of developing countries in the trading system, and the position of leastdeveloped countries. WTO 贸易与发展委员会的职责范围广泛，包括如何实施有利于发展中国家的条款、技术合作的指导方针、发展中国家在贸易体系中的参与增加以及最不发达国家的地位。
Tariff escalation makes it more difficult for countries producing raw materials to process and manufacture value-added products for export. 关税升级使得生产原材料的国家更难以加工和制造增值产品以供出口。
The crosion of preferences are special tariff concessions granted by developing countries on imports from certain developed countries become less meaningful if the normal tariff rates are cut because the difference between the normal and preferential rates is reduced. 偏好侵蚀是指发展中国家对某些发达国家进口商品所给予的特殊关税优惠，当正常关税税率降低时，这些优惠变得不那么重要，因为正常税率和优惠税率之间的差距减少。
Trade, investment, competition policy and transparency in government procurement are also called the “Singapore issues”. 贸易、投资、竞争政策和政府采购的透明度也被称为“新加坡议题”。
Work in the WTO on investment and competition policy discussions were a general response to trade related issues. 在世贸组织中，关于投资和竞争政策讨论的工作是对与贸易相关问题的普遍回应。
The WTO has an Agreement on Government Procurement, covering such issues as transparency and non-discrimination, which is plurilateral, i.e. only some WTO members have signed it so far. WTO 有一项关于政府采购的协议，涵盖透明度和非歧视等问题，该协议是多边的，即目前只有部分 WTO 成员国签署了该协议。
Under the GATT system, if members, meeting as the Dispute Settlement Body, do not by consensus reject a panel report after 60 days, it is automatically accepted. 在关税及贸易总协定（GATT）体系下，如果成员国作为争端解决机构在 60 天内未通过共识拒绝小组报告，则该报告自动被接受。
Domestically prohibited goods, including dangerous chemicals, is a concern of a number of developing countries, which are worried that certain hazardous or toxic products are being exported to their markets without them being fully informed about the environmental or public health dangers the products may pose. 国内禁止的商品，包括危险化学品，是许多发展中国家的关注点，这些国家担心某些危险或有毒产品在未充分告知其可能对环境或公共健康造成的危害的情况下被出口到其市场。
164 member countries have signed and ratified all 60 different agreements on their accession to the WTO. 164 个成员国已签署并批准了关于加入世贸组织的 60 项不同协议。
Being called the WTO’s trade rules, the WTO agreements spell out the principles of liberalization and the permitted exceptions, include individual countries’ commitments to lower customs tariffs and other trade barriers, to open and keep open services markets, set procedures for settling disputes, prescribe special treatment for developing countries, and require governments to make their trade policies transparent. 被称为 WTO 的贸易规则，WTO 协议阐明了自由化的原则和允许的例外，包括各国降低关税和其他贸易壁垒的承诺，开放并保持服务市场的开放，设定争端解决程序，为发展中国家规定特殊待遇，并要求各国政府使其贸易政策透明。
A procedure for settling disputes existed under the old GATT, which sets out in considerable detail the procedures and the timetable to be followed in resolving disputes. If a case runs its full course to a first ruling, it should not normally take more than about one year- 15 months if the case is appealed. 在旧的关税及贸易总协定（GATT）下，存在解决争端的程序，该程序详细规定了解决争端时应遵循的程序和时间表。如果一个案件经过完整的程序并作出第一次裁决，通常不应超过大约一年——如果案件上诉，则应为 15 个月。
Signed in Marrakesh in 1994, the Final Act concluded the Uruguay Round, established the WTO and offered provisions on goods, services and intellectual property, dispute settlement, trade policy review mechanism and the plurilateral agreements. 1994 年在马拉喀什签署的最终法案结束了乌拉圭回合，建立了世界贸易组织，并提供了关于货物、服务和知识产权、争端解决、贸易政策审查机制以及多边协议的条款。
The AoA legalizes that non-tariff border measures are replaced by tariffs that provide substantially the same level of protection in the area of market access. 《AoA》合法化了非关税边界措施被替代为在市场准入领域提供实质上相同保护水平的关税。
GATT covers international trade in goods, whilst GATS covers international trade in services. GATT 涉及国际货物贸易，而 GATS 涉及国际服务贸易。
GATS defines the scope of services in fourfold, which including services provided through the presence of service providing entities of one party in the territory of any other, for example, construction projects or consultancies. GATS 将服务的范围定义为四个方面，包括一方的服务提供实体在任何其他国家的领土内提供的服务，例如建筑项目或咨询服务。
GATS’ provisions covering economic integration are analogous to those in Article XXIV of GATT, requiring arrangements to have “substantial sectoral coverage” and to “provide for the absence or elimination of substantially all discrimination” between the parties. Since domestic regulations, not border measures, provide the most significant influence on services trade, provisions spell out that all such measures of general application should be administered in a reasonable, objective and impartial manner. GATS 关于经济一体化的条款类似于 GATT 第 XXIV 条的规定，要求安排具有“实质性的部门覆盖”并“提供各方之间实质上消除所有歧视”。由于国内法规而非边境措施对服务贸易的影响最大，条款明确规定所有此类普遍适用的措施应以合理、客观和公正的方式实施。
GATS also envisages negotiations with a view to the development of disciplines on trade-distorting subsidies in the services area. GATS 还设想就服务领域贸易扭曲补贴的规则发展进行谈判。
GATS telccommunications provision requires that access to and use of public telecommunications services and networks be accorded to another party, on reasonable and non-discriminatory terms, to permit the supply of a service included in its schedule. GATS 电信条款要求，公共电信服务和网络的接入和使用应以合理和非歧视的条款提供给另一方，以允许其提供在其日程中包含的服务。
TRIPS requires members to implement in their national law more extensive protection than is required by the agreement, provided that such protection does not contravene the provisions of the agreement. TRIPS 要求成员在其国家法律中实施比协议要求的更广泛的保护，前提是该保护不违反协议的规定。
TRIPS states that protection shall include matters affecting the availability, acquisition, scope, maintenance and enforcement of intellectual property rights as well as those matters affecting the use of intellectual property rights specifically addressed in the agreement. TRIPS 规定，保护应包括影响知识产权的可用性、获取、范围、维护和执行的事项，以及协议中特别提到的影响知识产权使用的事项。
TRIPS sets the minimum term of protection for copyright to be 50 years. TRIPS 规定版权的最低保护期限为 50 年。
TRIPS includes the Berne Three-step Test as its Article 13 and states that members shall confine limitations or exceptions to exclusive rights to certain special cases which do not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the right holder. TRIPS 包括伯尔尼三步测试作为其第 13 条，并规定成员应将对专有权的限制或例外限制在某些特殊情况下，这些情况不与作品的正常利用相冲突，并且不不合理地损害权利人的合法利益。
TRIPS defines that any sign, or any combination of signs, capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings, shall be capable of constituting a trademark. TRIPS 定义任何能够将一个企业的商品或服务与其他企业的商品或服务区分开的标志或标志组合，均应能够构成商标。
(1) See https;//www. wto, org, accessed on 20 December 2016. （1）见 https://www.wto.org，访问日期：2016 年 12 月 20 日。
(1) See Mitsuo Matsushita, “A View on Future Roles of the WTO: Should There Be More Soft Law in the WTO”, Journal of International Economic Law, Vol, 17, Issue 3 (2014), pp. 701 - [i]. (1) 见松下光夫，“对 WTO 未来角色的看法：WTO 中是否应该有更多软法”，《国际经济法杂志》，第 17 卷，第 3 期（2014），第 701 页 - [i]。
(1) See Chios Carmody, “Theory and Theoretical Approaches to WTO Law”, Manchester Journal of International Economic Law, Vol, 13, Issue 2 (2016), pp, 152-185. （1）见 Chios Carmody，“WTO 法的理论及理论方法”，《曼彻斯特国际经济法期刊》，第 13 卷，第 2 期（2016），第 152-185 页。
(1) See Guan H Tang, Copyright and the Public Interest in China, Edward Elgar Publishing, published in the UK in 2011 and in the USA in 2012. （1）见关华堂，《中国的版权与公众利益》，爱德华·埃尔加出版社，2011 年在英国出版，2012 年在美国出版。
(2) See http://www, wto. org/english/news _e/pres01_e/pr243 _e. htm, accessed on 20 December 2016. （2）见 http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres01_e/pr243_e.htm，访问日期：2016 年 12 月 20 日。
(3) See also Ruth Taplin, “Managing Intellectual Property in the Far East-The Case of China”, available at http://scientific, thomsonreuters, com/media/newsletterpdfs/2005-04/chinese-ip. pdf, accessed on 20 December 2016. （3）另见 Ruth Taplin，“在远东管理知识产权——中国案例”，可在 http://scientific.thomsonreuters.com/media/newsletterpdfs/2005-04/chinese-ip.pdf 获取，访问日期为 2016 年 12 月 20 日。
(4) See Article 1. The previous state constitutions of 1954,1975 and 1978 were superseded in turn. （4）见第 1 条。1954 年、1975 年和 1978 年的先前州宪法依次被取代。
(1) See Amendment 13. （1）见修正案 13。
(2) For instance, Article 10 states that “the state may, in the public interest, offer compensation and requisition land for its use in accordance with the law”, （2）例如，第 10 条规定“国家可以为了公共利益，依法提供补偿并征用土地用于其使用”
(3) See Article 13. （3）见第 13 条。
(4) See Article 5. （4）见第 5 条。
(5) See http://unpan1. un. org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN002120. pdf, accessed on 20 December 2016 . （5）见 http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN002120.pdf，访问日期：2016 年 12 月 20 日。
(6) See http://www, wto. org/english/news _e/pres01_e/pr243_e, htm, accessed on 20 December 2016. （6）见 http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres01_e/pr243_e.htm，访问日期：2016 年 12 月 20 日。
(7) See http://www. chinadaily. com. cn/chinagate/com. html, accessed on 20 December 2016. （7）见 http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/chinagate/com.html，访问日期：2016 年 12 月 20 日。
(1) See Henry Gao, “Can WTO Law Keep up with the Internet”, Proceedings of the Annual Meeting, published by the American Society of International Law, Vol, 108 (2014), pp, 350-352. （1）见亨利·高，《WTO 法能跟上互联网吗》，发表于美国国际法学会年会论文集，第 108 卷（2014 年），第 350-352 页。
(1) See Annecoos Wiersema, “What Can the WTO Learn from International Environmental Law”, American Society of International Law Proceedings, Vol, 104 (2010), pp, 23-26, （1）见 Annecoos Wiersema，“WTO 可以从国际环境法中学到什么”，《美国国际法学会会议录》，第 104 卷（2010），第 23-26 页，
(1) See Stephanie Hartmann, “Recognizing the Limitations of WTO Dispute Settlement-The Peru-Price Bands Dispute and Sources of Authority for Applying Non-WTO Law in WTO Disputes”, George Washington International Law Review, Vol. 48, Issue 3 (2016), pp. 617-652. （1）见斯蒂芬妮·哈特曼，“认识 WTO 争端解决的局限性——秘鲁价格带争端及在 WTO 争端中适用非 WTO 法律的权威来源”，乔治·华盛顿国际法评论，第 48 卷，第 3 期（2016），第 617-652 页。
(1) See Markus Wagner, “Law Talk v. Science Talk; The Languages of Law and Science in WTO Proceedings”, Fordham International Law Journal, Vol. 35, Issue 1 (2011), pp, 151-200. (1) 见马克斯·瓦格纳，“法律语言与科学语言；WTO 程序中的法律与科学语言”，《福特汉姆国际法期刊》，第 35 卷，第 1 期（2011），第 151-200 页。
(1) See Guan H Tang, Copyright and the Public Interest in China, Edward Elgar Publishing, published in the UK in 2011 and in the USA in 2012, （1）见关华堂，《中国的版权与公众利益》，爱德华·埃尔加出版社，2011 年在英国出版，2012 年在美国出版，
(2) See Estelle Derclaye, The Legal Protection of Databases: A Comparative Analysis (2008). （2）见 Estelle Derclaye，《数据库的法律保护：比较分析》（2008）。