第二章：美国革命时期 Revolution and Reason
第三章：浪漫主义 Romanticism（Romanticism／Transcendentalism／Late Romanticism）
第三章：浪漫主义 Romanticism（浪漫主义／超验主义／晚期浪漫主义）
第四章：现实主义 Realism（Genteel Realism／Local Colorism／Psychological Realism／ Naturalism）
第四章：现实主义 Realism（文雅现实主义／地方色彩主义／心理现实主义／自然主义）

第五章：现代主义 1920s（Modernism：Imagism／New Criticism／The Jazz Age／Lost Generation／Southern Renaissance）
第五章：现代主义 1920 年代（现代主义：意象派／新批评／爵士时代／迷失的一代／南方文艺复兴）

第六章：自然主义 1930s（Naturalism）
第七章：美国戏剧 American Drama（Expressionism）
第七章：美国戏剧 American Drama（表现主义）
第八章：战后诗歌／小说 Literature after WWII（Postwar Poetry：The Confessional School／The Beat Generation／The New York School／The Black Mountain Poets；Postwar Novel：Magic Realism；parody；black humor；parody；Literature of Absurd；anti－war novel； science fiction）
第八章：战后诗歌／小说 文学战后（战后诗歌：忏悔派／垮掉的一代／纽约学派／黑山诗人；战后小说：魔幻现实主义；仿作；黑色幽默；仿作；荒诞文学；反战小说；科幻小说）

第九章：少数族裔文学 Multiethnic Literature（Harlem Renaissance）
第九章：少数族裔文学 多族裔文学（哈莱姆文艺复兴）

The North American literature began with the settlement of the English puritans．The first settlers wrote about their voyage to the new land about adapting themselves to unfamiliar climates and crops，about dealing with Indians．They wrote in diaries and in journals．They wrote letters and contracts and government charters and religious and political statements． They wrote about the land that stretched before them－unimaginable and immense，with rich dense forests and deep－blue lakes and rich soil．It stirred the imagination to great heights．All seemed possible through hard－work and faith．All these experiences gave birth to the Puritan values：hard work，shrift，piety and sobriety．American literature is in good measure a literary expression of the pious idealism of the American puritan values．
北美文学始于英国清教徒的定居。最初的定居者写下了他们前往新大陆的航程，适应陌生气候和作物，处理与印第安人的关系。他们写日记和日志，写信件、合同、政府宪章以及宗教和政治声明。他们描写眼前那片辽阔无垠、想象不到的土地——茂密的森林、深蓝的湖泊和肥沃的土壤。这激发了极大的想象力。通过勤劳和信仰，一切似乎皆有可能。所有这些经历孕育了清教徒的价值观：勤奋、忏悔、虔诚和节制。美国文学在很大程度上是美国清教徒价值观虔诚信仰的文学表达

Essentially，American literature during this period reflected the beginnings of a struggle for definition and meaning which still，in varying degrees，characterizes the American national character．One may see the struggle of the individual for expression，the belief in a future，the fight for civil rights，the constraints of factors（in this case religion and the severity of nature）sometimes beyond one＇s control，and the different，almost contradictory reasons for coming．Some for material and business advantage；others for religious freedom，still others for a religious life but an independent，politically democratic one．These impulses have，in a large sense，set the tone for the country and have reverberated throughout American history and literature，from Plymouth Rock to the recent election of the United States presidency．These original impulses found expression in the diaries，journals，poems and sermons of the day．Examine the ir authors and the works themselves will give substance to these．
本质上，这一时期的美国文学反映了对定义和意义的初步探索，这种探索在不同程度上仍然是美国民族性格的特征之一。人们可以看到个体为表达自我而进行的斗争，对未来的信念，为民权而战，以及有时超出个人控制的因素（在此指宗教和严酷的自然环境）所带来的限制，还有不同且几乎矛盾的移民动机。有些人为了物质和商业利益；有些人为了宗教自由；还有些人为了过一种宗教生活，但同时追求独立和政治民主。这些冲动在很大程度上奠定了国家的基调，并在美国历史和文学中产生了回响，从普利茅斯岩石到最近的美国总统选举。这些最初的冲动通过当时的日记、日志、诗歌和布道得以表达。研究这些作者及其作品，将使这些内容更加具体和有实质意义

The writing style of this period is fresh，simple and direct；the rhetoric is plain and honest，with a touch of nobility often traceable to the direct influence of the Bible．All this has left an obvious imprint on American writing．The best writers of this period include Cotton Mather，Jonathan Edwards and Anne Bradstreet．
这一时期的写作风格清新、简洁而直接；修辞朴实诚恳，带有一种常可追溯到圣经直接影响的高贵气质。这一切在美国文学中留下了明显的印记。该时期最杰出的作家包括科顿·马瑟、乔纳森·爱德华兹和安妮·布拉德斯特里特。

Another main characteristic of this period is that the literary works（not only the political pamphlets but also novels， poems，play，etc．）include less puritan elements compared with those works of colonial American period．A new，more rational approach to life was appearing，begun by movements in Europe due to scientific discoveries．The emphasis began to shift from one＇s duties toward God to rights，from in－born evil to in－born good．Europe，in a sense（and particularly England），was seen as a greater evil than one＇s soul．This was by no means a rejection of God；more，it was an appreciation of what God made．
这一时期的另一个主要特征是文学作品（不仅是政治小册子，还有小说、诗歌、戏剧等）相比殖民时期的作品，包含的清教徒元素较少。一种新的、更理性的生活态度开始出现，这一变化源于欧洲因科学发现而兴起的运动。重点开始从对上帝的义务转向权利，从天生的罪恶转向天生的善良。从某种意义上说（尤其是英国），欧洲被视为比自身灵魂更大的邪恶。这绝非对上帝的否定；更确切地说，是对上帝所创造之物的赞赏。

From then on，American literature appeared more similarities with the European literature．At the same time，American literature of this period began to be nationalized with the nation struggling for existence．
从此以后，美国文学与欧洲文学表现出更多的相似性。与此同时，随着国家为生存而奋斗，这一时期的美国文学开始具有民族化特征

Thomas Paine，Franklin and Freneau are the representatives of American revolutionary literature．
托马斯·潘恩、富兰克林和弗雷诺是美国革命文学的代表。
The political events of the Revolution are of great concern because the literature of the time was largely political．Some of it is familiar to us．The Declaration of Independence（1776），one easily notes，is a highly effective piece of prose．The writers of this period show great enthusiasm on the political events．Many political pamphlets appeared．So patriot is one of the main themes of this period，for example，Thomas Paine was one of continual，unswerving fight for the rights of man．He wrote a number of works of such a revolutionary and inflammatory character．His Common Sense and American Crisis are among the greatest ones．
革命时期的政治事件备受关注，因为当时的文学大多具有政治性质。其中一些作品我们很熟悉。1776 年的《独立宣言》显然是一篇极具感染力的散文。这一时期的作家对政治事件表现出极大的热情。许多政治小册子纷纷出现。爱国主义是这一时期的主要主题之一，例如，托马斯·潘恩是为人权进行持续不懈斗争的人物。他写了许多具有革命性和煽动性的作品。他的《常识》和《美国危机》是其中最伟大的作品。

时间：In the early part of the 17th century
时间：17 世纪初期
地点：North American continent
地点：北美大陆
人物：Puritans—founding father of the American
人物：清教徒——美国的奠基人
起因：
For English government：a means of alleviating of its own problems
对于英国政府来说：缓解自身问题的一种手段
For Puritans：quest of an ideal of their own／escape religious persecution
对于清教徒：追求他们自己的理想／逃避宗教迫害

定义：A religious and political movement that developed in England about the middle of the 16th century and later spread its influence into the New England colonies in America．Puritanism was a logical aftermath of the Renaissance，the Reformation，the establishment of the Church of England，and the growth of Presbyterianism（长老会）
定义：一种宗教和政治运动，约在 16 世纪中叶在英格兰发展起来，后来其影响扩展到美洲的新英格兰殖民地。清教主义是文艺复兴、宗教改革、英格兰教会的建立以及长老会（Presbyterianism）发展的必然结果。
教义：Calvinism：predestination，original $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin ，total depravity，limited atonement
教义：加尔文主义：预定论、原罪、全然败坏、有限救赎
目的：Re－establish a commonwealth based on the teaching of the Bible－the church should be restored to the purity of the first－century Church as established by Jesus Christ Himself．
目的：重新建立一个基于圣经教义的共和国——教会应恢复到由耶稣基督亲自建立的第一世纪教会的纯洁状态
人群：They are practical idealists，or we can call them doctrinaire opportunists．
人群：他们是务实的理想主义者，或者我们可以称他们为教条主义的机会主义者。
文学：Literature is in good measure a literary expression of the pious idealism of the American Puritan bequest．
文学：文学在很大程度上是美国清教徒遗产中虔诚信仰理想主义的文学表达。

主题：Puritanism；always about religious themes
主题：清教主义；总是围绕宗教主题
体裁：Personal／humble origins：diaries，histories，journals，letters，commonplace books，travel books，sermons
体裁：个人／卑微的起源：日记、历史、日志、信件、随笔集、旅行书籍、布道稿
特点：Imitated and transplanted European literature
特点：模仿并移植欧洲文学
素材：Based on a Biblical myth—the Garden of Eden
素材：基于圣经神话——伊甸园
态度：Optimistic，practical and idealistic
态度：乐观、务实且理想主义
手法：Symbolism is very common
手法：象征主义非常常见
文风：Simple，direct，fresh  文风：简单、直接、新鲜

Puritanism 的定义：Originally，Puritanism refers to a movement that arose within the Church of England in the latter part of the 16th century．It sought to purify，or reform the Church and establish a middle course between Roman Catholicism and the ideas of the Protestant reformers．Those who advocated Puritanism were called Puritans．
清教主义的定义：最初，清教主义指的是 16 世纪后期在英格兰教会内部兴起的一个运动。它旨在净化或改革教会，寻求在罗马天主教和新教改革者思想之间找到一条中间道路。倡导清教主义的人被称为清教徒。
Puritanism 在美国：Early in the 17th century Puritanism reached North America with English Puritans who were usually referred to as the English Pilgrims．In 1620 they founded Plymouth Colony．Afterwards more Puritans emigrated，and they built more colonies．The Puritans brought strong religious beliefs to bear in all colonies north of Virginia．During the whole
清教主义在美国：17 世纪初，清教主义随英国清教徒传入北美，这些人通常被称为英国朝圣者。1620 年，他们建立了普利茅斯殖民地。随后更多清教徒移民，建立了更多殖民地。清教徒将强烈的宗教信仰带入了弗吉尼亚以北的所有殖民地。在整个..
colonial period Puritanism had direct impact on both religious thought and cultural patterns in America．
殖民时期的清教主义直接影响了美国的宗教思想和文化模式。
在宗教上：American Puritanism is one of the earliest religion in America and its basic ideas constructed the mainstream of American religion．Generally speaking，key puritan beliefs and values include：
在宗教上：美国清教主义是美国最早的宗教之一，其基本思想构成了美国宗教的主流。一般来说，清教徒的主要信仰和价值观包括：
A．Godly people were sober，hardworking，and responsible．English society had been corrupted by foreign influences and by disorder and needed to be purified．
A．敬虔的人应当严肃、勤奋且有责任感。英国社会已被外来影响和混乱腐蚀，需要被净化。
B．Catholicism had undermined the relationship between God and the individual
B．天主教削弱了上帝与个人之间的关系
C．Election \＆predestination－God chooses who is saved and who is damned．No one can earn salvation through works．Yet the saints are responsible for their actions．
C．选举与预定论——上帝选择谁得救，谁被定罪。没有人能通过行为获得救赎。然而，圣徒们对自己的行为负责。
D．The congregation of saints chooses its members，hires and fires its ministers，and recognizes no other religious authority．
D．圣徒会选举其成员，聘用和解雇其牧师，不承认其他宗教权威。
E．Worship should be plain，lack mystery，and be focused on God．No stained glass，instrumental music，or art．
E．崇拜应简朴，缺乏神秘感，且专注于上帝。不使用彩色玻璃、器乐或艺术。
F．Much value of education
F．教育具有很高的价值
G．Intolerance：error must be opposed and driven out
G．不容忍：错误必须被反对并驱逐
在文化上：Puritanism lays foundation for American Individualism
在文化上：清教主义为美国个人主义奠定基础
Following Martin Luther＇s tenets，Puritans formed their own church，chose their own priest，and eliminated the hierarchical system in church．As a result，Christians were freed from severe Roman Catholic rules；church became a free organization of Christians，and salvation was a personal spiritual pursuit．In this sense，personal values were stressed，and one＇s soul became more free and independent．Moreover，＂predestination＂in Puritanism strengthened Puritans＇self－awareness to perfect oneself．Puritans believes that their religious purity and salvation could be achieved through self－discipline， self－improvement and their hard work．Therefore，Puritans＇strong self－awareness paved the way for the development of individualism in colonial America，and later becoming one of the most important values of American people．
遵循马丁·路德的教义，清教徒建立了自己的教会，选择自己的牧师，消除了教会中的等级制度。因此，基督徒摆脱了严苛的罗马天主教规条；教会成为基督徒的自由组织，救赎成为个人的精神追求。从这个意义上说，个人价值被强调，人的灵魂变得更加自由和独立。此外，清教主义中的“预定论”加强了清教徒完善自我的自我意识。清教徒相信，通过自律、自我提升和勤奋工作，可以实现宗教纯洁和救赎。因此，清教徒强烈的自我意识为殖民地美国个人主义的发展铺平了道路，后来成为美国人最重要的价值观之一。
在政治上：American democracy was developed from American Puritanism．
在政治上：美国民主起源于美国清教主义
In fact，Mayflower Compact of 1620 led to the birth of early American democracy．It attempted to establish a temporary government until a more official one could be drawn up in England that would give them the right to self－govern themselves in New England．Afterwards the＂popular sovereignty＂concept began spreading among other colonies．The Puritan belief that communities were formed by covenants produced America＇s first democratic institution，the town meeting．At the town meeting every church member had the right to speak，and decisions were made by majority rule．
事实上，1620 年的五月花号契约促成了早期美国民主的诞生。它试图建立一个临时政府，直到英国制定出更正式的政府，赋予他们在新英格兰自治的权利。此后，“人民主权”的概念开始在其他殖民地传播。清教徒认为社区是通过契约形成的，这产生了美国第一个民主机构——镇会议。在镇会议上，每个教会成员都有发言权，决策由多数规则决定。
在观念上：Puritanism shaped the Americans＇national character：acquiring wealth through hard work and thrift．
在观念上：清教主义塑造了美国人的民族性格：通过勤劳和节俭获取财富。
American Puritans linked material wealth with God＇s favor．They believed that hard work was the way to please God． Created more wealth through one＇s work and thrift could guarantee the God＇s elect．The doctrine of predestination kept all Puritans constantly working to do good in this life in order to be chosen for the next eternal life．
美国清教徒将物质财富与上帝的恩宠联系在一起。他们相信勤劳是取悦上帝的方式。通过个人的劳动和节俭创造更多财富，可以保证成为上帝的选民。预定论教义使所有清教徒不断努力在今生行善，以便被选中进入来世的永恒生命
Many Americans，relying on themselves，have been out of poverty and become rich and won respect from the whole society． By the eve of the Civil War，the value of acquiring wealth through hard work and thrift had stimulated fast development of American capitalism．This value also played a key role during the Reconstruction after the war and the period of Western Expansion．Now it is part of American national character．
许多美国人依靠自己，摆脱了贫困，变得富有，并赢得了整个社会的尊重。到了内战前夕，通过勤劳和节俭获得财富的价值观刺激了美国资本主义的快速发展。这种价值观在战后重建时期和西部扩张时期也发挥了关键作用。现在，它已成为美国民族性格的一部分。
在文学上：In literature，Puritanism always plays the vital themes of American literature．
在文学上：在文学中，清教主义始终是美国文学的重要主题。
Most of the poets in early Puritan American literature were religious poets．Their works are mostly about their religious life． For example，the conflicts between spirit and desire，the meditation of religious life，and the consideration about their family life is the main themes of Anne Bradstreet＇s poems．During the Period of romanticism，most of the works of the romantic novelist Hawthorne were set in the Puritan society．His works are the reflection of the spirit of American Puritanism．
早期清教徒美国文学中的大多数诗人都是宗教诗人。他们的作品大多关于他们的宗教生活。例如，精神与欲望的冲突、宗教生活的沉思以及对家庭生活的思考是安妮·布拉德斯特里特诗歌的主要主题。在浪漫主义时期，浪漫主义小说家霍桑的大部分作品都设定在清教徒社会中。他的作品反映了美国清教主义的精神。
（如果只考 Puritanism 在文学上的影响的话，大家主要论述要集中在文本分析）

Make me，O Lord，thy Spining Wheele compleate．
主啊，求你使我成为你完整的纺车。
Thy Holy Worde my Distaff make for mee．
求你用你的圣言为我做纺锤。
Make mine Affections thy Swift Flyers neate
使我的情感成为你灵巧的梭子，
And make my Soule thy holy Spoole to bee．
使我的灵魂成为你圣洁的线轴
My Conversation make to be thy Reele
我的对话成为你的纺车
And reele the yarn thereon spun of thy Wheele．
并在其上纺织你车轮上纺出的纱线。
Make me thy Loome then，knit therein this Twine：
那就让我成为你的织机，将这股细线编织其中：
And make thy Holy Spirit，Lord，winde quills：
并让你的圣灵，主啊，吹奏风笛：
Then weave the Web thyselfe．The yarn is fine．
那么你自己来织这张网吧。线很细腻。
Thine Ordinances make my Fulling Mills．
你的法令成了我的碾布厂。
Then dy the same in Heavenly Colours Choice，
然后用天上的精选颜色染色，
All pinkt with Varnisht Flowers of Paradise．
全部涂上天堂花朵的光泽
Then cloath therewith mine Understanding，Will，
然后用它来装饰我的理解、意志，
Affections，Judgment，Conscience，Memory
情感、判断、良知、记忆，
My Words，and Actions，that their shine may fill
我的言语和行为，使它们的光辉充满
My wayes with glory and thee glorify．
我的道路，荣耀你并荣耀我自己
Then mine apparell shall display before yee
那么我的衣裳将展现在你面前
That I am Cloathd in Holy robes for glory．
表明我身披圣洁的荣耀之袍。
分析：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Structure：＂Huswifery＂is a three－stanza poem，and each stanza is comprised of six lines apiece．The rhyme scheme of each of those stanzas is ABABCC ．This means that lines 1 and 3 rhyme with each other，lines 2 and 4 rhyme with each other，and the final two lines rhyme with each other．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 结构：《家务诗》是一首三节诗，每节由六行组成。每节的押韵模式是 ABABCC。这意味着第 1 行和第 3 行押韵，第 2 行和第 4 行押韵，最后两行也相互押韵。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Form：The poem is written in iambic pentameter．That is a very common rhythm and meter for poetry．What this means is that for each line in the poem，the syllables alternate in an unstressed／stressed pattern．An unstressed／stressed unit is the iambic foot．Each line of the poem contains five of those feet，and that is why the poem is pentameter．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 形式：这首诗采用抑扬格五步格写成。这是一种非常常见的诗歌节奏和韵律。意思是诗中每行的音节交替出现轻重音。一个轻重音单位称为抑扬格音步。每行包含五个这样的音步，因此这首诗是五步格
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Narrator：This poem has an unnamed narrator，but it is probably safe to assume that the narrator is Taylor himself．It＇s a religious poem，and Taylor was a trained minister．The first line of the poem should alert readers to the idea that the narrator is addressing God，and that turns the poem into a very beautiful prayer．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 叙述者：这首诗有一个未具名的叙述者，但可以合理地假设叙述者就是泰勒本人。这是一首宗教诗，而泰勒是一位受过训练的牧师。诗的第一句应提醒读者，叙述者正在向上帝祈祷，这使得整首诗成为一篇非常美丽的祷告。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Content：The narrator is requesting that God transform him into something useful that will help glorify God and do some of God＇s work on Earth．The specific request appears in the third stanza．The speaker would like to be clothed with God－honoring virtues；however，the speaker is willing to be a part of the cloth making process．That is why he specifically asks God to make him into a spinning wheel and loom．Those are machines that transform raw fibers into thread and eventually make the thread into cloth to be used for clothing．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 内容：叙述者请求上帝将他变成有用的东西，以帮助荣耀上帝并在地上完成上帝的一些工作。具体的请求出现在第三节。说话者希望被赋予荣耀上帝的美德；然而，说话者也愿意成为织布过程的一部分。这就是为什么他特别请求上帝将他变成纺车和织机。这些机器能将原始纤维转变成线，最终将线织成布料，用于制作衣服。

This Frey seems thus to us．
这首弗雷诗对我们来说似乎如此
Hells Spider gets  地狱蜘蛛获得
His intrails spuna to whip Cords thus
他的内脏被纺成鞭索
And wove to nets
并编织成网
And sets．  并安置
To tangle Adams race
纠缠亚当斯的种族
In＇s stratigems  在他们的策略中

To their Destructions，spoil＇d，made base
为了他们的毁灭，被破坏，变得卑劣
By venom things，  被毒物所害，
Damn＇d Sins．  该死的罪孽。

I found a dimpled spider，fat and white，
我发现一只胖乎乎、白白的凹陷蜘蛛，
On a white heal－all，holding up a moth
在一朵白色的千屈菜上，托着一只飞蛾
Like a white piece of rigid satin cloth－
像一块白色的硬缎布－
Assorted characters of death and blight
各种死亡与枯萎的符号
Mixed ready to begin the morning right，
混合在一起，准备开始美好的一天，
Like the ingredients of a witches＇broth－
就像女巫汤的配料－
A snow－drop spider，a flower like a froth，
一只雪花蛛，一朵如泡沫般的花，
And dead wings carried like a paper kite．
还有像纸风筝般被携带的死翅膀。
What had that flower to do with being white，
那朵花与洁白有什么关系，
The wayside blue and innocent heal－all？
路边那蓝色无辜的万能草？
What brought the kindred spider to that height，
是什么引来了那只亲缘蜘蛛到那个高度，
Then steered the white moth thither in the night？
然后在夜晚引导那只白蛾飞向那里？
What but design of darkness to appall？
除了黑暗的阴谋来使人惊恐之外还有什么？
If design govern in a thing so small．
如果设计能支配如此微小的事物
（以上两首诗因为都涉及了宗教主题和蜘蛛意象，所以经常作为对比题出现）

注：American puritanism is a two－faced tradition of religious idealism（Jonathan Edwards）and level－headed common sense （Benjamin Franklin）．（常）美国请教主义在启蒙时期有两个发展方向：一方面向宗教方面发展，代表人物是爱德华兹，另一方面影响现实生活，变成美国人务实的创业精神，代表人物是富兰克林。
主要作家作品：

时间：April 19，1775－September 3， 1783
时间：1775 年 4 月 19 日－1783 年 9 月 3 日
导火索：Boston Tea Party（波士顿倾茶事件）
开始标志：＂shot heard round the world＂in the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts（莱克星顿枪声）
开始标志：马萨诸塞州莱克星顿和康科德战役中的“震惊世界的枪声”
结果： 13 of Great Britain＇s North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America；the publication of Declaration of Independence
结果：英国在北美的 13 个殖民地赢得了政治独立，随后组成了美利坚合众国；《独立宣言》的发表

Enlightenment：  启蒙运动：
思想来源：The American Enlightenment was influenced by the 17th－century European Enlightenment and its own native American philosophy
思想来源：美国启蒙运动受到了 17 世纪欧洲启蒙运动及其本土美国哲学的影响
目的：＂Life，Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness＂
目的：“生命、自由及追求幸福”
结果：The Enlightenment applied scientific reasoning to politics，science，and religion．It promoted religious tolerance and restored literature，arts，and music as important disciplines worthy of study in colleges．
结果：启蒙运动将科学推理应用于政治、科学和宗教。它促进了宗教宽容，恢复了文学、艺术和音乐作为值得在大学中学习的重要学科。
举例：Benjamin Franklin＇s Autobiography is the representative of the spirit of American Enlightenment．
举例：本杰明·富兰克林的《自传》是美国启蒙精神的代表作。
Revolution：  革命：
思想来源：the American Revolutionary War
思想来源：美国独立战争
目的：the independence of America
目的：美国的独立
举例：Thomas Paine＇s Common Sense is the famous one．
举例：托马斯·潘恩的《常识》是著名的例子。

Common Sense presented the American colonists with an argument for freedom from British rule at a time when the question of independence was still undecided．Paine wrote and reasoned in a style that common people understood；forgoing the philosophy and Latin references used by Enlightenment era writers，Paine structured Common Sense like a sermon and relied on Biblical references to make his case to the people．He connected independence with common dissenting Protestant beliefs as a means to present a distinctly American political identity．
《常识》在美国殖民者中提出了摆脱英国统治、争取自由的论点，那时独立的问题尚未确定。潘恩以普通人能够理解的风格写作和论证；他摒弃了启蒙时代作家常用的哲学和拉丁文引用，将《常识》结构得像一篇布道，并依靠圣经引用向民众陈述他的观点。他将独立与普通的非国教新教信仰联系起来，以此展示一种独特的美国政治身份。

There were mainly two reasons：
主要有两个原因：
For one，while the average Colonist was more educated than their European counterpart，European and Colonial elites agreed that common people had no place in government or political debates．By aiming for a popular audience，and writing in a straightforward and simple way，Paine made political ideas tangible for a common audience．This brought average Americans into political debate，creating a whole new political language．Paine＇s new style of political writing avoided using complex Latin phrases，instead opting for a more direct，concise style that helped make the information accessible to all．
首先，虽然普通殖民者的教育水平普遍高于欧洲同胞，欧洲和殖民地的精英们都认为普通百姓无权参与政府或政治辩论。通过面向大众读者，并以直白简洁的方式写作，潘恩使政治理念变得具体可感，便于普通人理解。这使得普通美国人参与到政治辩论中，创造了一种全新的政治语言。潘恩的新型政治写作风格避免使用复杂的拉丁短语，而是选择更直接、简明的表达方式，帮助所有人都能获取信息。

The second reason involves the way the vast majority of people felt about the idea of independence from British rule． Except for a few radical thinkers，the people of the colonies were＂up on the fence＂about freedom．Individuals were in conflict with themselves．Common Sense was an unequivocal call for independence，and many Americans wavering between reconciliation with and independence from Britain were won over to separation by Paine＇s powerful polemic against monarchy．
第二个原因涉及绝大多数人对摆脱英国统治、争取独立这一想法的态度。除了少数激进思想家外，殖民地人民对自由的态度是“犹豫不决”的。个人内心存在矛盾。《常识》是对独立的明确呼吁，许多在与英国和解与独立之间摇摆不定的美国人，被潘恩针对君主制的有力论述所说服，转而支持分离。

$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark It was absurd for an island to rule a continent．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 一个岛屿统治一个大陆是荒谬的
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark America was not a＂British nation＂；it was composed of influences and peoples from all of Europe．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国不是一个“英国国家”；它由来自整个欧洲的各种影响和民族组成。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Even if Britain were the＂mother country＂of America，that made her actions all the more horrendous，for no mother would harm her children so brutally．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 即使英国是美国的“母国”，这也使她的行为更加可怕，因为没有母亲会如此残忍地伤害自己的孩子。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Being a part of Britain would drag America into unnecessary European wars，and keep it from the international commerce at which America excelled．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 成为英国的一部分会将美国拖入不必要的欧洲战争，并阻碍其在国际贸易中的优势。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The New World was discovered shortly before the Reformation．The Puritans believed that God wanted to give them a safe haven from the persecution of British rule．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 新大陆是在宗教改革前不久被发现的。清教徒相信上帝想给他们一个免受英国统治迫害的安全避风港
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Britain ruled the colonies for its own benefit，and did not consider the best interests of the colonists in governing them．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 英国统治殖民地是为了自身利益，在治理殖民地时并未考虑殖民者的最大利益。

Historical aspect：  历史方面：
1．He puts forward the early model of the structure of government with concise remarks on the English constitution．Paine considered that the relationship between government and society should be in a state of natural liberty
1．他提出了政府结构的早期模型，并对英国宪法作了简明的评论。潘恩认为政府与社会的关系应处于自然自由的状态
2．He argues that all men are created equal and therefore the distinction between kings and citizen is false one．He argues that everyone should be treated a false one．He argues that everyone should be treated equally．
2．他主张人人生而平等，因此国王与公民之间的区别是虚假的。他主张每个人都应被平等对待。
Social aspect：  社会方面：
1．Common Sense attracted the British monarchy and added fuel to the fire which was soon to bring the colossus of its colonial rule down in flames．
1．《常识》激怒了英国君主，加剧了即将使其殖民统治巨人轰然倒塌的火势。
2．Paine declared that the crisis with which the North American colonies were then faced could only solved by an appeal to man＇s instinct and common sense and impulse of conscience．
2．潘恩宣称，当时北美殖民地所面临的危机只能通过诉诸人的本能、常识和良知的冲动来解决

I agree with it．  我同意。
Most colonial literature imitates the form and technique of the mother country．Diaries，histories，journals，letters， commonplace books，travel books，sermons，in short，personal literature in its various forms，occupied a major position in the literature of the early colonial period．Like most colonial literature，English literary traditions were faithfully imitated and transplanted by early New England poets，though the religious passion and frequent biblical references，as well as the new setting，give New England writing a special identity．In content these early writings served either God or colonial expansion．That is why we can say American literature of early period could be commented as neither＂American＂nor ＂literature＂．
大多数殖民地文学模仿宗主国的形式和技巧。日记、历史、期刊、信件、随笔集、旅行书、布道词，简言之，各种形式的个人文学，在早期殖民地时期的文学中占据了重要地位。像大多数殖民地文学一样，早期新英格兰诗人忠实地模仿并移植了英国文学传统，尽管宗教热情和频繁的圣经引用，以及新的环境，使新英格兰的作品具有特殊的身份。在内容上，这些早期作品要么服务于上帝，要么服务于殖民扩张。这就是为什么我们可以说早期的美国文学既不“美国”，也不“文学”。

The first settlers who became the founding fathers of the American nation were quite a few of the Puritans．They carried with them to America a code of values，a philosophy of life，and a point of view，which，in time，took root in the New World and became what that is popularly known as American Puritanism．It was one of the most enduring shaping influences in American literature．It has become，to some extent，so much a state of mind，rather than a set of tenets，so much a part of national culture atmosphere that the Americans breathe，that we may state with a degree of safety that， without some understanding of Puritanism，there can be no real understanding of American culture and literature．
最早成为美国建国先驱的定居者中，有相当多是清教徒。他们带着一套价值观、一种生活哲学和一种观点来到美国，这些在时间的推移中在新大陆扎根，形成了人们普遍所知的美国清教主义。它是美国文学中最持久的塑造力量之一。在某种程度上，它已不仅仅是一套教义，而更像是一种心态，成为美国民族文化氛围的一部分，贯穿于美国人的生活中。因此，我们可以较为肯定地说，没有对清教主义的某种理解，就无法真正理解美国文化和文学

The American Puritans were idealists，believing that the Church should be restored to the＂Purity＂．They believed that they were God＇s chosen people enjoying His blessings on this earth as in heaven．The puritans dreamed of living under a perfect order and worked with indomitable courage and confident hope toward building a new Garden of Eden in America． Fired with such a sense of mission，the Puritans looked at even the worst of life in the face of American literature．The optimistic Puritan has exerted a great influence on American literature．
美国清教徒是理想主义者，认为教会应恢复“纯洁”。他们相信自己是上帝选中的子民，享受着上帝在地上如同在天堂般的祝福。清教徒梦想生活在一个完美的秩序之下，并以不屈不挠的勇气和充满信心的希望，致力于在美洲建立一个新的伊甸园。怀着这样的使命感，清教徒即使面对生活中最艰难的时刻，也以乐观的态度看待美国文学。乐观的清教徒对美国文学产生了巨大影响。

The American Puritan＇s metaphorical mode of perception was chiefly instrumental in calling into being a literary symbolism which is distinctly American．Puritan doctrine and literary practice contributed to no small extent to the development of an indigenous symbolism．With regard to technique，one naturally thinks of the simplicity，which characterizes the Puritan style of writing．The style is fresh，simple and direct；the rhetoric is plain and honest，without a touch of nobility often traceable to the direct influence of the Bible．Thus American Puritanism has been，by and large，a healthy legacy to the Americans．
美国清教徒的隐喻感知方式主要促成了一种独特的美国文学象征主义的诞生。清教徒的教义和文学实践在本土象征主义的发展中起到了不小的作用。谈及技巧，人们自然会想到清教徒写作风格的简洁。其风格清新、简洁、直接；修辞朴实诚恳，没有一丝高贵之感，这往往可追溯到圣经的直接影响。因此，总的来说，美国清教主义对美国人来说是一笔健康的遗产

7．What are the features and influences of American Puritanism？
7．美国清教主义的特征和影响是什么？
（1）The features of American Puritanism are the doctrine of predestination，original sin，total depravity，and limited atonement．
（1）美国清教主义的特征包括预定论、原罪、全然败坏和有限救赎的教义。
（2）American literature is based on the Biblical myth of the Garden of Eden．The pioneering Puritans lived in the hard conditions but still dreamed to build up an ideal country for their own．Because of thus religious passion，Americans can never stop going while facing the most fierce enemies or environment．
（2）美国文学以《圣经》中伊甸园的神话为基础。开拓者清教徒生活在艰苦的环境中，但仍梦想为自己建立一个理想的国度。正是由于这种宗教热情，美国人在面对最严酷的敌人或环境时，永不止步。
（3）The American puritans＇metaphorical mode of perception deeply influence the literature stylistic method symbolism．
（3）美国清教徒的隐喻感知方式深刻影响了文学风格方法中的象征主义
（4）American Puritanism cultivated the American style of writing．It was usually a clear，direct and simple way．
（4）美国清教主义培养了美国的写作风格。它通常是一种清晰、直接且简洁的方式。

8．What are the characteristics of the colonial American literature？
8．殖民地时期的美国文学有哪些特点？
（1）The colonial American literature did not inherit the tradition of American Indian＇s literature but rather followed the conventions of European literature especially British literature．
（1）殖民地时期的美国文学没有继承美洲印第安人的文学传统，而是遵循了欧洲文学，特别是英国文学的惯例。
（2）Due to the harsh environment of the new world and the poor education of early residents in America，American literature developed very slowly．At first，it was some personal diaries，church sermons，traveling notes and so on．The content was more or less about the description of the pilgrims to the new world and their struggle to adapt to the environment．
（2）由于新大陆环境恶劣以及早期居民教育水平低下，美国文学发展非常缓慢。起初，它主要是一些个人日记、教会布道、旅行笔记等。内容或多或少涉及朝圣者对新大陆的描述以及他们适应环境的挣扎
（3）As mentioned to the form of literature at that time，American literature followed the way of British and did not have their
（3）正如当时文学形式所提到的，美国文学遵循了英国的道路，没有自己的特色
own styles．  自己的风格

（1）At the end of the $17{}^{\text{th}}$$17{}^{\text{th }}$17^("th ")17{ }^{\text {th }} century，a completely new view of universe was introduced into America．
（1）在 $17{}^{\text{th}}$$17{}^{\text{th }}$17^("th ")17{ }^{\text {th }} 世纪末，一个全新的宇宙观被引入美国
（2）Because of the publishing of Newton＇s book about the laws of motion and the idea of universe gravitation，it influenced the thinking people that the world is guided by laws and rather than by God．People started to study the order of the world．
（2）由于牛顿关于运动定律和宇宙引力的著作的出版，它影响了人们的思想，使人们认为世界是由规律而非上帝所支配。人们开始研究世界的秩序。
（3）So in the ${18}^{\text{th}}$${18}^{\text{th }}$18^("th ")18^{\text {th }} century America enjoyed a period of enlightenment just like his peer Europe．
（3）因此，在 ${18}^{\text{th}}$${18}^{\text{th }}$18^("th ")18^{\text {th }} 世纪，美国像同期的欧洲一样，享受了一段启蒙时期。

A dominant factor in American literature，American Puritanism was one of the most enduring shaping influences in American thought and American literature．The American Puritans believe that the Church should be restored to the ＂purity＂of the first century Church as established by Jesus Christ Himself．It is a critical commonplace now that American literature is based on a myth，that is，the Bible myth of the Garden of Eden．The Puritans dreams of living under a perfect order and worked with indomitable courage and confident hope toward building a new Garden of Eden in America，where man could at long last live the way he should．Fired with such a sense of mission，the Puritans looked even the worst of life in the face with a tremendous amount of optimism．All this went，in due time，into the making of American literature．For example，Emerson saw the Americans as Adam himself reborn，standing simple and sincere before the world．Whitman felt rapturous at the sight of the Americans burstling wit activity as the children of Adam restored to their lost paradise．Henry James talked，especially in his early career，about the innocence and simplicity of his Americans．
作为美国文学的主导因素，美国清教主义是塑造美国思想和美国文学最持久的影响之一。美国清教徒相信教会应恢复到由耶稣基督亲自建立的第一世纪教会的“纯洁”状态。现在一个普遍的观点是，美国文学基于一个神话，即圣经中伊甸园的神话。清教徒梦想生活在一个完美的秩序之下，并以不屈不挠的勇气和坚定的希望努力在美国建立一个新的伊甸园，在那里人类终于可以按照应有的方式生活。怀着这样的使命感，清教徒即使面对生活中最糟糕的情况，也充满了巨大的乐观精神。所有这些，最终都融入了美国文学的形成之中。例如，爱默生将美国人视为亚当的再生，站在世界面前，纯朴而真诚。惠特曼看到美国人忙碌的景象，感到欣喜若狂，认为他们是亚当的子孙，重返失落的天堂。亨利·詹姆斯，尤其是在其早期职业生涯中，谈论过他的美国人的纯真和简单

The American Puritans accepted the doctrine of predestination，original sin and total depravity，and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God．Puritan style varied enormously．Whatever the style or genre，certain themes remained constant．Life was seen as a test；failure led to eternal damnation and hellfire，and success to heavenly bliss．This world was an arena of contant battle between the forces of God and the forces of Satan，a formidable enemy with many disguises．As the Puritans condemned the images and incense of the Roman church，so in literature they distrusted the highly colored．A plain style was commended，without unnecessary ornament and without allusions that might pass over the heads of the unlettered．
美国清教徒接受预定论、原罪和全然败坏的教义，以及通过上帝特别恩典的注入实现有限的救赎。清教徒的文风变化极大。无论风格或体裁如何，某些主题始终不变。生活被视为一次考验；失败导致永远的诅咒和地狱之火，成功则通向天堂的幸福。这个世界是上帝的力量与撒旦的力量之间不断斗争的舞台，撒旦是一个拥有多种伪装的强大敌人。正如清教徒谴责罗马教会的圣像和香火，在文学上他们也不信任过于华丽的表达。推崇朴素的文风，不加不必要的装饰，也不使用可能超出文盲理解范围的典故

Nor is this all．The American Puritans＇metaphorical mode of perception was briefly instrumental in calling into being a literacy symbolism which is distinctly American．To the pious Puritan the physical，phenomenal world is nothing but a symbol of God．To them，the world was instinct with meaning by reason of God＇s Salient acts．Physical life was simutaneously spiritual；every passage of life，enmeshed in the vast context of God＇s plan，possessed a delegated meanig． The world was，in a world，one of multiple significance．In recording ordinary events to reveal their spiritual meaning， Puritan authors commonly cited the Bible，chapter and verse．
这还不是全部。美国清教徒的隐喻感知方式曾短暂地促成了一种具有鲜明美国特色的识字象征体系的诞生。对于虔诚的清教徒来说，物质的、现象的世界不过是上帝的象征。对他们而言，世界因上帝显著的作为而充满意义。物质生活同时也是精神生活；生命的每一个阶段都被纳入上帝宏大计划的广阔背景中，拥有被赋予的意义。这个世界，是一个多重意义的世界。在记录日常事件以揭示其精神意义时，清教徒作家通常会引用圣经的章节和经文。

11．Analyze The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin．
11．分析《本杰明·富兰克林自传》。
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin is a record of a man who has established himself in fame and wealth though born from a family of poverty and obscurity．The book，written at different times，is divided into four parts．
《本杰明·富兰克林自传》记录了一个出身贫寒默默无闻家庭却最终成名致富的人的经历。这本书在不同时间写成，分为四个部分

Franklin presents us in the book a Puritan world where stresses are laid on industry，frugality and prudence．Franklin himself is the representative of a self－made man．His colorful career confirms the belief that man is endowed by God with certain inalienable rights of liberty and the pursuit of happiness．
富兰克林在书中向我们展示了一个清教徒世界，强调勤劳、节俭和谨慎。富兰克林本人是一个白手起家的代表。他多彩的经历证实了这样一种信念：人类被上帝赋予了某些不可剥夺的权利，即自由权和追求幸福的权利。

The Autobiography is also a book of self－examination and self－improvement，following the typical style of Puritanism in its simplicity，directness．Reading the book，we can not but be impressed by the plainness of its style，the homeliness of imagery，the simplicity of diction，syntax and expression．
《自传》也是一本自我审视和自我完善的书，遵循清教徒简洁、直接的典型风格。读这本书，我们不禁被其朴实的文风、质朴的意象、简单的措辞、句法和表达所打动。

12．Describe the contributions of Benjamin Franklin to America．
12．描述本杰明·富兰克林对美国的贡献。

Benjamin Franklin was a politician，scientist，businessman，educator and literature man．He made great contributions in many field of American society．
本杰明·富兰克林是政治家、科学家、商人、教育家和文学家。他在美国社会的许多领域做出了巨大贡献
（1）He was the founder of Pennsylvania hospital and an academy which turned to be the university of Pennsylvania．
（1）他是宾夕法尼亚医院和一所后来发展成为宾夕法尼亚大学的学院的创始人。
（2）He was a great scientist，who had done some leading research in the electricity．
（2）他是一位伟大的科学家，在电学领域做过一些领先的研究。
（3）He was a master of literature．Poor Richard＇s Almanac and The Autobiography were his most anthologized works in the American literature history．
（3）他是文学大师。《穷理查年鉴》和《自传》是他在美国文学史上最常被选入选集的作品。
（4）At last he had done great contributions to the independence of America and became one of the founding fathers of the United States．
（4）最终，他为美国独立做出了巨大贡献，成为美国开国元勋之一

The Autobiography was Benjamin Franklin＇s masterpiece，which had great impact on American literature history．
《自传》是本杰明·富兰克林的杰作，对美国文学史产生了重大影响。
（1）Firstly from his content，it is probably the first kind of autobiography in American literature history．It describes a poor man striving to be a well－cultivated and respectful man in his life．From then on people will think that they could write a book about his own life and make it useful to others．
（1）首先从内容上看，它可能是美国文学史上第一种自传体作品。它描述了一个贫穷的人努力成为一个有教养且受人尊敬的人的一生。从此以后，人们会认为他们也可以写一本关于自己生活的书，并使其对他人有用。
（2）And the The Autobiography is filled with the style of Puritanism．In this book，readers could obviously feel the writer＇s sense of self－retrospection and self－analysis．And all these are the characteristics of Puritans．It taught people how to be self－cultivated，how to be self－reliant and how to serve the God well．
（2）《自传》充满了清教徒主义的风格。在这本书中，读者可以明显感受到作者的自我反省和自我分析的意识，而这些都是清教徒的特征。它教导人们如何修身养性，如何自立自强，以及如何更好地侍奉上帝
（3）Due to the influence of the time，The Autobiography also was shadowed by the movement of Enlightment．Among his virtues listed in his book，the order was one of them．And order is the most important notion in the period of Enlightenment．
（3）由于时代的影响，《自传》也受到了启蒙运动的影响。在他书中列出的美德中，秩序是其中之一。而秩序是启蒙时期最重要的观念。

These are the times that try men＇s souls：The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will，in this crisis，shrink from the service of their country；but he that stands it now，deserves the love and thanks of man and woman．
这是考验人们灵魂的时刻：夏日士兵和阳光爱国者，在这场危机中，会退缩于为国家服务；但现在坚持下来的人，值得男人和女人的爱戴与感谢。
Tyranny，like hell，is not easily conquered；yet we have this consolation with us，that the harder the conflict，the more glorious the triumph．
暴政如同地狱，不易被征服；然而我们有这样的安慰：冲突越激烈，胜利就越辉煌

What we obtain too cheap，we esteem too lightly：it is dearness only that gives everything its value．Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods；and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as freedom should not be highly rated．
我们所获得的太便宜，就会被我们轻视：正是昂贵才赋予一切事物价值。上天知道如何为其商品定出合适的价格；如果像自由这样神圣的东西不被高度评价，那真是奇怪极了。

分析：The American Crisis displayed Paine＇s strong Deist beliefs，inciting the folks with suggestions that the British are trying to assume powers that only God should have．Paine sees the British political and military maneuvers in America as ＂impious，for so unlimited a power can belong only to God．＂Paine states that he believes God supports the American cause． Paine takes great lengths to state that Americans do not lack force，but＂a proper application of that force＂．But Paine maintains a positive view overall，hoping that this American crisis can be quickly resolved by saying that＂for though the flame of liberty may sometimes cease to shine，the coal can never expire．＂
分析：《美国危机》展现了潘恩强烈的自然神论信仰，激励民众认为英国人试图夺取只有上帝才应拥有的权力。潘恩认为英国在美国的政治和军事行动是“不敬神的，因为如此无限的权力只能属于上帝。”潘恩表示他相信上帝支持美国的事业。潘恩极力说明美国人并不缺乏力量，而是“对力量的恰当运用”。但潘恩总体持积极态度，希望这场美国危机能迅速解决，他说“虽然自由的火焰有时可能熄灭，但余烬永远不会消亡。”

American Romantic period stretches from the end of the $18{}^{\text{th}}$$18{}^{\text{th }}$18^("th ")18{ }^{\text {th }} centure through the outbreak of the Civil War．It started with the publication of Washington Irving＇s The Sketch Book and ended with Whitman＇s Leaves of Grass．Being a period of the great flowering of American literature，it is also called＂the American Renaissance＂．
美国浪漫主义时期从 $18{}^{\text{th}}$$18{}^{\text{th }}$18^("th ")18{ }^{\text {th }} 世纪末一直延续到内战爆发。它始于华盛顿·欧文的《素描簿》的出版，终于惠特曼的《草叶集》。作为美国文学大繁荣的时期，它也被称为“美国文艺复兴”。

The development of the American society nurtured＂the literature of a great nation．＂As the nation grew in size and ambition，people began to long for owning their literature．Many writers made efforts to attract notice abroad，and their books drew attention and praise from important foreign figures．Although English literary models were still admired，the American writers soon turned to the American scene and civilization，and found their materials in the culture and history， the lore and landscape of their native land．Irving，Cooper，Bryant，and Poe all found audiences in foreign lands．Much of the interest was in reading about exotic to most Europeans．But the American writers were praised by critics as well as by plain readers，and observers saw this recognition as a sign of the maturing of American culture．
美国社会的发展孕育了“伟大民族的文学”。随着国家规模和抱负的增长，人们开始渴望拥有属于自己的文学。许多作家努力吸引国外的关注，他们的作品赢得了重要外国人物的关注和赞誉。尽管英语文学范式仍然受到推崇，美国作家很快转向美国的场景和文明，从本土的文化、历史、传说和风景中寻找素材。欧文、库珀、布莱恩特和坡都在国外找到了读者。许多兴趣来自于对大多数欧洲人来说异国情调的阅读。但美国作家不仅受到评论家的赞扬，也受到普通读者的喜爱，观察者将这种认可视为美国文化成熟的标志

New England Transcendentalism was a main literary stream in romantic period and also the summit of American Romanticism．The major features of New England Transcendentalism can be summarized as follow：first，the Transcendentalists placed emphasis on spirit，or the Oversoul，as the most important thing in the universe．Secondly，the Transcendentalists stressed the importance of the individual．Thirdly，the Transcendentalists offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God．New England Transcendentalism inspired a whole new generation of famous authors such as Emerson，Hawthorne，Melville，Whitman and Dickinson．Without its impetus American might have been deprived of one of its most prolific literary periods in its history．
新英格兰超验主义是浪漫主义时期的主要文学流派，也是美国浪漫主义的巅峰。新英格兰超验主义的主要特征可以总结如下：首先，超验主义者强调精神，或称为“至上灵魂”，认为这是宇宙中最重要的存在。其次，超验主义者强调个体的重要性。第三，超验主义者对自然提出了新的认识，认为自然是精神或上帝的象征。新英格兰超验主义激励了一整代著名作家，如爱默生、霍桑、梅尔维尔、惠特曼和狄金森。若无其推动，美国可能会失去其历史上最为多产的文学时期之一

There emerged a great host of men of letters during this period，among whom the better－known are poets such as William Cullen Bryant，Henry Wordsworth Longfellow，James Russel Lowell，John Greenleaf Whitter，Edgar Ellen Poe，and， especially，Walt Whitman，whose Leaves of Grass established him as the most popular American poet of the ${19}^{\text{th}}$${19}^{\text{th }}$19^("th ")19^{\text {th }} century． The fiction of the American Romantic period is an original and diverse body of work．It ranges from the comic fables of Washington Irving to the Gothic tales of Edgar Allen Poe，from the frontier adventures of James Cooper to the narrative quests of Herman Melville，from the psychological romances of Nathaniel Hawthorne to the social realism of Rebecca Harding Davis．
这一时期涌现出大量文学家，其中较为知名的诗人有威廉·卡伦·布莱恩特、亨利·沃兹沃斯·朗费罗、詹姆斯·拉塞尔·洛威尔、约翰·格林利夫·惠特尔、埃德加·爱伦·坡，尤其是沃尔特·惠特曼，他的《草叶集》使他成为 19 世纪最受欢迎的美国诗人。美国浪漫主义时期的小说是一部原创且多样化的作品集。它涵盖了华盛顿·欧文的滑稽寓言、埃德加·爱伦·坡的哥特式故事、詹姆斯·库珀的边疆冒险、赫尔曼·梅尔维尔的叙事探险、纳撒尼尔·霍桑的心理浪漫以及丽贝卡·哈丁·戴维斯的社会现实主义。

起源：a short story based on German folk tales．
起源：一篇基于德国民间故事的短篇小说
背景：The story begins about five or six years before the American Revolution and ends twenty years later．The action takes place in a village in eastern New York，near the Hudson River and the Catskill Mountains．The river was named after Englishman Henry Hudson，who explored it in 1609．The Catskill Mountains were named after Kaaterskill，the Dutch word for a local stream，Wildcat Creek．The Catskills contain many other streams，as well as lakes，waterfalls， and gorges．
背景：故事开始于美国独立战争前五六年，结束于二十年后。故事发生在纽约东部一个靠近哈德逊河和卡茨基尔山脉的村庄。哈德逊河以 1609 年探险该河的英国人亨利·哈德逊命名。卡茨基尔山脉的名字来源于荷兰语“Kaaterskill”，意为当地一条小溪——野猫溪。卡茨基尔山脉中有许多溪流、湖泊、瀑布和峡谷。
人物：Rip Van Winkle
－Rip is a simple，good－natured and hen－pecked man；
－Rip 是一个单纯、性格温和且被妻子唠叨的男人；
－RIP means＂rest in peace＂，which indicates the peaceful nature of Rip Van Winkle
－RIP 意为“安息”，这表明了 Rip Van Winkle 的平和本性
－The character shows the conservative point of view of the writer
－这个人物展现了作者的保守观点
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow－A short story；a story about the social change in America，especially American democracy起源：based on a German folktale，set in the Dutch culture of Post－Revolutionary War in New York State．The original folktale was recorded by Karl Musäus．
《沉睡谷传奇》－一篇短篇小说；讲述美国社会变迁的故事，特别是美国民主的起源：基于一个德国民间故事，背景设定在美国独立战争后纽约州的荷兰文化中。原始民间故事由卡尔·穆萨乌斯记录。
人物 Ichabod Crane：  人物 伊卡博德·克兰：
－A Yankee schoolteacher with the personalities of small shrewdness，simple credulity，self－assertiveness and cowardice；
－一个扬基学童，性格中带有小聪明、单纯轻信、自我主张和胆小；
－A New Englander and a city slicker；
－一个新英格兰人和一个城里滑头；
－A sycophantic，lean，lanky，and extremely superstitious schoolteacher
－一个谄媚、瘦长、瘦高且极度迷信的教师
文中描写：
＂The cognomen of Crane was not inapplicable to his person．He was tall，but exceedingly lank，with narrow shoulders，long arms and legs，hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves，feet that might have served for shovels， and his whole frame most loosely hung together＂．（2006 北语）
“克兰这个姓氏用在他身上并不不合适。他个子高，但非常瘦长，肩膀窄，手臂和腿都很长，手从袖子里垂出来有一英里那么长，脚大得可以当铲子用，整个身体松松垮垮地挂着。”（2006 北语）
＂In this by－place of nature there abode，in a remote period of American history，that is to say，some thirty years since， a worthy wight of the name of Ichabod Crane，who sojourned，or，as he expressed it，＇tarried，＇in Sleepy Hollow，for the purpose of instructing the children of the vicinity＂．
“在这个自然的偏僻之地，居住着一位名叫伊卡博德·克兰的可敬之人，时间是在美国历史的一个遥远时期，也就是说，大约三十年前，他在睡谷‘逗留’，用他的话说，是‘停留’，目的是教导附近的孩子们。”
＂His head was small，and flat at top，with huge ears，with large green glassy eyes，and a long snipe nose，so that it looked like a weather－cock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew．＂
“他的头很小，顶部扁平，长着一对大耳朵，一双大而绿的玻璃眼睛，还有一只长长的鹬嘴鼻子，看起来就像一只风向标，栖息在他细长的脖子上，告诉人风向。”
人物 Brom Bones：
－A Huck Finn－type of country bumpkin；
－一个哈克·费恩式的乡下土包子；
－He is rough，vigorous，boisterous，but inwardly very good；
－他粗犷、有活力、喧闹，但内心非常善良；
$>$$>$>> He represents a frontier type．
$>$$>$>> 他代表了一种边疆类型。
文中描写：
＂When school hours were over，he was even the companion and playmate of the larger boys；and on holiday afternoon would convey some of the smaller one＇s home，who happened to have pretty sisters，or good housewives for mothers， noted for the comforts of the cupboard．＂
“放学后，他甚至是大孩子们的伙伴和玩伴；假日的下午，他会送一些较小的孩子回家，这些孩子恰好有漂亮的姐姐，或者有贤惠的母亲，以橱柜里的丰盛食物闻名。”
＂Indeed，it behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils．The revenue arising from his school was small，and would have been scarcely sufficient to furnish him with daily bread，for he was a huge feeder，and，though lank，had the dilating powers of an anaconda；but to help out his maintenance，he was，according to country custom in those parts，boarded and lodged at the houses of the farmers whose children he instructed．＂
“事实上，他必须与学生们保持良好关系。他的学校收入微薄，几乎不足以养活他自己，因为他食量惊人，虽然身材瘦长，却有着蟒蛇般的扩张能力；但为了补贴生活费，根据当地乡村的习俗，他住在那些农民家中，这些农民的孩子由他教导，他在他们家中吃住。”
The Life of Oliver Goldsmith－A biography
《奥利弗·戈德史密斯传》——一部传记
The Life of George Washington－A biography
乔治·华盛顿传记
风格：Beautiful，Imitative，Highly skillful
风格：优美，模仿性强，技艺高超
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Avoids moralizing as much as possible；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 尽可能避免说教；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Be good at enveloping his stories in an atmosphere；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 擅长将他的故事包裹在一种氛围中；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Humor is one of his outstanding writing features；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 幽默是他杰出的写作特点之一；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Finished／polished and musical language；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 完成／润色且富有音乐感的语言；
贡献：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 体裁：Washington Irving initiated the Native American literature and introduced the familiar essay from Europe to America．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 体裁：华盛顿·欧文开创了美国本土文学，并将欧洲熟悉的散文引入美国。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 文风：Irving was the forefather of the＂Irving style＂，which became very influential to later American writers and was very instrumental in improving American literature to be mature．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 文风：欧文是“欧文风格”的开创者，这种风格对后来的美国作家影响深远，并对美国文学的成熟起到了重要作用
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 流派：From the eighteenth century to the nineteenth century，Washington Irving＇s works reflect the American literature＇s transformation from rationalism to romantic．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 流派：从十八世纪到十九世纪，华盛顿·欧文的作品反映了美国文学从理性主义向浪漫主义的转变。

The story is a tale remembered mostly for Rip＇s 20－year sleep，set against the background of the inevitably changing America．It is also considered a model of perfect English in American literature and in the English language as well．
这个故事主要以瑞普沉睡了 20 年为记忆点，背景是不可避免变化的美国。它也被认为是美国文学乃至英语语言中完美英语的典范

Rip，an indolent，good－natured Dutch－American，lives with his shrewish wife in a village on the Hudson during the years before the Revolution．One day，while hunting in the Catskills with his dog Wolf，he meets a dwarflike stranger dressed in the ancient Dutch fashion．He helps him to carry a keg，and with him joins a party silently playing a game of ninepins．After drinking of the liquor they provide，Rip falls into a sleep which lasts 20 years，during which the Revolutionary War takes place．He awakes as an old man and returns to his home village that has greatly altered．Upon entering the village，he is greeted by his old fog that dies of the excitement and then learns that his wife has long been dead． Rip is almost forgotten but he goes to live with his daughter，now the mother of a family，and is soon befriended with his generosity and cheerfulness．
瑞普是一个懒散、性格温和的荷兰裔美国人，和他那个泼辣的妻子住在革命前夕哈德逊河畔的一个村庄里。一天，他带着他的狗沃尔夫在卡茨基尔山狩猎时，遇到一个穿着古老荷兰服饰、矮小如侏儒的陌生人。他帮那人搬运一个小桶，随后和他一起加入了一群默默玩九柱戏的人。喝了他们提供的酒后，瑞普陷入了长达 20 年的沉睡，这期间正值革命战争爆发。他醒来时已是老人，回到了大变样的故乡村庄。进入村庄时，他的老狗因激动而死，随后他得知妻子早已去世。瑞普几乎被人遗忘，但他搬去和女儿同住，女儿现已为人母，他很快以慷慨和开朗赢得了大家的友谊。

2．Analyze The Legend of Sleepy Hollow
2．分析《沉睡谷传奇》
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow is a short story depicting the clumsy，ungainly schoolmaster scared away by his rival who，making use of a legend of headless horseman throwing his head at his opponent，disguises himself as a ghost，and the memorable character of Ichabod Crane with his mixture of shrewdness，credulity，self－assertiveness and cowardice．
《睡谷传奇》是一篇短篇小说，描绘了一个笨拙、笨拙的教师被他的对手吓跑的故事。对手利用一个无头骑士向对手投掷头颅的传说，伪装成鬼魂，以及那个令人难忘的角色伊卡博德·克兰，他既机智又轻信，自我主张强烈却又胆小。

Irving＇s skill in the creation of archetypes impresses the readers．In Ichabod Crane，we find an interloper，a somewhat destructive force．When he is driven away from where he does not belong，the village could maintain permanently good and happy．However，Brom is typically the type of character as Huck Finn，being rough，energetic，boisterous，but good in nature．Therefore，the rivalry in love between Ichabod and Brom，actually represents two ethical worlds．
欧文在原型创造上的技巧给读者留下深刻印象。在伊卡博德·克兰身上，我们看到一个闯入者，一个有些破坏性的力量。当他被赶出他不属于的地方时，村庄才能永久保持美好和幸福。然而，布罗姆典型地是哈克·芬恩那种性格，粗犷、充满活力、喧闹，但本性善良。因此，伊卡博德和布罗姆之间的爱情竞争，实际上代表了两种道德世界。

The short story，placed among the best of American short stories，best presents Irving＇s style．The association between regional and psychological movement of a character and the emotional touch in almost every line of the story，all these make his story unforgettable．
这篇被列为美国最佳短篇小说之一的短篇小说，最好地展现了欧文的风格。故事中几乎每一行都体现了人物的地域和心理运动以及情感触动，这一切使他的故事令人难忘。

3．What is the significance of Washington Orving in American literature？
3．华盛顿·欧文在美国文学中的意义是什么？
Washington Irving makes great contributions to American literature．
华盛顿·欧文对美国文学做出了巨大贡献。
（1）Firstly he is the first American writer to gain international fame because of his imaginative literature．At that time many Americans think that the rising of Irving in the international literature world marks the independence of the America literature．It is not exaggerated to say that Irving is the father of American literature．
（1）首先，他是第一位因其富有想象力的文学作品而获得国际声誉的美国作家。当时，许多美国人认为欧文在国际文学界的崛起标志着美国文学的独立。说欧文是美国文学之父并不夸张。
（2）Secondly he starts the genre of short story in American with the publishing of The Sketch Book，The later short story writers like Hawthorn and Poe definitely gain some merits from him．Many of subjects in his stories are very romantic，such as the supernatural，the Gothic style and the beautiful old days．
（2）其次，他通过出版《素描集》开创了美国短篇小说的体裁。后来的短篇小说作家如霍桑和坡无疑从他那里获得了一些优点。他故事中的许多主题都非常浪漫，比如超自然现象、哥特式风格和美好的旧时光。

James Fenimore Cooper  詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库珀
地位：the first one to write about American Westward Movement（Helped introduce the＂western＂tradition into American
地位：第一个写美国西进运动的人（帮助将“西部”传统引入美国）
literature）；created a myth about the formative period of the American nation；Father of American Novels；His works reflect the antithesis between nature and modern civilization；$\underset{―}{\mathrm{He}}$$\underset{\_}{\mathrm{He}}$He_\underline{\mathrm{He}} was the first border writer；The first writer of sea novels；
文学）；创造了关于美国国家形成时期的神话；美国小说之父；他的作品反映了自然与现代文明的对立； $\underset{―}{\mathrm{He}}$$\underset{\_}{\mathrm{He}}$He_\underline{\mathrm{He}} 是第一位边境作家；第一位海洋小说作家；
He created some enduring themes in American literature：
他创造了一些美国文学中经久不衰的主题：
－man \＆society，freedom \＆law；
－人类与社会，自由与法律；
－social progress \＆natural world；
－社会进步与自然世界；
－to destroy or to build
－毁灭还是建设
作品：
The Spy－Won the first fame for him；About the American Revolutionary War；The second novel of Cooper
《间谍》－为他赢得了最初的声誉；关于美国独立战争；库珀的第二部小说
Leatherstocking Tales－A series of five novels about the process of American quest for an ideal community；It is the first true romance of the frontier in American literature；Includes：The Deerslayer，The Last of the Mohicans，The Pathfinder， The Pioneers（It is the first romance of the frontier in American Literature，the first story of Leatherstocking Tales），The Prairie
皮革存货传奇——一系列关于美国追求理想社区过程的五部小说；它是美国文学中第一部真正的边疆浪漫小说；包括：《猎鹿人》、《最后的莫希干人》、《探路者》、《开拓者》（它是美国文学中第一部边疆浪漫小说，也是皮革存货传奇的第一部故事）、《大草原》

人物 Natty Bumppo（2013 人大）
－A warrior，frontier，ideal American；
－一位战士，边疆人物，理想的美国人；
－His experience reflects the struggle between civilization and wilderness
－他的经历反映了文明与荒野之间的斗争
－The protagonist of James Fenimore Cooper＇s the Leatherstocking Tales．
－詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库珀《皮革存货传奇》的主角
别名：Hawkeye，Leatherstocking，The Pathfinder，the trapper，Deerslayer（填空考点）
别名：鹰眼，皮革存货者，探路者，捕兽者，猎鹿者（填空考点）
思想：idea of brotherhood of man and of nature and freedom
思想：人与自然及自由的博爱理念
代表：He represents the ideal American，living in a virtuous and free life to him and to Cooper．He is a veritable embodiment of human virtues like Innocence，simplicity，honesty and sense of good and evil．
代表：他代表理想的美国人，过着对他和库珀来说都是美德与自由的生活。他是真正体现人类美德的化身，如纯真、朴素、诚实以及善恶观念。
作品特点：

（1）James Fennimore Cooper turns his eyes on the frontier－pushing movement in the west，which effectively shows the American national experience of frontier mevement in the west．
（1）詹姆斯·费尼莫尔·库珀关注西部的边疆推进运动，有效地展现了美国西部边疆运动的民族经历。
（2）His great book＂Leatherstoking Tales＂settles on the vast of west，which not only depicts the majestic scenery in the west but also the adventures of the frontier settlers．
（2）他的伟大著作《皮袜子故事》以广袤的西部为背景，不仅描绘了西部壮丽的景色，还展现了边疆定居者的冒险经历
（3）Thus Cooper helps to bring the＂Western＂into the American literature，and then on the vast land，gorgenus landscape， the hard lives of the frontier settlers become an irreplaceable element in the American nation＇s literature and because of all that western thing，American differs from the other nations．
（3）因此，库珀帮助将“西部”引入美国文学，在这片广袤的土地上，壮丽的景观和边疆定居者的艰难生活成为美国民族文学中不可替代的元素。正因为所有这些西部元素，美国才有别于其他国家。

Ralph Waldo Emerson  拉尔夫·瓦尔多·爱默生
地位：A spokesman of New England Transcendentalism；The founder of the Dial（日晷）；May be a pantheist作品：
地位：新英格兰超验主义的代言人；《日晷》（The Dial）的创始人；可能是泛神论者 作品：
Nature－the Bible of New England
《自然》——新英格兰的圣经

The American Scholar－Regarded as America＇s Declaration of Intellectual Independence in which embodied a new nation＇s desire and struggle to assert its own identity in its formative period
《美国学者》——被视为美国的知识独立宣言，体现了新生国家在其形成时期渴望并努力确立自身身份的愿望和斗争
思想根源：
－破：Rejected Calvinist tenets（total depravity，unconditional election，limited atonement，God＇s irresistible grace，the perseverance of the saints）
－破：拒绝加尔文主义教义（全然败坏、无条件拣选、有限救赎、上帝不可抗拒的恩典、圣徒的坚忍）

Oversoul－＂the transparent eyeball＂，＂the Grand Mind＂
超灵－“透明的眼球”，“伟大的心灵”
Nature－＂The Universal Being＂；Nature is the purest thing and has moral influence on human being
自然－“普遍存在”；自然是最纯净的事物，对人类具有道德影响
Individualism－＂Make Thyself！＂＂Trust Thyself！＂
个人主义－“成就你自己！”“相信你自己！”

A．Emerson＇s essays often have a casual style，for most of them were derived from his journals or lectures．
A．爱默生的散文常常采用随意的风格，因为大多数散文源自他的日记或讲稿。
B．They are usually characterized by a series of short，declarative sentences，which are not quite logically connected but will flower out into illustrative statements of truth and thoughts．Emerson＇s philosophical discussion is sometimes difficult to understand but he uses comparisons and metaphors to make the general idea of his work clearly expressed．
B．它们通常以一系列简短的陈述句为特征，这些句子之间逻辑联系不强，但会展开成阐述真理和思想的说明性语句。爱默生的哲学讨论有时难以理解，但他通过比较和隐喻使其作品的总体思想表达得清晰明了。

C．Well－read in the classics of Western European literature，Emerson often employed these literary sources to make and enrich his own points but never let them take the full reins of his discussion．
C．爱默生博览西欧文学经典，常借用这些文学资源来阐述和丰富自己的观点，但从不让它们完全主导他的论述。

D．In general，Emerson was showing to the world a distinctive American style，as he called for in The American Scholar in 1837.
D．总体而言，爱默生向世界展示了一种独特的美国风格，正如他在 1837 年的《美国学者》中所呼吁的那样。

（1）Ralph Waldo Emerson（1803－1882）was an American essayist，philosopher，poet，and leader of the Transcendentalist movement in the early $19{}^{\text{th}}$$19{}^{\text{th }}$19^("th ")19{ }^{\text {th }} century．
（1）拉尔夫·瓦尔多·爱默生（1803－1882）是美国的散文家、哲学家、诗人，也是 19 世纪初超验主义运动的领导者。
（2）Essays are more important works of Emerson，which convey the best of his philosophical arguments and transcendental pursuits，such as Nature published in 1836，considered as a manifesto for Transcendentalism，and The American Scholar in 1837，considered to be America＇s＂Intercultural Declaration of Independence＂．
（2）散文是爱默生更为重要的作品，传达了他哲学论点和超验追求的精髓，如 1836 年发表的《自然》，被视为超验主义的宣言，以及 1837 年的《美国学者》，被认为是美国的“跨文化独立宣言”。
（3）Emerson＇s Transcendentalism is actually a philosophical school which absorbs some ideological concerns of American Puritanism and European Romanticism，which its focus on the intuitive knowledge of human beings to grasp the absolute in the universe and the divinity of man．
（3）爱默生的超验主义实际上是一种哲学流派，吸收了美国清教徒主义和欧洲浪漫主义的一些思想关切，重点关注人类直觉知识以把握宇宙中的绝对和人的神性

Basically，Transcendentalism has been defined philosophically as＂the recognition in man of the capacity of knowing truth intuitively，or of attaining knowledge transcending the reach of the sense．＂Emerson once proclaimed in a speech， ＂Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of your own mind．＂Other concepts that accompanied Transcendentalism include the idea that＂nature is ennobling＂and＂the individual is divine and，therefore，self－reliant．＂
基本上，超验主义在哲学上被定义为“人在直觉上认识真理的能力，或获得超越感官范围的知识的能力。”爱默生曾在一次演讲中宣称：“最终，唯一神圣的就是你自己心灵的完整性。”伴随超验主义的其他概念包括“自然是高尚的”和“个体是神圣的，因此应自力更生。”
（4）Emerson＇s philosophy had inspired a lot of writers such as Thoreau，Whitman and Dickinson．
（4）爱默生的哲学启发了许多作家，如梭罗、惠特曼和狄金森

New England Transcendentalism is the summit of American Romanticism．Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson is the Bible of New England Transcendentalism，making a tremendous impact on intellectual life of America．The major features of New England Transcendentalism can be summarized as follows：First，the Transcendentalists placed emphasis on spirit， or the Oversoul，as the most important thing in the universe．Secondly，the Transcendentalists stressed the importance of the individual．To them the individual was the most important element of society．Thirdly，the Transcendentalists offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the spirit or God．New England Transcendentalism was the product of a combination of foreign influences and the American Puritan tradition．It was，in actuality，Romanticism om the Puritan soil．
新英格兰超验主义是美国浪漫主义的巅峰。拉尔夫·瓦尔多·爱默生的《自然》是新英格兰超验主义的圣经，对美国的知识生活产生了巨大影响。新英格兰超验主义的主要特征可以总结如下：首先，超验主义者强调精神，或称为“至上灵魂”，是宇宙中最重要的存在。其次，超验主义者强调个体的重要性。对他们来说，个体是社会中最重要的元素。第三，超验主义者提供了一种对自然的新认识，将自然视为精神或上帝的象征。新英格兰超验主义是外来影响与美国清教传统结合的产物。实际上，它是在清教土壤上的浪漫主义。

Ralph Waldo Emerson is a leading person of New England Transcendentalism，＂the father of American Essay＂．His
拉尔夫·瓦尔多·爱默生是新英格兰超验主义的领军人物，被誉为“美国散文之父”。他的
philosophical ideas：a）firm belief in the transcendance of the Oversoul；b）the individual as the most important（the infinitude of man）；c）Nature is the emblematic of God，mediating between man and God．All these ideas can be seen in nature．His aesthetics：1）Poet is no ordinary person，who is a philosopher，a complete，eternal man to see into the depth of infinite time；2）The poetry and true art should ennoble．It should serve as a moral purification and a passage toward organic unity and higher reality；3）The argument of the poet should decide the form of poem；4）The poet should use symbols which are universal things；5）American writers should celebrate America which was a long poem itself．
哲学思想：a）坚信超灵的超越性；b）个体是最重要的（人的无限性）；c）自然是上帝的象征，作为人与上帝之间的媒介。所有这些思想都可以在自然中看到。他的美学：1）诗人不是普通人，而是哲学家，是一个完整的、永恒的人，能够洞察无限时间的深度；2）诗歌和真正的艺术应当高尚化。它应作为道德净化和通向有机统一及更高现实的通道；3）诗人的论点应决定诗的形式；4）诗人应使用普遍的象征；5）美国作家应歌颂美国，这本身就是一首长诗。

Emerson＇s influence on American literature and culture cannot be exaggerated．His call for an independent culture in both Nature and＂The American Scholar＂played a very important part in the intellectual history of the nation．In fact，＂The American Scholar＂has been regarded as＂America＇s Declaration of Intellectual Independence＂．
爱默生对美国文学和文化的影响不可夸大。他在《自然》和《美国学者》中呼吁独立文化，在国家的知识史上发挥了非常重要的作用。事实上，《美国学者》被视为“美国的知识独立宣言”。

Henry David Thoreau  亨利·戴维·梭罗
地位：He is a close friend of Emerson；An active Transcendentalist；A prophet of individualism in American literature作品：
地位：他是爱默生的密友；积极的超验主义者；美国文学中个人主义的先知。作品：
Walden－criticized the materialism America；It＇s a record of reflection on his solitary a manual for self－reliance，simple living and self－sufficiency
《瓦尔登湖》——批判了美国的物质主义；这是他对孤独生活的反思记录，是一本关于自力更生、简朴生活和自给自足的手册
A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Riverson
《康科德与梅里马克河上的一周》
Civil Disobedience－criticized the unjust laws of society
《公民不服从》——批判社会的不公正法律

I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately，to front only the essential facts of life，and see if I could not learn what it had to teach，and not，when I came to die，discover that I had not lived．
我进了树林，因为我希望有意识地生活，只面对生活的本质事实，看看是否能学到它要教给我的东西，而不是在临死时发现自己从未真正活过

These words are from Thoreau＇s chapter＂Where I Lived，and What I Lived For．＂The first part of this title is a practical concern about a place of residence，while the second part is a deeply philosophical concern about the meaning of life． Thoreau combines the practical and the philosophical in his Walden project，and thus the phrase＂the essential facts of life＂ can refer both to material necessities like food and shelter and also to the core of human existence．The double aspect of Walden，its treatment of hard facts as well as philosophical questions，is also evident in his mention of Thoreau to die understanding that＂I had not lived．＂But taken philosophically，life means not just biological functioning but also inner fulfillment．The experimentalism of Thoreau＇s endeavor is expressed in his frank acknowledgment that he is testing out an idea，rather than proving a foregone conclusion．Finally，the obscure mystical side of Thoreau－which makes him often appear more of a visionary than a philosopher－is evident in his famous phrase＂to live deliberately．＂On a literal level，he wishes to choose his path of life independently and thoughtfully，subject to his own deliberation and no one else＇s．But on a higher level，the phrase is mystical and haunting，since of course nobody ever chooses to live or deliberately seeks to exist． As elsewhere in the work．Thoreau here forces us to contemplate the transcendent meaning of human life even while we think he is simply referring to a cabin in the woods．
这些话出自梭罗的章节《我住在哪里，以及我为何而活》。标题的第一部分是关于居住地的实际关切，而第二部分则是关于生命意义的深刻哲学关怀。梭罗在他的《瓦尔登湖》项目中将实用与哲学结合起来，因此“生活的基本事实”这一短语既可以指食物和住所等物质必需品，也可以指人类存在的核心。《瓦尔登湖》的双重面向，即对硬事实和哲学问题的处理，也体现在他提到梭罗临终时的理解：“我还没有真正活过。”但从哲学角度看，生命不仅意味着生物学上的功能，还意味着内心的满足。梭罗努力的实验性体现在他坦率承认自己是在试验一个想法，而不是证明一个既定结论。最后，梭罗那神秘晦涩的一面——这使他常常看起来更像是一个有远见的人而非哲学家——体现在他著名的短语“有意识地生活”中。从字面上看，他希望独立且深思熟虑地选择自己的人生道路，遵循自己的思考而非他人的意志。但在… 在更高的层面上，这句话充满了神秘和萦绕心头的意味，因为当然没有人会选择生活或刻意寻求存在。正如作品中其他地方一样，梭罗在这里迫使我们思考人类生命的超越意义，即使我们认为他仅仅是在指一间林中的小屋。

Dank Romanticism  黑暗浪漫主义
Nathaniel Hawthorne  内森尼尔·霍桑
地位：An American Romantic novelist（Dark）；A symbolic novelist；The pioneer of the American psychoanalytic novel；His works are regarded as the＂Romance of the soul＂；His father John Hathorne has joined in Salem witchcraft trails of 1692 （塞勒姆驱巫案件）；Born in the city of Salem，Massachusetts
地位：美国浪漫主义小说家（黑暗派）；象征主义小说家；美国精神分析小说的先驱；其作品被视为“灵魂的浪漫”；其父亲约翰·霍桑曾参与 1692 年塞勒姆驱巫案件；出生于马萨诸塞州塞勒姆市
朋友：The poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow；Franklin Pierce who became the 14th President of The United States小说：
朋友：诗人亨利·沃兹沃斯·朗费罗；成为美国第 14 任总统的富兰克林·皮尔斯

Fanshawe－His first novel  《范肖》——他的第一部小说
The Scarlet Letter－His famous and first symbolic novel
《红字》——他著名的第一部象征主义小说
背景：The setting of The Scarlet Letter is Boston in the 1640s．Persecuted in England，the Puritans came to North America to form their own communities．Life in the Colonies was harsh，but it gave the Puritans the opportunity to
背景：《红字》的背景设定在 1640 年代的波士顿。清教徒在英格兰受到迫害，来到北美建立自己的社区。殖民地的生活艰苦，但也给了清教徒机会去..
form a society based on their religious ideals．Puritans sought the freedom to live by their beliefs．However，the Puritan leaders did not tolerate religious beliefs that differed from their own．Sinners were publicly and harshly punished as an example to others．The laws of the church were the laws of the state．All things are controlled beforehand by the will of God．And there is no personal freedom．
根据他们的宗教理想建立一个社会。清教徒寻求按照自己的信仰生活的自由。然而，清教徒的领导者不容忍与他们信仰不同的宗教观点。罪人会被公开且严厉地惩罚，以此作为对他人的警示。教会的法律就是国家的法律。一切事物都由上帝的意志预先掌控。个人没有自由。
主题：
$>$$>$>> Puritanism－The conflict between desire and religious passion；
$>$$>$>> 清教主义——欲望与宗教热情之间的冲突；
$>$$>$>> Bildungsroman－The growth of a woman；
$>$$>$>> 成长小说——一个女性的成长；
$>$$>$>> The struggle between individual and society；
$>$$>$>> 个人与社会之间的斗争；
$>$$>$>> Love and avenge   $>$$>$>> 爱与复仇
The House of the Seven Gables－＂God will give him blood to drink＂
七角楼——“上帝将赐他饮血”
The Blithe Dale Romance
快乐谷的浪漫故事
The Marble Faun：Or，The Romance of Monte Beni
大理石野人：或，蒙特贝尼的浪漫
短篇故事集：
Twice－Told Tales  《二度讲述的故事》
Mosses from an Old Manse
《老宅苔藓》
The Snow－Image，and Other Twice－Told Tales
《雪像及其他二度讲述的故事》
短篇故事：Young Goodman Brown
短篇故事：《年轻的古德曼·布朗》
观点：
Black Version of human nature／blackness in Hawthorne（见简答题表述部分）
霍桑作品中的人性黑暗面／黑暗性（见简答题表述部分）
Romance 传奇理论—Prose fiction that is conceived in terms of fanciful and idealistic，rather than in terms of observation and faithful description of fact．Hawthorne states that a novel＂is presumed to aim at every minute fidelity，not merely to the possible，but to the probable and ordinary course of man＇s experience．＂while a romance must keep to＂the truth of human heart－has fairly a right to present that truth under circumstances．．．he may so manage his atmospherically medium as to bring out or mellow the lights and deepen and enrich the shadows of the picture．＂
传奇理论——以幻想和理想化为出发点的散文小说，而非基于观察和对事实的忠实描述。霍桑指出，小说“被认为应当追求每一个细节的忠实，不仅仅是可能的，而是人类经验中可能且普通的过程。”而传奇则必须坚持“人心的真理——有权在特定环境下呈现这一真理……作者可以通过营造氛围的手法，突出或柔化画面的光影，深化和丰富画面的阴影。”
－Concerned with＂internal truths＂or＂truths of the human heart＂
——关注“内在真理”或“人心的真理”
－Use of imagination rather than realistic representations
－使用想象力而非现实主义的表现手法
－Embellishes relationship between human and nature
－美化人与自然的关系
Hawthorne VS．Emerson 区别：
霍桑 VS．爱默生 区别：
联系：
$>$$>$>> They are both the representative writers in the period of transcendentalist，and they are neighbors and friends who lived in New England（Concord）in the 19th century．（They have the same time background，the similar living environment，and they were affected by the same religious culture）
$>$$>$>> 他们都是超验主义时期的代表作家，19 世纪生活在新英格兰（康科德）的邻居和朋友。（他们有相同的时代背景，相似的生活环境，并且受到相同宗教文化的影响）
－Their creation was closely related to the philosophical in in time－transcendentalism
－他们的创作与当时的哲学思潮——先验主义密切相关
$>$$>$>> Self－examination，self－reliance are reflected in their works．
$>$$>$>> 自我反省、自力更生在他们的作品中有所体现。
$>$$>$>> Symbolism is their major way to observe the outside and inside world
$>$$>$>> 象征主义是他们观察内外世界的主要方式
差异：
Whether human nature is good or evil（Optimism vs．Pessimism）：乐观与悲观
人性是善还是恶（乐观与悲观）：乐观与悲观
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Emerson was positive，he believed that all things are connected to God and，therefore，all things are divine．In his opinion，people have an ugly side of evil，and also have a good side of goodness．It is inevitable that the Good and evil exist side by side．It stressed the power of intuition，believing that people could learn things both from the outside world by means of the five senses and from the inner world by intuition．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 爱默生是积极的，他相信万物与上帝相连，因此万物都是神圣的。在他看来，人们有邪恶的丑陋一面，也有善良的美好一面。善与恶并存是不可避免的。他强调直觉的力量，认为人们既可以通过五官从外部世界学习，也可以通过直觉从内心世界学习。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark But on the other hand，Hawthorne was negative，he thinks that the evil exists in everywhere and everybody．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 但另一方面，霍桑是消极的，他认为邪恶无处不在，存在于每个人身上。
Nature：对自然的态度
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Emerson：He took nature as symbolic of spirit of God．All things in nature were symbols of the spiritual，of God＇s presence．Nature was alive，filled with God＇s overwhelming presence．Everything in the universe was viewed as an
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 爱默生：他将自然视为上帝精神的象征。自然中的万物都是精神的象征，是上帝存在的体现。自然是有生命的，充满了上帝强烈的存在感。宇宙中的一切都被视为神圣精神的表现。
expression of the divine spirit．Behind physical objects was a universal soul．Nature was God＇s enlightenment towards human beings．Therefore，it could exercise a healthy and restorative influence on human mind．
物质对象背后有一个普遍的灵魂。自然是上帝对人类的启示。因此，自然能够对人类心灵产生健康和恢复性的影响
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Hawthorne：he doubted that we can understand the nature and denied the progress of science and technology and the ability of human to conquer the nature．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 霍桑：他怀疑我们能否理解自然的本质，否认科学技术的进步以及人类征服自然的能力。
Transcendentalism（霍桑受到了超验主义的影响，但没有完全接受超验主义的全部理论）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 接受：Nathaniel Hawthorne was one of the most outstanding Romanticists in the nineteenth century．His creation was closely related to the philosophical in his time－transcendentalism．On one hand，as displayed in some of his works the idea of self－examination，self－reliance，breaking the theological disciplines like the theory of destiny，and the widely used technique symbolism embodied to some extent to the connotation of transcendentalism；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 接受：纳撒尼尔·霍桑是十九世纪最杰出的浪漫主义者之一。他的创作与当时的哲学——超验主义密切相关。一方面，正如他的一些作品所展示的，自我审视、自力更生、打破诸如宿命论等神学教条，以及广泛使用的象征主义技巧，在某种程度上体现了超验主义的内涵；
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 反思：On the other hand，Hawthorne was not a transcendentalist and did not wholly embrace transcendentalism．He had quite opposite opinion with the transcendentalists over whether human nature is good or evil and had different views on way of communication between human and God．Even on self－reliance，Hawthorne was not as thorough as the transcendentalists．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 反思：另一方面，霍桑并非超验主义者，也未完全接受超验主义。他与超验主义者在人的本性是善还是恶的问题上持截然相反的观点，并且对人与上帝之间的交流方式有不同看法。即使在自力更生方面，霍桑也不像超验主义者那样彻底
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 总结：However，Hawthorne had a great deal to do with transcendentalism．Identify with transcendentalism showed the impact of transcendentalism，while criticism meant opposite stand against transcendentalism．In this way，we can conclude that Hawthorne was influenced by transcendentalism：he identified and accepted some ideas of transcendentalism，and at the same time negated and opposed others．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 总结：然而，霍桑与超验主义有很大关系。认同超验主义表明了超验主义的影响，而批评则意味着对超验主义持相反立场。由此，我们可以得出结论，霍桑受到了超验主义的影响：他认同并接受了超验主义的一些观点，同时也否定和反对其他观点。
写作特点：（2014兰大）
背景：Much of Hawthorne＇s work is set in colonial New England，and many of his short stories have been read as moral allegories influenced by his Puritan background．
背景：霍桑的大部分作品背景设定在殖民地时期的新英格兰，他的许多短篇小说被解读为受其清教徒背景影响的道德寓言
主题：All of his works show a sense of $\underset{―}{\sin }$$\underset{\_}{\sin }$sin _\underline{\sin } and evil（or sin and punishment）from psychological conflict（or tension） between head（intellect）and heart（emotion）．He inherited the Puritan tradition of moral earnestness，and he was deeply concerned with the concepts of original $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin and guilt and the claims of law and conscience．Hawthorne rejected what he saw as the Transcendentalists＇transparent optimism about the potentialities of human nature．Instead he looked more deeply and perhaps more honestly into life，finding in it much suffering and conflict but also finding the redeeming power of love．There is no Romantic escape in his works，but rather a firm and resolute scrutiny of the psychological and moral facts of the human condition．
主题：他所有的作品都表现出一种 $\underset{―}{\sin }$$\underset{\_}{\sin }$sin _\underline{\sin } 与邪恶（或罪与罚）的感觉，这种感觉源于理智（头脑）与情感（心灵）之间的心理冲突（或紧张）。他继承了清教徒的道德严肃传统，深切关注原罪 $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin 和罪恶感以及法律与良心的要求。霍桑拒绝了他所认为的超验主义者对人性潜能的透明乐观态度。相反，他更深入、更诚实地审视生活，发现其中充满了痛苦和冲突，但也发现了爱的救赎力量。他的作品中没有浪漫主义的逃避，反而是对人类状况的心理和道德事实的坚定而果断的审视。
手法：The use of Symbolism／Allegory（Supernatural mixed with the actual）
手法：象征主义／寓言的运用（超自然与现实的混合）
His fictional characters＇actions and dilemmas fairly obviously express larger generalizations about the problems of human existence．But with Hawthorne this leads not to unconvincing pasteboard figures with explanatory labels attached but to a somber，concentrated emotional involvement with his characters that has the power，the gravity，and the inevitability of true tragedy．His use of symbolism in The Scarlet Letter is particularly effective，and the scarlet letter itself takes on a wider significance and application that is out of all proportion to its literal character as a scrap of cloth．
他的虚构人物的行为和困境显然表达了关于人类存在问题的更广泛概括。但在霍桑那里，这并没有导致那些带有解释性标签的不可信的纸板人物，而是引向一种对他人物的沉重、集中的情感投入，这种投入具有真正悲剧的力量、庄重和必然性。他在《红字》中对象征主义的运用尤为有效，而那枚红字本身则获得了超出其作为一块布片的字面意义的更广泛的意义和应用。
Herman Melville  赫尔曼·梅尔维尔
地位：Representative of the American Renaissance period；A friend of Nathaniel Hawthorne；American＇s Shakespeare；作品：
地位：美国文艺复兴时期的代表人物；内森尼尔·霍桑的朋友；美国的莎士比亚；作品：
Typee  《泰比》
Omoo  欧穆
Mardi  马尔迪
Redburn  雷德本
White－Jacket；or，The World in a Man－of－War
白夹克；或，军舰上的世界
Moby－Dick  白鲸
Pierre  皮埃尔
Billy Budd  比利·巴德
与 Hawthorne  与霍桑
－Meeting Hawthorne in the summer of 1850
－1850 年夏天与霍桑会面
－Influenced by Hawthorne＇s black vision and his use of symbolism
－受霍桑黑暗视角及其象征主义手法的影响
－Revising Moby Dick  －修订《白鲸》
－They all represented a position of tragic humanism in their time
－他们都代表了当时一种悲剧人文主义的立场
创作阶段：
Earlier Works  早期作品
－drawing upon his sea experiences
－借鉴他的海上经历
－black and white  －黑白
Later Works  后期作品
－Reconciliation between man and God
－人与上帝的和解
－living by the rules of this world
－遵循这个世界的规则生活
Moby Dick（2013 人大 2005 首师）
地位：
－His best work and masterpiece
－他最好的作品和杰作
－The first American prose epic
－第一部美国散文史诗
－An encyclopedia of everything（航海 navigation，捕鲸 whaling，个人主义 individualism，浪漫主义 Romanticism）
－一部关于一切的百科全书（航海 navigation，捕鲸 whaling，个人主义 individualism，浪漫主义 Romanticism）
－A Shakespearean tragedy of man fighting against overwhelming odds in an indifferent and hostile universe主题：
－一部莎士比亚式的悲剧，讲述人在一个冷漠且充满敌意的宇宙中与压倒性困难抗争的故事主题：
＞Search for truth－－The story deals with the human pursuit of truth and the meaning of existence．
＞对真理的追寻－－故事讲述了人类对真理和存在意义的追求
－Conflict between Good and Evil
－善与恶之间的冲突
－Conflict between Man and Nature．
－人与自然之间的冲突。
－Isolation between man and man；man and nature；man and society．
－人与人之间的孤立；人与自然之间的孤立；人与社会之间的孤立。
－Solipsism 唯我论／individualism 个人主义
评价：
D．H．Lawrence：＂He records also，almost beyond pain or pleasure，the extreme transitions of the isolated，far－driven soul， the soul which is now alone，without any real human contact＂
D．H．劳伦斯：“他几乎超越了痛苦或快乐，记录了孤独、被驱逐的灵魂的极端转变，这种灵魂现在孤独无依，没有任何真正的人际接触。”
Hawthorne：＂He will never rest until he gets hold of a definite belief．It is strange how he persists．．．He can neither believe， nor be comfortable in his disbelief；and he is too honest and courageous not to try to do one or the other．．．He has a very high and noble nature．＂
霍桑：“他永远不会安息，直到他获得一个明确的信念。这很奇怪，他是如何坚持的……他既不能相信，也不能在不信中感到安慰；而且他太诚实和勇敢，不会不去尝试做其中之一……他有着非常高尚和崇高的本性。”

Moby Dick is a novel overflown with symbols．The white whale is one of the best－known symbols in American literature．What it represents depends entirely on who is noticing．To Starbuck，Moby Dick is just another whale，except that he is more dangerous．Early in the novel，Starbuck challenges Ahab＇s motives for altering the ship＇s mission，from accumulating oil to killing the white whale．To some，the white whale is a myth．To others，he is immortal．However，to Ahab，he sees the inscrutable power as evil．He wants to kill the whale in order to reach the force．Ahab seems to want to be a God．Another symbol is Queequeg＇s coffin：the symbolism of the coffin changes as the novel proceeds．Initially， itrepresents the coming death．It then represents ongoing life when it becomes Queequeg＇s sea chest after he decides not to die．At the end of the story，the coffin serves as an ark and saves Ishmael＇s life．
《白鲸》是一部充满象征意义的小说。白鲸是美国文学中最著名的象征之一。它代表什么，完全取决于观察者。对 Starbuck 来说，白鲸不过是另一只鲸鱼，只是更危险一些。在小说早期，Starbuck 质疑 Ahab 改变船只使命的动机——从采集鲸油转为猎杀白鲸。对一些人来说，白鲸是一个神话。对另一些人来说，它是不朽的。然而，对 Ahab 来说，他视这股难以理解的力量为邪恶。他想杀死白鲸以接触这股力量。Ahab 似乎想成为神。另一个象征是 Queequeg 的棺材：随着小说的发展，棺材的象征意义也在变化。最初，它代表即将到来的死亡。后来，当 Queequeg 决定不死时，它变成了他的海上箱子，象征着持续的生命。在故事的结尾，棺材成为方舟，救了 Ishmael 的命。
＂The white whale represents the evil．At the same time，it is like a wall，concealing the unknown and mysterious things behind．＂（北语 2021 年真题）
“白鲸代表邪恶。同时，它像一道墙，隐藏着背后的未知和神秘。”（北语 2021 年真题）
（1）The statement is uttered by who？
（1）这句话是谁说的？
（2）Analyze the character．Do you agree with his views and state the reason．
（2）分析这个人物。你是否同意他的观点，并说明理由。
（3）Illustrate two works involving the same topic as the above．Integrate with life．
（3）举例说明两部涉及上述主题的作品，并结合生活进行阐述。
（1）The statement is uttered by Ahab，captain of the whaling ship Pequod，for revenge on Moby Dick，the giant white whale that on the ship＇s previous voyage bit off Ahab＇s leg at the knee．
（1）这句话是由捕鲸船“皮夸德号”的船长亚哈说的，他为了报复“白鲸”莫比·迪克——这只巨大的白鲸在船只上一次航行中咬断了亚哈的膝盖腿
（2）Ahab is a brooding，proud，solitary figure who has been in colleges as well as among the cannibals，deathly angry that the monster Moby Dick has eaten his leg．He resolves to revenge and kill the whale．He leaves home and family and even renounces his humanity to achieve this goal．
（2）亚哈是一个沉思、骄傲、孤独的人物，他曾在大学里也曾在食人族中生活过，对怪物白鲸莫比·迪克吃掉他的腿感到极度愤怒。他决心复仇，杀死这头鲸鱼。他离开了家和家人，甚至放弃了他的人性来实现这个目标。

I agree with part of his views that behind the white whale are the inscrutable and mysterious things but I do not think the white whale is evil just because it is unfathomable．Moby Dick can be regarded as an embodiment of nature， representing an inscrutable，mysterious power，but not a wicked one．The conflict between Ahab and Moby Dick can be interpreted as the conflict between man and nature．Man has never conquered nature despite the attempts and efforts he made．Starbuck apparently understood what the whale stands for and tries to persuade Ahab not to take revenge on a dumb brute．Ahab and other seamen may harpoon the whale，but they cannot harvest it．Eventually，Moby Dick kills Ahab and sinks the Pequod，dragging almost all the crew to their watery death．
我同意他部分观点，即白鲸背后隐藏着难以理解和神秘的事物，但我不认为白鲸因为难以捉摸就一定是邪恶的。莫比·迪克可以被看作是自然的化身，代表着一种难以理解、神秘的力量，但并非邪恶的力量。亚哈与莫比·迪克之间的冲突可以被解读为人与自然的冲突。尽管人类做出了各种尝试和努力，但从未征服过自然。斯塔巴克显然理解鲸鱼所代表的意义，试图劝说亚哈不要向这只无知的野兽复仇。亚哈和其他水手或许能用鱼叉刺伤鲸鱼，但他们无法捕获它。最终，莫比·迪克杀死了亚哈，击沉了小皮夸德号，几乎将所有船员拖入水中丧生
（3）Ahab admits that he is not just hunting Moby Dick，but＂whatever lies behind＂the whale，perhaps the incomprehensible and unconquerable nature．Many literary works deal with the struggle between man and the natural world． The Old Man and the Sea，for instance，is a novel about an old Cuban fisherman Santiago and his battle with a great marlin． For 84 days Santiago does not catch a single fish despite his excellent fishing skill．He goes far out into the sea and hooks a giant marlin．A desperate struggle ensues in which Santiago manages to kill the fish and tie it to his boat，only to find that on the way home he has to fight a more desperate struggle with some dangerous giant sharks，which eat up the marlin，leaving only a skeleton．The old man brings it home and goes to bed to dream，almost dead with exhaustion．Stephen Crane，in his short story＂The Open Boat＂，makes clear that nature is ultimately indifferent to the plight of man，possessing no consciousness that we can understand．As the stranded men progress through the story，the reality of nature＇s lack of concern for them becomes increasingly clear．The narrator highlights this development by changing the way he describes the sea． Early in the story，the sea snarls，hisses，and bucks like a bronco；later，it merely＂paces to and fro，＂no longer an actor in the men＇s drama．In reality，the sea does not change at all；only the men＇s perception of the sea changes．The unaltered activity of the gulls，clouds，and tides illustrates that nature does not behave any differently in light of the men＇s struggle to survive．
（3）亚哈承认他不仅仅是在追捕白鲸莫比·迪克，更是在追寻“隐藏在”鲸鱼背后的东西，也许是那不可理解且不可征服的自然本质。许多文学作品都涉及人与自然世界之间的斗争。例如，《老人与海》是一部关于古巴老渔夫圣地亚哥与一条大马林鱼搏斗的小说。尽管圣地亚哥钓鱼技术高超，但他连续 84 天一无所获。他远航出海，钓上一条巨大的马林鱼。随后展开了一场激烈的搏斗，圣地亚哥最终杀死了鱼并将其绑在船上，然而在返航途中，他不得不与一些危险的巨型鲨鱼展开更为绝望的斗争，鲨鱼将马林鱼吃得只剩骨架。老人带着骨架回家，疲惫不堪地上床做梦。斯蒂芬·克兰在他的短篇小说《开船》中明确指出，自然最终对人的困境漠不关心，没有我们能理解的意识。随着被困者故事的推进，自然对他们漠不关心的现实愈发明显。叙述者通过改变描述大海的方式来突出这一发展。故事早期，.. 故事中，大海咆哮、嘶嘶作响，像一匹野马乱蹦；后来，它只是“来回踱步”，不再是男人们戏剧中的演员。实际上，大海根本没有变化；只有男人们对大海的感知发生了变化。海鸥、云朵和潮汐不变的活动表明，自然界并不会因为人类的生存斗争而有所不同。

Nature has been mysterious and unconquerable，and we human beings have paid high prices to learn lessons．Disasters like shipwrecks，earthquakes，plagues cause pains and remind us of being in harmony with the environment．
大自然一直神秘且不可征服，我们人类为此付出了高昂的代价来吸取教训。船难、地震、瘟疫等灾难带来痛苦，也提醒我们要与环境和谐相处。

Edgar Allan Poe  埃德加·爱伦·坡
地位：One of the most controversial writers；A short－story writer，a poet，a critic，and an editor；Pioneer of Science Fiction；
地位：最具争议的作家之一；短篇小说作家、诗人、评论家和编辑；科幻小说的先驱；
Father of the Detective Story；Master of macabre；Forerunner of horror fiction，psychoanalytic criticism and symbolism； America＇s first great literary critic and theoretician；
侦探小说之父；恐怖怪诞大师；恐怖小说、精神分析批评和象征主义的先驱；美国首位伟大的文学批评家和理论家；
诗歌：
To Helen  致海伦
The Raven－Made Poe a household name
《乌鸦》——使坡家喻户晓
Annabel Lee  《安娜贝尔·李》
The City in the Sea
海中的城市
短篇小说：
The Fall of the House of Usher－masterpiece
厄舍府的崩塌——杰作
The Tell－Teke Heart  告密心
The Murders in the Rue Morgue－Ratiocination（He founded the concept of deductive reasoning）
莫格街谋杀案——推理（他创立了演绎推理的概念）
The Purloined Letter  被窃的信件
文学理论：
The Poetic Principle  诗的原则
The Philosophy of Composition
创作哲学

地位：The real poet of America；An American poet，essayist，and humanist；He represents a part of the transition between Transcendentalism and Realism；Father of the free verse
地位：美国真正的诗人；美国诗人、散文家和人文主义者；他代表了超验主义与现实主义之间的过渡；自由诗之父
诗集：Leaves of Grass—A collection of poetry（2005首师）
诗集：《草叶集》——一部诗歌集（2005 首诗）
诗歌：
＂Song of Myself＂  《我歌唱自己》
＂The Poet＂  《诗人》
＂When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom＇d＂
《当丁香花最后在门前盛开》
＂O Captain，My Captain．＂－Eulogizes Lincoln＇s monumental contributions and express the poet＇s mourning for Lincoln＇s death with the background of victory of the Civil War．
《哦，船长，我的船长。》——颂扬林肯的伟大贡献，并在内战胜利的背景下表达诗人对林肯逝世的哀悼。
＂I Hear America Singing＂
《我听见美国在歌唱》
＂There was a Child Went Forth＂
《有个孩子走了出来》
＂Out of Cradle Endlessly Rocking＂
《摇篮外无尽摇晃》
＂Two Riverlets＂  《两条小河》
＂Drum Traps＂  《鼓陷阱》
主题：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国主题：His poetry is filled with optimistic expectation and enthusiasm about new things and new epoch．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国主题：他的诗歌充满了对新事物和新时代的乐观期待与热情
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Whitman believed that poetry could play a vital part in the process of creating a new nation．It could enable Americans to celebrate their release from the Old World and the colonial rule．And it could also help them understand their new status and to define themselves in the new world of possibilities．Hence，the abundance of themes in his poetry voices freshness．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 惠特曼认为诗歌可以在创造新国家的过程中发挥重要作用。它能够使美国人庆祝他们摆脱旧世界和殖民统治的解放。同时，它也能帮助他们理解自己的新身份，并在充满可能性的新世界中定义自我。因此，他诗歌中丰富的主题展现出一种新鲜感。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 阶级属性：He shows concern for the whole hard－working people and the burgeoning life of cities．To Whitman，the fast growth of industry and wealth in cities indicated a lively future of the nation，despite the crowded，noisy，and squalid conditions and the slackness in morality．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 阶级属性：他关心整个辛勤劳动的人民和城市中蓬勃发展的生活。对惠特曼来说，尽管城市拥挤、嘈杂、肮脏，道德松懈，但工业和财富的快速增长预示着国家充满活力的未来。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国精神：Individualism—He advocates the realization of the individual value．Most of the poems in Leaves of Grass sing of the＂en－masse＂and the self as well．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国精神：个人主义——他主张实现个人价值。《草叶集》中的大多数诗歌既歌颂集体，也歌颂自我。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国梦：Pursuit of love and happiness is approved of repeatedly and affectionately in his lines．Sexual love，a rather taboo topic of the time，is displayed candidly as something adorable．The individual person and his desires must be respected．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国梦：在他的诗句中，追求爱情和幸福被反复且深情地认可。性之爱，这一当时颇为禁忌的话题，被坦率地展现为可爱的事物。个人及其欲望必须受到尊重
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 政治：Some of Whitman＇s poems are politically committed．Before and during the Civil War，Whitman expressed much mourning for the sufferings of the young lives in the battlefield and showed a determination to carry on the fighting dauntlessly until the final victory，as in poems like＂Cavalry Crossing a Ford．＂Later，he wrote down a great many poems to air his sorrow over the death of Lincoln，and one of the famous is＂When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom＇d＂．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 政治：惠特曼的一些诗歌具有政治色彩。在内战前及内战期间，惠特曼表达了对战场上年轻生命受苦的深切哀悼，并表现出无畏坚持战斗直至最终胜利的决心，如《骑兵渡河》等诗。后来，他写了许多诗篇来表达对林肯逝世的悲痛，其中著名的有《当丁香最后在门前盛开时》。
风格语言：To dramatize the nature of these new poetical feelings，Whitman employed brand－new means in his poetry， which would first be discerned in his style and language．
风格语言：为了表现这些新的诗歌情感的本质，惠特曼在诗歌中采用了全新的手法，这首先体现在他的风格和语言上。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Whitman＇s poetic style is marked，first of all，by the use of the poetic＂l．＂Whitman becomes all those people in his poems and yet still remains＂Wait Whitman＂，hence a discovery of the self in the other with such an identification．In such a manner，Whitman invites his readers to participate in the process of sympathetic identification．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 惠特曼的诗歌风格首先以诗歌中的“我”的使用为标志。惠特曼在诗中成为所有这些人物，同时仍然是“惠特曼本人”，从而实现了在他者中发现自我的认同。通过这种方式，惠特曼邀请读者参与到同情认同的过程中
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Whitman is also radically innovative in terms of the form of his poetry．He adopted＂free verse，＂that is，poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme，A looser and more open－ended syntactical structure is frequently favored．Lines and sentences of different lengths are left lying side by side just as things are，undisturbed and separate．There are few compound sentences to draw objects and experiences into a system of hierarchy．Whitman was the first American to use free verse extensively．By means of＂free verse，＂Whitman turned the poem into an open field，an area of vital possibility where the reader can allow his own imagination to play．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 惠特曼在诗歌形式上也具有彻底的创新性。他采用了“自由诗”，即没有固定节拍或规律押韵的诗歌，常常偏好一种更松散、更开放式的句法结构。不同长度的诗行和句子并列摆放，保持原样，彼此独立且不受干扰。很少有复合句将事物和体验纳入一个层级体系。惠特曼是第一位广泛使用自由诗的美国诗人。通过“自由诗”，惠特曼将诗歌变成了一个开放的领域，一个充满活力的可能性空间，读者可以在其中自由发挥自己的想象力。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Whitman is conversational and casual，in the fluid，expansive，and unstructured style of talking．However，there is a strong sense of the poems being rhythmical．The reader can feel the rhythm of Whitman＇s thought and cadences of his feeling．Parallelism and phonetic recurrence at the beginning of the lines also contribute to the musicality of his poems．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 惠特曼的风格对话式且随意，流畅、宽广且无结构的谈话风格。然而，诗歌中强烈的节奏感依然存在。读者可以感受到惠特曼思想的节奏和情感的韵律。诗行开头的排比和语音重复也增强了他诗歌的音乐性
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Whitman＇s language is contrary to the rhetoric of traditional poetry，Whitman＇s is relatively simple and even rather crude．Most of the pictures he painted with words are honest，undistorted images of different aspects of America of the day．The particularity about these images is that they are unconventional in the way they break down the social division based on religion，gender，class，and race．One of the most often－used methods in Whitman＇s poems is to make colors and images fleet past the mind＇s eye of the reader．Another characteristic in Whitman＇s language is his strong tendency use oral English．Whitman＇s vocabulary is amazing．He would use powerful，colorful well as rarely used words，words of foreign origin and sometimes even wrong words．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 惠特曼的语言与传统诗歌的修辞相反，惠特曼的语言相对简单，甚至有些粗糙。他用文字描绘的大多数画面都是诚实、未加扭曲的当时美国不同方面的形象。这些形象的特殊之处在于它们以非传统的方式打破了基于宗教、性别、阶级和种族的社会分层。惠特曼诗歌中最常用的方法之一是让色彩和图像在读者的心眼中迅速掠过。惠特曼语言的另一个特点是他强烈倾向于使用口语英语。惠特曼的词汇量令人惊叹。他会使用强有力、色彩丰富的词汇，以及罕见的词汇、外来词，有时甚至是错误的词。
Leaves of Grass 介绍：
《草叶集》介绍：
Walt Whitman is a poet with a strong sense of mission，having devoted all his life to the creation of the＂single＂poem， Leaves of Grass．
沃尔特·惠特曼是一位具有强烈使命感的诗人，他毕生致力于创作“单一”诗篇《草叶集》
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The title：It is significant that Whitman entitled his book Leaves of Grass．He said that where there is earth，where there is water，there is grass．Grass the most common thing with the greatest vitality，is an image of the poet himself，a symbol of the then rising American nation and an embodiment of his ideals about democracy and freedom．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 书名：惠特曼将他的书命名为《草叶集》具有重要意义。他说，只要有土地，有水，就有草。草是最常见且生命力最强的事物，是诗人本人的形象，是当时新兴的美国民族的象征，也是他关于民主与自由理想的体现。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Theme：In this giant work，openness，freedom，and above all，individualism（the belief that the rights and freedom of individual people are most important）are all that concerned him．Whitman brings the hard－working farmers and laborers into American literature，attack the slavery system and racial discrimination．In this book he also extols nature，democracy，labor and creation，and sings of man＇s dignity and equality，and of the brightest future of mankind．Most of the poems in Leaves of Grass sing of the＂en－masse＂and the self as well．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 主题：在这部巨著中，开放、自由，尤其是个人主义（即个人权利和自由最为重要的信念）是他关注的核心。惠特曼将辛勤劳作的农民和工人带入美国文学，抨击奴隶制和种族歧视。在这本书中，他还赞美自然、民主、劳动与创造，歌颂人的尊严和平等，以及人类最光明的未来。《草叶集》中的大多数诗歌既歌唱“群体”，也歌唱自我
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The poet＇s essential purpose：His aim was nothing less than to express some new poetical feelings and to initiate a poetic tradition in which difference should be recognized．The genuine participation of a poet in a common cultural effort was，according to Whitman，to behave as a supreme individualist；however，the poet＇s essential purpose was to identify his ego with the world，and more specifically with the democratic＂en－masse＂of America， which is established in the opening lines of Song of Myself．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 诗人的根本目的：他的目标不仅仅是表达一些新的诗意感受，更是要开创一种承认差异的诗歌传统。根据惠特曼的观点，诗人真正参与共同文化事业的方式，是作为一个至高无上的个体主义者行事；然而，诗人的根本目的在于将自我与世界认同起来，更具体地说，是与美国的民主“大众”认同，这一点在《我歌唱自己》的开头几句中得以确立。
Song of Myself 介绍：
《我歌唱自己》介绍：
The two principal beliefs embodied in this poem／In this poem Whitman sets forth two principal beliefs：
这首诗体现的两个主要信念／在这首诗中，惠特曼提出了两个主要信念：
The theory of universality，which is illustrated by lengthy catalogues of people and things，the belief in the singularity and equality of all beings in value．He extols whole universe and the world．He is thinking of the self as a powerful and sensitive instrument for receiving and expressing．He moves from himself to you to others to all humanity all together about him．
普遍性理论，通过对人物和事物的长篇列举来说明，信仰所有存在在价值上的独特性和平等性。他赞美整个宇宙和世界。他将自我视为一个强大而敏感的接收和表达工具。他从自己出发，转向你，再到他人，最终到他周围的全人类
Emily Dickinson（2012 人大）
艾米莉·狄金森（2012 人大）
作品：
＂The Soul selects her own Society＂
“灵魂选择她自己的社群”
＂My life closed twice before its close＂
“我的生命在终结前已两度闭合”
＂Because I could not stop for Death＂
“因为我无法为死亡停留”
＂I heard a fly buzz when I died＂
“我死时听见一只苍蝇嗡嗡叫”
＂Mine－by the Right of the White Election＂
“属于我——凭借白色选举的权利”
＂Wild Nights－Wild Nights＂
“狂野的夜——狂野的夜”
＂Death is a Dialogue between＂
“死亡是一场对话”
＂I died for Beauty－but was scarce＂
“我为美而死——但几乎未曾”
（1）What is the theme of the poem？（5 points）
（1）这首诗的主题是什么？（5 分）
（2）Analyze the poetic devices．（10 points）
（2）分析诗中的修辞手法。（10 分）
（3）The original poem involves a dash，but after Dickinson died，the dash has been deleted in order to adapt traditional poem publication．Which version do you prefer and why？（10 points）
（3）原诗中有一个破折号，但在狄金森去世后，为了适应传统诗歌的出版，这个破折号被删除了。你更喜欢哪个版本？为什么？（10 分）

（1）＂The Soul selects her own Society＂is one of Emily Dickinson＇s＇soul＇poems in which she explores inner needs and self－reliance．In the poem，the speaker justifies her decision to lead a mostly solitary life．The speaker argues that the soul naturally rejects the outside world in favor of her own inner circle．In doing so，the speaker champions individuality and self－reliance in a society that often values neither of these qualities．
（1）《灵魂选择她自己的社群》是艾米莉·狄金森的“灵魂”诗之一，她在诗中探讨了内心需求和自立。在这首诗中，叙述者为自己选择过大多孤独生活的决定辩护。叙述者认为灵魂自然会拒绝外部世界，偏爱她自己的内心圈子。通过这样做，叙述者在一个常常不重视这两种品质的社会中，倡导了个性和自立
（2）In the poem，Dickinson makes use of several literary devices such as caesura，alliteration，personification，and metaphor．Caesura is a formal device that is seen in almost every line of this piece．Dickinson＇s dashes，which are an integral part of her writing style，divide the lines of verse up．For example，line one of the third stanza reads：＂I＇ve known her－from an ample nation＂．Alliteration is a form of repetition that is concerned with the use and reuse of the same consonant sound at the beginning of multiple words．For example，＂Soul＂and＂Society＂in line one．Dickinson capitalizes ＂Soul＂personifying it．This indicates that the speaker does not have conscious control over the＂Soul．＂It is as if the＂Soul＂ makes choices of its own will．The＂Soul＂decides instead of the mind．Even if the speaker is missing out on great people， like an＂Emperor，＂it is too late to open the door．The speaker uses an extended metaphor comparing the soul to a house． More specifically，the soul seems to have a house，with doors，a gate，and a doormat；but the soul also seems to be that house，with the power both to let people into her inner world，and to keep them out．This house metaphor，in turn，reflects the way the speaker perceives of the soul：as something closed off and self－contained，with the capacity to shut out unwelcome guests．The idea of the soul being／having a house also evokes the symbolic comfort and intimacy of the home．
（2）在这首诗中，狄金森运用了多种文学手法，如停顿、头韵、拟人和隐喻。停顿是一种形式手法，几乎出现在这首诗的每一行中。狄金森的破折号是她写作风格的重要组成部分，用来划分诗句。例如，第三节第一行写道：“我认识她——来自一个广阔的国度”。头韵是一种重复形式，关注多个单词开头相同辅音音素的使用和重复。例如，第一行中的“Soul”和“Society”。狄金森将“Soul”大写，赋予其拟人化特征。这表明说话者对“灵魂”没有有意识的控制。仿佛“灵魂”按照自己的意愿做出选择。“灵魂”代替理智做决定。即使说话者错过了伟大的人物，比如“皇帝”，也为时已晚，无法打开门。说话者使用了一个延伸隐喻，将灵魂比作一座房子。更具体地说，灵魂似乎拥有一座房子，有门、门廊和门垫；但灵魂同时也似乎就是那座房子，既有权力让人进入她的内心世界，也有权力将他们拒之门外。这个房子隐喻，反过来，反映了说话者的方式 灵魂被视为：一种封闭且自足的存在，能够拒绝不受欢迎的访客。灵魂拥有／是一个房子的想法，也唤起了家的象征性安慰和亲密感。
（3）Emily Dickinson was a strikingly inventive poet，and her work stands out from that of her mid－19th－century contemporaries．Her innovative use of dash，however，was not always welcomed：Dickinson＇s early editors aggressively reshaped her poetry to make it more palatable to the public．I prefer the original one with a dash which can interrupt flow and create dramatic pauses．Dickinson＇s characteristic use of seemingly out－of－place dashes helps set the somber mood of the poem．Also，Dickinson helped form unique American characteristics in poetic creation．American literature then strived to get rid of the influence from its European counterparts and being criticized to be an imitator．Dickinson＇s use of dash， which promoted freedom，the individuality and innovation shows native American spirit．Besides，I uphold a view that the poet should have the freedom to deliver poetry from restrictions of traditional patterns and show ideas freely．
（3）艾米莉·狄金森是一位极具创造力的诗人，她的作品在 19 世纪中叶的同时代诗人中独树一帜。然而，她对破折号的创新使用并不总是受到欢迎：狄金森的早期编辑们积极改写她的诗歌，使其更易被公众接受。我更喜欢带有破折号的原版，因为破折号可以打断节奏，制造戏剧性的停顿。狄金森那种看似不合时宜的破折号使用，有助于营造诗歌的沉郁氛围。此外，狄金森帮助形成了美国诗歌创作中独特的美国特质。美国文学随后努力摆脱欧洲文学的影响，避免被批评为模仿者。狄金森对破折号的使用，体现了自由、个性和创新，展现了土生土长的美国精神。此外，我坚持认为诗人应有自由，不受传统模式的限制，自由表达思想。

定义：The American Romanticism，one of the most important period in the history of American Literature，stretches from the end of the 18th century to the outbreak of the Civil War．
定义：美国浪漫主义是美国文学史上最重要的时期之一，时间跨度从 18 世纪末到内战爆发。
时间：（文学上）
It started with the publication of Washington Irving＇s＂Sketch Book＂and ended with Walt Whitman＇s＂Leaves of Grass＂．背景：
它始于华盛顿·欧文《素描簿》的出版，终于沃尔特·惠特曼《草叶集》的问世。背景：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Historically，westward expression in colonial American
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 历史上，殖民地时期美国的西部扩张
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Economically，an industrial transformation
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 经济上，工业转型
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Politically，democracy，equality－－idealism
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 政治上，民主，平等——理想主义
新特点：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark In essence the expression of＂a new experience＂and contained＂an alien quality＂－＂spirit of the place＂radically new．浪漫主义文学表达来到新大陆的＂新体验＂
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 本质上是“新体验”的表达，包含“异质特性”——“地方精神”彻底新颖。浪漫主义文学表达了来到新大陆的“新体验”
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Puritanism：moralizing 受清教主义影响，浪漫主义文学也有说教倾向
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Desire for an escape from society and a return to nature 批判机械化工业化社会，向往大自然
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 渴望逃离社会，回归自然。批判机械化工业化社会，向往大自然
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Growth of national consciousness — local dialects 逐渐增长的民族主义，方言逐渐形成并应用在文学中
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Transformation 这是美国的形成时期，自然也是文学的形成时期

定义：Transcendentalism is literature，philosophical，and cultural movement that flourished in New England from about 1836 to 1860.
定义：超验主义是一种文学、哲学和文化运动，大约在 1836 年至 1860 年间在新英格兰兴盛。
地位：It is the summit of American Romanticism．
地位：它是美国浪漫主义的巅峰。
官方定义：＂T，is idealism，idealism as appears in 1842．＂＂Whatever belongs to the class oriented intuitive thought＂．
官方定义：“它是理想主义，1842 年出现的理想主义。”“凡属于以直觉思维为导向的类别。”

理论来源：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Romantic literature of Europe
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 欧洲的浪漫主义文学
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Idealism philosophy of Germany and France，Neo－Platonism
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 德国和法国的理想主义哲学，新柏拉图主义
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark American Puritanism－self－reliance，self－culture
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美国清教主义——自力更生，自我修养
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Oriental Mysticism   $✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 东方神秘主义
性质：Never a rigorously systematic philosophy．／loose group
性质：从未成为严格系统的哲学／松散的群体
反对：Materialistic－oriented life
反对：物质主义导向的生活
组织形式：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The Transcendentalist Club－informal club
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 超验主义者俱乐部－非正式俱乐部
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The Dial－journal；made their voice heard
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 《Dial》－期刊；让他们的声音被听见
主要理论：（2015／2016 人大）
Oversoul：One the one hand，Oversoul is the title of one of Emerson＇s essay．And on the other hand，the idea of the Oversoul is that every individual is eternally connected with every other living thing in the universe．With the Oversoul we are all connected to nature and each other．It contains and unites all souls and acts as the animating force behind them．It outlines his belief in a God who lives in everyone and we can communicate with him without a church．
超灵：一方面，超灵是爱默生一篇散文的标题。另一方面，超灵的理念是每个个体永远与宇宙中所有其他生命相连。通过超灵，我们都与自然和彼此相连。它包含并统一所有灵魂，是它们背后的生命力。它阐述了他对上帝的信仰——上帝存在于每个人之中，我们可以无需教堂与他沟通。
The concept of Oversoul shows that he placed emphasis on spirit as the most important thing in the world．The Oversoul was an all－pervading power for goodness，omnipresent，and it existed in nature and man alike and constituted the chief element of the universe．It represented a new way of looking at the world．It was a reaction to the 18th－century Newtonian concept of the universe，and a reaction against the direction that a mechanized，capitalist American was taking．（materialism） （2016 北二外）
超灵的概念表明他强调精神是世界上最重要的东西。超灵是一种无处不在的善的力量，存在于自然和人类之中，是宇宙的主要元素。它代表了一种看待世界的新方式。它是对 18 世纪牛顿宇宙观的反应，也是对机械化、资本主义美国所走方向的反抗。（物质主义）（2016 北二外）
Individual：He stressed the importance of individual．The individual was the most important element of the Society．As the Regeneration of society could only come about through the regeneration of individual，his perfection，his self－culture，and self－improvement，and not the frenzied effort to get rich，should become the first concern of his life．The ideal type of man was the self－reliant individual．The individual soul communed with the oversoul and was therefore divine．It presented a new way of looking at man．It was a reaction against the Calvinist concept and the process of dehumanization that came in the wake of developing capitalism．By trying to reassert the importance of the individual，they emphasized the significance of men regaining their lost personality．
个体：他强调个体的重要性。个体是社会中最重要的元素。由于社会的再生只能通过个体的再生来实现，他的完善、自我修养和自我提升，而非疯狂地追求财富，应成为他生命中的首要关注点。理想的人格类型是自立的个体。个体的灵魂与超灵魂相通，因此是神圣的。这为人类提供了一种新的视角。这是对加尔文主义观念及随资本主义发展而来的非人化过程的反应。通过试图重新强调个体的重要性，他们强调了人们重新获得失去个性的意义
Nature：Transcendentalism offered a fresh perception of nature as symbolic of the Spirit or God．Nature was，to them，not purely matter，it was alive，filled with God＇s overwhelming presence．It was the garment of the Oversoul．Therefore it could exercise a Health and restorative influence on the human mind．＂Go Back to nature，sink yourself back into its influence， and you＇ll become spiritually whole again＂things in nature tended to become symbolic，and the physical world was a symbol of the spiritual．This turn added to the tradition if literary symbolism in American literature．
自然：超验主义提供了一种全新的自然观，将自然视为精神或上帝的象征。对他们来说，自然不仅仅是物质，它是有生命的，充满了上帝强烈的存在感。自然是“大灵魂”的外衣。因此，自然能够对人类心灵产生健康和恢复的影响。“回归自然，沉浸于它的影响之中，你将再次获得精神的完整。”自然中的事物往往变成象征，物质世界是精神世界的象征。这一转变丰富了美国文学中象征主义的传统。
其他拓展：In 1836，Emerson＇s essay Nature was published．The essay states that nature is the experience of solitude．If one wants to be alone，all they have to do is look at the stars，which are inaccessible and create a feeling of respect．They are so beautiful and mysterious．
其他拓展：1836 年，爱默生的散文《自然》发表。文章指出，自然是孤独的体验。如果一个人想要独处，只需仰望星空，那些遥不可及的星星会激发敬畏之情。它们如此美丽而神秘。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Nature has the elements of wisdom，happiness，and simplicity．It helps us forget our worries．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 自然蕴含智慧、幸福与纯朴。它帮助我们忘却烦恼。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Nature is meant for man，and man for nature
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 自然是为人类而存在，人类也是为自然而存在
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Man needs to recognize the spirit of nature．Nature helps one to build up their own spirituality．In nature，we find ourselves．Through nature，we are all one．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 人需要认识自然的精神。自然帮助人们建立自己的灵性。在自然中，我们找到自我。通过自然，我们都是一体的。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark City life，away from nature，is artificial．It holds one back from achieving their full potential．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 城市生活，远离自然，是人为的。它阻碍人们发挥全部潜力。

1．What does Uncle Tom＇s Cabin symbolize？
1．《汤姆叔叔的小屋》象征着什么？
Near the end of the book，after George Shelby frees his slaves，he tells them that，when they look at Uncle Tom＇s cabin，they
在书的结尾附近，乔治·谢尔比解放了他的奴隶后，他告诉他们，当他们看到汤姆叔叔的小屋时，他们…
should remember their freedom and dedicate themselves to leading a Christian life like Uncle Tom＇s．The sight of Uncle Tom＇s cabin on George Shelby s property serves as a persistent reminder to him of the sufferings Tom experienced as a slave．The cabin also becomes a metaphor for Uncle Tom＇s willingness to be beaten and even killed rather than harm or betray his fellow slaves－his willingness to suffer and die rather than go against Christian values of love and loyalty．The image of the cabin thus neatly encapsulates the main themes of the book，signifying both the destructive power of slavery and the ability of Christian love to overcome it．
人们应当铭记他们的自由，并致力于过像汤姆叔叔那样的基督徒生活。乔治·谢尔比财产上的汤姆叔叔的小屋景象不断提醒着他汤姆作为奴隶所经历的苦难。小屋也成为了汤姆叔叔宁愿被打甚至被杀，也不愿伤害或背叛同胞奴隶的隐喻——他宁愿受苦甚至牺牲生命，也不违背基督教关于爱与忠诚的价值观。小屋的形象因此恰如其分地概括了这本书的主要主题，象征着奴隶制的破坏力量以及基督教之爱克服这一切的能力。

2．Please comment on The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne．Your discussion should include the writer＇s basic background，the main characters，the theme and primary writing features，and the significance of this work．（2008 北语）（注：这是一道综合题，以下几道题都可以作为表述的材料。注意，当碰到这样的题目时，题中问的每一个问题都要回答到，而且要分段落，不能全篇只有一段。在每段的开头应当有主题句）
The themes of The Scarlet Letter．（2020 川大）
《红字》的主题。（2020 川大）
a．Sin，Knowledge，and the Human Condition
a．罪恶、知识与人类境况
Sin and knowledge are linked in the Judeo－Christian tradition．The Bible begins with the story of Adam and Eve，who were expelled from the Garden of Eden for eating from the tree of knowledge of good and evil．As a result of their knowledge，Adam and Eve are made aware of their humanness，that which separates them from the divine and from other creatures．Once expelled from the Garden of Eden，they are forced to toil and to procreate－two＂labors＂that seem to define the human condition．The experience of Hester and Dimmesdale recalls the story of Adam and Eve because，in both cases， sin results in expulsion and suffering．But it also results in knowledge－specifically，in knowledge of what it means to be human．For Hester，the scarlet letter functions as＂her passport into regions where other women dared not tread＂，leading her to＂speculate＂about her society and herself more＂boldly＂than anyone else in New England．As for Dimmesdale，the ＂burden＂of his sin gives him＂sympathies so intimate with the sinful brotherhood of man－kind，so that his heart vibrates in unison with theirs．＂His eloquent and powerful sermons＂derive from this sense of empathy．Hester and Dimmesdale contemplate their own sinfulness on a daily basis and try to reconcile it with their lived experiences．The Puritan elders，on the other hand，insist on seeing earthly experience as merely an obstacle on the path to heaven．Thus，they view $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin as a threat to the community that should be punished and suppressed．Their answer to Hester＇s $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin is to ostracize her．Yet， Puritan society is stagnant，while Hester and Dimmesdale s experience shows that a state of sinfulness can lead to personal growth，sympathy，and understanding of others．Paradoxically，these qualities are shown to be incompatible with a state of purity．
罪与知识在犹太－基督教传统中是相互关联的。圣经以亚当和夏娃的故事开篇，他们因食用了善恶知识树上的果实而被逐出伊甸园。由于他们获得了知识，亚当和夏娃意识到了自己的凡人身份，这种身份将他们与神性及其他生物区分开来。一旦被逐出伊甸园，他们被迫劳作和繁衍——这两种“劳作”似乎定义了人类的处境。海斯特和迪姆斯代尔的经历让人联想到亚当和夏娃的故事，因为在两种情况下，罪都导致了驱逐和痛苦。但罪也带来了知识——具体来说，是对作为人的意义的认识。对于海斯特来说，猩红字成为了“她进入其他女性不敢涉足之地的通行证”，使她比新英格兰的任何人都更“大胆”地“思考”她的社会和她自己。至于迪姆斯代尔，他罪的“负担”赋予了他“与人类罪恶兄弟情谊的深切同情，使他的心与他们同频共振。”他那雄辩而有力的布道正源于这种共情。海斯特和迪姆斯代尔反思他们自身的罪恶感时，.. 他们每天都在努力调和这些观念与他们的生活经历。另一方面，清教徒长老坚持认为尘世的经历只是通往天堂道路上的障碍。因此，他们将 $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin 视为对社区的威胁，应该受到惩罚和压制。他们对海丝特的 $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin 的回应是将她排斥在外。然而，清教徒社会停滞不前，而海丝特和迪姆斯代尔的经历表明，罪恶状态可以带来个人成长、同情心和对他人的理解。矛盾的是，这些品质被证明与纯洁状态不相容。

The characters in the novel frequently debate the identity of the＂Black Man＂，the embodiment of evil．Over the course of the novel，the＂Black Man＂is associated with Dimmesdale，Chillingworth，and Mistress Hibbins，and little Pearl is thought by some to be the Devil＇s child．The characters also try to root out the causes of evil：did Chillingworth＇s selfishness in marrying Hester force her to the＂evil＂she committed in Dimmesdale＇s arms？Is Hester and Dimmesdale＇s deed responsible for Chillingworth＇s transformation into a malevolent being？This confusion over the nature and causes of evil reveals the problems with the Puritan conception of $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin ．The book argues that true evil arises from the close relationship between hate and love．As the narrator points out in the novel＇s concluding chapter，both emotions depend upon＂a high degree of intimacy and heart－knowledge；each renders one individual dependent upon another．＂Evil is not found in Hester and Dimmesdale＇s lovemaking，nor even in the cruel ignorance of the Puritan fathers．Evil，in its most poisonous form，is found in the carefully plot－ted and precisely aimed revenge of Chillingworth，whose love has been perverted．Perhaps Pearl is not entirely wrong when she thinks Dimmesdale is the＂Black Man，＂because her father，too，has perverted his love． Dimmesdale，who should love Pearl，will not even publicly acknowledge her．His cruel denial of love to his own child may be seen as further perpetrating evil．
小说中的人物经常讨论“黑暗之人”的身份，即邪恶的化身。在小说的发展过程中，“黑暗之人”与迪姆斯代尔、奇林沃斯和希宾斯夫人联系在一起，有些人认为小珍珠是魔鬼的孩子。人物们也试图找出邪恶的根源：奇林沃斯自私地娶了海丝特，是否迫使她在迪姆斯代尔怀中犯下了“罪恶”？海丝特和迪姆斯代尔的行为是否导致了奇林沃斯变成了一个恶意的存在？对邪恶的本质和原因的混淆揭示了清教徒对 $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin 概念存在的问题。书中论证了真正的邪恶源于仇恨与爱的密切关系。正如叙述者在小说结尾章节中指出的，这两种情感都依赖于“高度的亲密和心灵的了解；每一种都使一个人依赖于另一个人。”邪恶不在于海斯特和迪姆斯代尔的爱情行为，甚至不在于清教徒长老们的残酷无知。邪恶，在其最毒害的形式中，存在于奇林沃斯精心策划且精准瞄准的复仇中，他的爱已被扭曲。或许珍珠并非完全错误地认为迪姆斯代尔是“黑暗之人”，因为她的父亲同样扭曲了他的爱。迪姆斯代尔本应爱珍珠，却连公开承认她都不愿意。他对自己孩子的残酷否认爱，可能被视为进一步加剧了邪恶。
c．Identity and Society（这段也可以用来回答＂为什么 Hester 不选择离开？＂）
After Hester is publicly shamed and forced by the people of Boston to wear a badge of humiliation，her unwillingness to
在海斯特被公开羞辱并被波士顿人民强迫佩戴耻辱标记后，她的不情愿..
leave the town may seem puzzling．She is not physically imprisoned and leaving the Massachusetts Bay Colony would allow her to remove the scarlet letter and resume a normal life．Surprisingly，Hester reacts with dismay when Chillingworth tells her that the town fathers are considering letting her remove the letter．Hester＇s behavior is premised on her desire to determine her own identity rather than to allow others to determine it for her．To her，running away or removing the letter would be an acknowledgment of society＇s power over her：she would be admitting that the letter A is a mark of shame and something from which she desires to escape．Instead，Hester stays，refiguring the scarlet letter as a symbol of her own experiences and character．Her past sin is a part of who she is；to pretend that it never happened would mean denying a part of herself．Thus，Hester very determinedly integrates her sin into her life．
离开小镇看似令人费解。她并未被身体囚禁，离开马萨诸塞湾殖民地可以让她摘掉红字，恢复正常生活。令人惊讶的是，当奇灵沃斯告诉她镇上的长老们正在考虑允许她摘掉红字时，海丝特却表现出沮丧。海丝特的行为基于她希望自己决定身份，而不是让别人为她决定。对她来说，逃跑或摘掉红字意味着承认社会对她的控制：她将承认字母 A 是耻辱的标记，是她想要逃避的东西。相反，海丝特选择留下，将红字重新定义为她自身经历和性格的象征。她过去的罪过是她身份的一部分；假装它从未发生过，就等于否认了自己的一部分。因此，海丝特坚定地将她的罪过融入了她的生活
Dimmesdale also struggles against a socially determined identity．As the community＇s minister，he is more symbol than human being．Except for Chillingworth，those around the minister willfully ignore his obvious anguish，misinterpreting it as holiness．Unfortunately，Dimmesdale never fully recognizes the truth of what Hester has learned：that individuality and strength are gained by quiet self－assertion and by a reconfiguration，not a rejection，of one＇s assigned identity．
丁梅斯代尔也在与社会所决定的身份作斗争。作为社区的牧师，他更多的是象征而非一个真实的人。除了奇灵沃斯，牧师周围的人都故意忽视他明显的痛苦，误解为圣洁。不幸的是，丁梅斯代尔从未完全认识到海丝特所领悟的真理：个性和力量是通过安静的自我主张以及对所赋予身份的重新构建，而非拒绝，来获得的。

Although The Scarlet Letter is about Hester Prynne，the book is not so much a consideration of her innate character as it is an examination of the forces that shape her and the transformations those forces effect．We know very little about Hester prior to her affair with Dimmesdale and her resultant public shaming．We read that she married Chillingworth although she did not love him，but we never fully understand why．The early chapters of the book suggest that，prior to her marriage，Hester was a strong－willed and impetuous young woman－she remembers her parents as loving guides who frequently had to restrain her incautious behavior．The fact that she has an affair also suggests that she once had a passion－ate nature．
虽然《红字》讲述的是海丝特·普林的故事，但这本书并非主要探讨她的天性，而是审视塑造她的各种力量以及这些力量带来的变化。我们对海丝特在与丁梅斯代尔的婚外情及随之而来的公开羞辱之前知之甚少。书中提到她嫁给了奇林沃斯，尽管她并不爱他，但我们从未完全理解原因。书的前几章暗示，在结婚之前，海丝特是一个意志坚强且冲动的年轻女子——她记得父母是慈爱的引导者，经常不得不约束她鲁莽的行为。她有婚外情这一事实也表明她曾经拥有一颗充满激情的心

But it is what happens after Hester＇s affair that makes her into the woman with whom the reader is familiar．Shamed and alienated from the rest of the community，Hester becomes contemplative．She speculates on human nature，social organization，and larger moral questions．Hester＇s tribulations also lead her to be stoic and a freethinker．Although the narrator pretends to disapprove of Hester＇s independent philosophizing，his tone indicates that he secretly admires her independence and her ideas．
但正是海丝特婚外情之后发生的事情，使她成为读者所熟悉的那个女人。被羞辱并被社区其他人疏远，海丝特变得沉思起来。她开始思考人性、社会组织以及更广泛的道德问题。海丝特的磨难也使她变得坚忍且思想自由。尽管叙述者假装不赞同海丝特独立的哲学思考，但他的语气表明他暗中钦佩她的独立性和她的思想

Hester also becomes a kind of compassionate maternal figure as a result of her experiences．Hester moderates her tendency to be rash，for she knows that such behavior could cause her to lose her daughter，Pearl．Hester is also maternal with respect to society：she cares for the poor and brings them food and clothing．By the novel＇s end，Hester has become a feminist mother figure to the women of the community．The shame attached to her scarlet letter is long gone．Women recognize that her punishment stemmed in part from the town fathers＇sexism，and they come to Hester seeking shelter from the sexist forces under which they themselves suffer．Throughout The Scarlet Letter，Hester is portrayed as an intelligent， capable，but not necessarily extraordinary woman．It is the extraordinary circumstances shaping her that make her such an important figure．
海丝特因她的经历也成为了一种富有同情心的母性形象。海丝特克制了自己冲动的倾向，因为她知道这种行为可能会让她失去女儿珀尔。海丝特对社会也表现出母性关怀：她照顾穷人，给他们送去食物和衣物。到了小说结尾，海丝特已经成为社区女性的女权主义母亲形象。她身上的红字所带来的羞耻感早已消失。女性们认识到她的惩罚部分源于镇上长者的性别歧视，她们纷纷来找海丝特，寻求庇护，逃避自己所遭受的性别歧视力量。在《红字》中，海丝特被描绘成一个聪明、有能力，但不一定非凡的女性。正是塑造她的非凡环境，使她成为如此重要的人物。
$$$$qquad\qquad
4．Symbol＂A＂in The Scarlet Letter：（2011 人大）
4．《红字》中的象征“A”：（2011 人大）
地位：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A central symbol；a key to the whole novel
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 一个核心象征；是理解整部小说的关键
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark It shows growth in the character and the community in which they live对不同人有不同含义：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 它展示了人物及其所生活社区的成长，对不同人有不同的含义：

$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A for Adultery（A token of her sin）：At the beginning of the novel，Hester was discovered to have committed adultery and was punished to wear a scarlet letter A made of cloth at her bosom and the letter symbolized her sin－ ＂adultery＂．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A 代表通奸（她罪行的标记）：小说开头，海丝特因通奸被发现，受到惩罚，必须在胸前佩戴一块由布制成的猩红字母 A，这个字母象征着她的罪行——“通奸”。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A for Able：Then when Hester became gradually accepted by the community through her honesty and hard work，the
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A 代表能干：随着海丝特通过诚实和勤劳逐渐被社区接受，%%
meaning of letter A slowly changes into＂Able＂because of Hester＇s charitable work and her intelligence in the community．
字母 A 的含义因海斯特在社区中的慈善工作和智慧而逐渐变成了“能干”。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A for Angel（a symbol of her virtue）：At the end of the novel，she continued to try her best to help the poor and the sick although she was actually trapped in poverty too．Gradually，people begin to regard Hester as an industrious kind－hearted and able woman．Therefore，the symbol has evolved to represent the high virtues Hester－＂angel（or angelic）＂（以上三点是必答点）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A 代表天使（象征她的美德）：在小说结尾，尽管海斯特实际上也陷入了贫困，她仍然尽力帮助穷人和病人。渐渐地，人们开始把海斯特看作一个勤劳、善良且能干的女人。因此，这个符号演变成代表海斯特的崇高美德——“天使（或天使般的）”（以上三点为必答点）
补充：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A for Alone or Alienation（a description of her living state）：For Hester，the＂A＂is not only a symbol only adultery，but also a symbol of alienation，which described her living condition in the puritanism community． She is an outcast from civil society and the citizen，and even when she appeared in the town，people often sneered at her in public．The familiar scene in the novel is that preachers would stop in the street and gave her sermons．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A 代表孤独或疏离（描述她的生活状态）：对于海斯特来说，“A”不仅是通奸的象征，也是疏离的象征，描述了她在清教徒社区中的生活状况。她是公民社会和市民的弃儿，即使她出现在镇上，人们也常常在公开场合嘲笑她。小说中常见的场景是传教士会在街上拦住她并对她讲道。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark For Adam：There is a reason to agree with the critical observation that A may represent Adamic，or prehistoric，an archetypal vice suggestive of＂original sin＂，as we have no means of getting to know when Hester and the priest sinned against the Seventy Commandment．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 代表亚当：有理由同意批评观点认为 A 可能代表亚当的，或史前的，一种典型的恶习，暗示“原罪”，因为我们无法得知海斯特和牧师何时违背了七十条诫命
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark For Arthur（a suggestion of the identity of Pearl＇s father）：In Hester＇s eyes，the scarlet letter A also can represent her lover and also her daughter＇s blood father－Arthur Dimmesdale．Therefore，the A can be regarded as the badge of the ardent love between Hester and Dimmesdale．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对于亚瑟（暗示珍珠父亲的身份）：在海丝特眼中，猩红字母 A 也可以代表她的情人，同时也是她女儿的亲生父亲——亚瑟·丁梅斯代尔。因此，A 可以被视为海丝特与丁梅斯代尔之间炽热爱情的象征。
For Dimmesdale：The＂A＂is a piercing reminder of his concealed sin．It also represents Dimmesdale＇s Agony and Ambition．
对于丁梅斯代尔：“A”是对他隐藏罪行的尖锐提醒。它也代表了丁梅斯代尔的痛苦与野心。
For Chillingworth：It is a symbol of Avenger，or his avenge．
对于奇灵沃斯：它是复仇者的象征，或代表他的复仇。
For Pearl：The green letter A woven by Pearl signifies her Aspiration of new life
对于珍珠：珍珠编织的绿色字母 A 象征她对新生命的渴望
For Puritans：It means Ancient，and Authority
对清教徒来说：它意味着古老和权威
For Readers or for critics：American
对读者或评论家来说：美国的
简洁版：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark To the puritans it is a symbol of just punishment．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对清教徒来说，它是公正惩罚的象征。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark To Hester，a device of unjust humiliation．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对海丝特来说，是不公正羞辱的工具
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark To Dimmesdale，a piercing reminder of his guilt．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对丁梅斯代尔来说，是对他罪恶感的尖锐提醒。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark To Chillingworth，a spur to the quest of revenge to Dimmesdale，a bright and mysterious curiosity．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对奇灵沃斯来说，是激励他对丁梅斯代尔展开复仇的鞭策；对丁梅斯代尔来说，是一个明亮而神秘的好奇之物。

$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The Prison：A symbol of the Harshness of the Puritan society
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 监狱：象征清教徒社会的严酷
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The Scaffold：A symbol of redemption and judgment；A symbol of the transition of main characters＇life
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 绞刑架：救赎与审判的象征；主角人生转折的象征
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The rosebush or the rose growing at the door of the prison：The passion of Hester in her heart
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 监狱门口的玫瑰丛或玫瑰：海丝特内心的热情
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark The Forest：The paganism or something supernatural—wizard；The symbol of nature
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 森林：异教或某种超自然力量——巫师；自然的象征

Hester Prynne：－Virgin Mary／Exposed sin
海斯特·普林：－圣母玛利亚／暴露的罪恶
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Beautiful，has strong will and endurance
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美丽，意志坚强且有耐力
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark An ideal woman：A symbol of strength and independence．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 理想女性：力量与独立的象征。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Her growth is the woman＇s growth．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 她的成长就是女性的成长
Hester：  海斯特：
Hester sounds like Hestier（a virgin goddess），Zeus＇s sister in Greek mythology，who is a beautiful Goddess．This gives the sense that Hester is a beautiful，spirited and proud woman．At the beginning of the story，she walks to the scaffold from the prison，with her head holding high and without shedding a tear in full public view．Hawthorne describes her as both a sinner and saint．Hester＇s strength of character in public is in fact her way of steeling herself against her inner wound
海斯特的名字听起来像希腊神话中宙斯的妹妹、处女女神赫斯提亚（Hestier），她是一位美丽的女神。这让人感觉海斯特是一个美丽、充满活力且骄傲的女性。故事一开始，她从监狱走向刑台，昂首挺胸，毫无泪水，完全公开地面对众人。霍桑将她描绘成既是罪人又是圣人。海斯特在公众面前展现出的坚强性格，实际上是她抵御内心创伤的方式，
inflicted by her infamy and scourged by the scarlet letter．
这种创伤源于她的恶名和猩红字的鞭笞。
Furthermore，Hester Prynne，like Anne Hutchinson who was mentioned in the first chapter，is a woman of strength and independence．We can see it from her refusal to reveal the child＇s father，which leads her to suffer the public humiliation， even though at that time she has the chances to escape punishment and shame；and from her rearing her child Pearl alone and doing the charity work willingly for the community that sneers her．She silently endures the humiliations given by the people she serves．
此外，海斯特·普林就像第一章中提到的安妮·哈钦森一样，是一个坚强且独立的女性。我们可以从她拒绝透露孩子父亲的身份看出这一点，这使她遭受了公众的羞辱，尽管当时她有机会逃避惩罚和耻辱；也可以从她独自抚养女儿珀尔，并自愿为嘲笑她的社区做慈善工作中看出。她默默忍受着那些她所服务的人们给予的羞辱
Hastier：  哈斯蒂尔：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Her marriage to Chillingworth is hasty．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 她与奇灵沃斯的婚姻是仓促的。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Her love with Dimmesdale is hasty．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 她与迪姆斯代尔的爱情是仓促的。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Her joy with Dimmesdale the priest is hasty．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 她与迪姆斯代尔神父的快乐是仓促的
Prynne：  普林：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Prurient（desire for physical love），which is considered as the root of sin and crime．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 好色（对肉体之爱的渴望），被视为罪恶和犯罪的根源。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Prune（purity or get rid of），which foreshadows Hester＇s self－save from the sin or crime．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 修剪（纯洁或去除），预示着海丝特自我拯救于罪恶或犯罪。
$✓$$✓$✓quad\checkmark \quad Pry（probe into），probe into the human nature（sin）．
$✓$$✓$✓quad\checkmark \quad 探查（探究），探查人性（罪恶）

Roger Chillingworth：A true sinner：A revenger－heartless and merciless－image of intellectual
罗杰·奇灵沃斯：一个真正的罪人：一个复仇者——无情且冷酷——知识分子的形象
His name means chilly，which means he is a merciless，coldhearted avenger．Being a man already in decay and misshapen from his birth hour，he marries Hester just want to light a household fire in his lonely and chilly heart．He is a bookworm and shows no love to his young wife．Chillingworth also means that the avenger＇s life is worthless．His misshapen body reflects or symbolizes the evil in his soul，which builds as the novel progresses．
他的名字意为寒冷，意味着他是一个无情、冷酷的复仇者。作为一个从出生时就已衰败且畸形的人，他娶了海丝特，只是想在他孤独寒冷的心中点燃一把家庭的火焰。他是个书呆子，对年轻的妻子毫无爱意。奇灵沃斯的名字也意味着复仇者的生命毫无价值。他畸形的身体反映或象征着他灵魂中的邪恶，这种邪恶随着小说的发展而不断积累。
Arthur Dimmesdale：Weak，coward，deceptive，hypocrisy－A concealed sin
亚瑟·丁梅斯代尔：软弱、懦弱、欺骗、虚伪——一个隐藏的罪恶
He is a hidden sinner or adulterer．Dim means dark and weakness，and dale means valley，so the dim dale is actually a symbol of the＂dim－interior＂of a clergyman．It symbolizes the minister＇s dim interior world of his love and the shadow of sin and guilt of his mind，as well as his struggle between desire and religious passion．
他是一个隐藏的罪人或通奸者。Dim 意为黑暗和软弱，dale 意为山谷，所以 dim dale 实际上象征着牧师“昏暗的内心”。它象征着牧师内心昏暗的爱、罪恶和内疚的阴影，以及他在欲望与宗教激情之间的挣扎
Pearl：Angel—The human symbol of the $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin（2017 中传）
珍珠：天使—— $\sin$$\sin$sin\sin 的人类象征（2017 中传）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Treasure－the treasure to her mother
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 宝藏——她母亲的宝藏
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Comes out of an ugly shell but is beautiful
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 从丑陋的外壳中诞生，但却美丽
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Comes out of a torturing process
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 经历折磨的过程后诞生
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Symbol or her mother＇s sin，love and passion and the morality of the community．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 象征着她母亲的罪孽、爱与激情以及社区的道德。

7．Is Hester Prynne a feminist？
7．海丝特·普林妮是女权主义者吗？
In the time period when The Scarlet Letter takes place，there was no such thing as a feminist in the modern sense，yet Hester＇s character combines traditional ideas of feminine behavior with a free－thinking and rebellious perspective that can be seen as kind of precursor to later feminist philosophy．When the reader first sees her，Hester is described as a beautiful new mother who resembles the Virgin Mary．The Virgin Mary is the ultimate symbol of female piety，but she is also，like Hester，a woman who conceived a child out of wedlock．Hester has similarly defied convention，but in her case the implication is that she has engaged in sex for pleasure，not just procreation．She further defies her community by refusing to name the baby＇s father．Since the authorities of her society are all men，this refusal is the one kind of power Hester can assert．The authorities can punish her，but they cannot force her to reveal her secret．In claiming the one form of power available to her－the power to keep a secret－Hester displays a feminist agency over her own life．
在《红字》所处的时代，并不存在现代意义上的女权主义者，但海丝特的性格融合了传统的女性行为观念与一种自由思想和反叛的视角，这可以被视为后来的女权哲学的某种先驱。当读者第一次看到她时，海丝特被描述为一位美丽的新母亲，形象类似圣母玛利亚。圣母玛利亚是女性虔诚的终极象征，但她也像海丝特一样，是一位未婚先孕的女性。海丝特同样违背了传统，但在她的情况下，暗示她是为了享乐而非仅仅为了生育而发生性关系。她进一步藐视她的社区，拒绝透露孩子父亲的身份。由于她所处社会的权威全是男性，这种拒绝成为海丝特能够主张的唯一权力。权威可以惩罚她，但不能强迫她揭示秘密。通过主张她唯一拥有的权力——保守秘密的权力，海丝特展现了对自己生活的女权主义能动性
Hester＇s reaction to her punishment might seem the model of feminine obedience，but in fact contains an element of rebellion and radicalism in her self－sufficiency and determination to keep her child．She is a devoted mother and her skilled needlework aligns her with a traditional female occupation that was viewed as appropriate and respectable．But her status as a single working mother，completely responsible for the well－being of her daughter but also free to raise Pearl however she likes，makes Hester a model of female self－reliance．Similarly，her seclusion and independence allow her to question ideas
海斯特对惩罚的反应看似女性顺从的典范，但实际上她在自给自足和坚决抚养孩子的态度中包含了一种反抗和激进的元素。她是一位尽职的母亲，她娴熟的针线活使她与传统的女性职业相联系，这种职业被视为合适且受人尊敬的。但作为一名单亲工作母亲，她完全负责女儿的福祉，同时又可以自由地以自己的方式抚养珀尔，这使得海斯特成为女性自立的典范。同样，她的隐居和独立使她能够质疑大多数人视为理所当然的观念：
that most people take for granted：＂The scarlet letter was her passport into regions which other women dared not tread．＂She comes to see that many of the expectations and ideas that govern how people behave actually serve no purpose other than to create social control．In particular，Hester realizes that women are treated unfairly and often live unhappy lives as a result： ＂The very nature of the opposite sex．．．is to be essentially modified，before woman can be allowed to assume what seems a fair and suitable position．＂
“猩红字是她进入其他女性不敢涉足领域的通行证。”她开始意识到，许多支配人们行为的期望和观念实际上除了制造社会控制之外毫无意义。特别是，海斯特意识到女性受到不公平对待，常因此过着不幸福的生活：“异性的本质……必须被根本改变，女性才能被允许承担看似公平且合适的位置。”

Hester expresses feminist tendencies when she asks Dimmesdale to leave New England and begin a new life with her and Pearl，but her eventual return to her community proves an ultimately more fitting statement of independence and personal liberation．While talking to Dimmesdale，Hester tears off the scarlet letter and takes off her cap to let her hair down，symbolizing her rejection of society＇s attempts to control her．While the scarlet letter is a punishment designed specifically for her，any respectable woman of the era would have worn a cap，so Hester is rejecting all of the ways that women are subjected to patriarchal control：＂Her sex，her youth，and the whole richness of her beauty came back．＂Yet despite this rebellious behavior，the novel ends with Hester voluntarily returning to New England，and continuing wearing the scarlet letter．This hardly seems like a feminist act of rebellion．But in wearing the letter out of choice，not obligation， Hester actually continues her feminist self－determination．As she goes on to support other women who are struggling in the community，she extends her personal liberation to others suffering under the patriarchy．In living the life she chooses，Hester embodies powerful ideas about female agency and equality．
海斯特表现出女性主义倾向，当她请求迪姆斯代尔离开新英格兰，与她和珀尔开始新生活时，但她最终回归社区的行为证明了这是一种更合适的独立和个人解放的表达。在与迪姆斯代尔交谈时，海斯特撕掉了红字，摘下帽子，让头发披散，象征着她对社会试图控制她的拒绝。虽然红字是专门为她设计的惩罚，但那个时代任何体面的女性都会戴帽子，因此海斯特实际上是在拒绝所有使女性受制于父权制的方式：“她的性别、她的青春以及她美丽的全部丰盈都回来了。”然而，尽管有这种反叛行为，小说结尾时海斯特自愿回到新英格兰，并继续佩戴红字。这看起来并不像是女性主义的反抗行为。但通过出于自愿而非义务佩戴红字，海斯特实际上继续保持她的女性主义自我决定权。当她继续支持社区中挣扎的其他女性时，她将个人解放扩展到了那些在父权制下受苦的人们。通过过自己选择的生活，海斯特 体现了关于女性能动性和平等的强烈理念。

The long introductory chapter titled＂The Custom－House＂explains why and how the novel was written by acknowledging that a real－life discovery was the seed of the tale．The narrator discovers a cloth embroidered with a scarlet ＂A＂along with a manuscript written by an earlier employee of the Custom－House．The narrator also describes a lot about his place of work，his job，his society，and himself，all of which contrast with the story he writes after he loses his job．This introductory chapter establishes the narrator＇s voice，style，and tone，and roots his＂romance＂in what appears to be autobiographical fact．
题为《海关大楼》的长篇引言章节解释了小说为何以及如何被写成，承认现实生活中的一次发现是故事的种子。叙述者发现了一块绣有猩红色“A”的布料，以及一份由海关大楼早期员工所写的手稿。叙述者还详细描述了他的工作场所、他的工作、他的社会以及他自己，这些都与他失业后所写的故事形成对比。这个引言章节确立了叙述者的声音、风格和语调，并将他的“浪漫故事”根植于看似自传性的事实中。

背景：Brown lives in a 17th century Puritan society，specifically Salem，Massachusetts．Therefore，one can make several inferences of Goodman Brown＇s character based simply on one＇s predisposition to the standard of living marking this age． Salem was a theocracy in which the Christian moral law，as interpreted by the Puritan settlers of the town，was supreme． ＂Young Goodman Brown＂takes place around the time of the Salem Witch Trials，held in the spring and autumn of 1692. During these infamous trials，twenty innocent women and men were found guilty of witchcraft and executed．情节：
背景：布朗生活在 17 世纪的清教徒社会，具体来说是在马萨诸塞州的塞勒姆。因此，仅凭对这一时代生活标准的先入之见，就可以对古德曼·布朗的性格做出若干推断。塞勒姆是一个神权政治的社会，基督教的道德律法由该镇的清教徒定居者所解释并至高无上。《年轻的古德曼·布朗》发生在 1692 年春秋两季的塞勒姆女巫审判时期。在这场臭名昭著的审判中，二十名无辜的男女被判定为巫术罪并被处死。情节：

One evening near sunset Goodman Brown，a man who has been married only three months，prepares to leave his home in Salem，Massachusetts，and his pretty young bride，Faith，to go into the forest and spend the night on some mission that he will not disclose other than to say that it must be performed between sunset and sunrise．Although Faith has strong forebodings about his journey and pleads with him to postpone it，Brown is adamant and sets off．
一天傍晚临近日落时分，古德曼·布朗——一位结婚仅三个月的男子——准备离开他在马萨诸塞州塞勒姆的家和他那美丽年轻的新婚妻子费思，前往森林中度过一夜，执行一项他不愿透露的任务，只说这项任务必须在日落到日出之间完成。尽管费思对他的旅程有强烈的不祥预感并恳求他推迟，布朗却坚持己见，踏上了旅程。
Brown leaves the village and enters the dark，gloomy，and probably haunted forest．He has not gone far before he meets the Devil．He makes an effort to return to Salem．It is at best an attempt，though the Devil does not try to detain him，Brown continues walking with him deeper into the forest．
布朗离开村庄，进入了那片黑暗、阴沉、很可能闹鬼的森林。他还没走多远，就遇到了魔鬼。他试图返回塞勒姆。虽然这充其量只是一次尝试，魔鬼并没有试图留住他，布朗还是继续跟着魔鬼走进森林更深处。

As they go，the Devil shocks Goodman Brown by telling him that his ancestors were religious bigots，cruel exploiters， and practitioners of the black art－in short，servants of the Devil．Further，the young man is told that the very pillars of New England society，church，and state are witches and collaborators with the Devil．Indeed，he sees his childhood Sunday School teacher，now a witch，and overhears the voices of his minister and a deacon of his church as they ride past conversing about the diabolical communion service to which both they and he are going．
一路上，魔鬼告诉古德曼·布朗，他的祖先是宗教狂热分子、残酷的剥削者和黑魔法的实践者——简而言之，是魔鬼的仆人，这让布朗震惊不已。更进一步，年轻人被告知，新英格兰社会的支柱——教会和政府——都是女巫和魔鬼的同谋。事实上，他看到了自己童年时的主日学老师，如今已成了女巫，还偷听到他的牧师和教会执事骑马经过时谈论着他们即将参加的魔鬼圣餐仪式。

Young Goodman Brown attempts to pray but stops when a cloud suddenly darkens the sky．A babel of voices seems to
年轻的古德曼·布朗试图祈祷，但当一片乌云突然遮蔽天空时，他便停了下来。一阵嘈杂的声音似乎在…
issue from the cloud，many recognizable to Young Goodman Brown as belonging to godly persons，among them his wife． After the cloud has passed，a pink ribbon such as Faith wears in her cap flutters to the ground．Upon seeing it，Young Goodman Brown is plunged into despair and hastens toward the witches＇assembly．Once there，he is confronted with a congregation made up of the wicked and those whom Young Goodman Brown had always assumed to be righteous．As he is led to the altar to be received into this fellowship of the lost，he is joined by Faith．
从云中出现了许多人物，许多被年轻的古德曼·布朗认出是虔诚之人，其中就有他的妻子。云散去后，一条粉红色的丝带飘落到地上，那正是信仰（Faith）戴在帽子上的丝带。看到它后，年轻的古德曼·布朗陷入绝望，急忙赶往女巫集会。到达那里后，他面对的是一群由恶人和那些他一直认为是正直之人组成的会众。当他被带到祭坛前，准备被接纳进这群迷失者的团体时，信仰也加入了他。

The climax of the story comes just before they receive the sacrament of baptism：Young Goodman Brown cries to his wife to look heavenward and save herself．In the next moment he finds himself alone．
故事的高潮出现在他们接受洗礼圣餐之前：年轻的古德曼·布朗呼喊妻子仰望天堂，拯救自己。下一刻，他发现自己孤身一人。

The denouement of the plot comes quickly．Returning the next morning to Salem，Young Goodman Brown is a changed man．He now doubts that anyone is good，his wife，his neighbors，the officials of church and state－and he remains in this state of cynicism until he dies．
情节的结局迅速到来。第二天早晨回到塞勒姆，年轻的古德曼·布朗已是一个改变了的人。他开始怀疑任何人是否善良——他的妻子、邻居、教会和国家的官员——他一直保持这种愤世嫉俗的状态直到去世。

Goodman Brown shows both innocence and corruptibility as he vacillates between believing in the inherent goodness of the people around him and believing that the devil has taken over the minds of all the people he loves．
古德曼·布朗表现出既纯真又易受腐蚀的特质，他在相信周围人天生善良和相信魔鬼已经控制了他所爱之人的思想之间摇摆不定。
At the beginning of the story，Goodman Brown believes in the goodness of his father and grandfather，until the old man， likely the devil，tells him that he knew them both．Goodman Brown believes in the Christian nature of Goody Cloyse，the minister，and Deacon Gookin，until the devil shows him that Goody Cloyse is a witch and the other two are his followers． Finally，he believes that Faith is pure and good，until the devil reveals at the ceremony that Faith，too，is corruptible．This vacillation reveals Goodman Brown＇s lack of true religion－his belief is easy to shake－as well as of the good and evil sides of human nature．
故事开始时，古德曼·布朗相信他的父亲和祖父是善良的，直到那个老人（很可能是魔鬼）告诉他自己认识他们俩。古德曼·布朗相信古迪·克洛伊斯、牧师和执事古金的基督徒本性，直到魔鬼向他展示古迪·克洛伊斯是女巫，另外两人是魔鬼的追随者。最后，他相信费斯是纯洁善良的，直到魔鬼在仪式上揭示费斯也会腐化。这种摇摆不定揭示了古德曼·布朗缺乏真正的宗教信仰——他的信念容易动摇——以及人性中善与恶的两面性。
Faith（Flat character）  费斯（扁平人物）
Faith represents the stability of the home and the domestic sphere in the Puritan worldview．Faith，as her name suggests， appears to be the most pure－hearted person in the story and serves as a stand－in of sorts for all religious feeling．Goodman Brown clings to her when he questions the goodness of the people around him，assuring himself that if Faith remains godly， then his own faith is worth fighting temptation to maintain．
信仰代表了清教徒世界观中家庭和家庭领域的稳定。正如她的名字所暗示的那样，信仰似乎是故事中最纯洁的人，某种程度上代表了所有的宗教情感。当古德曼·布朗质疑周围人的善良时，他紧紧依靠她，确信只要信仰保持虔诚，那么他自己的信念就值得为抵抗诱惑而奋斗。

－How the Puritans＇strict moral code and overemphasis on the sinfulness of humankind foster undue suspicion and distrust．
－清教徒严格的道德规范和对人类罪恶性的过度强调如何助长了不必要的怀疑和不信任。
－The realization that evil can infect people who seem upright．
－意识到邪恶可以感染看似正直的人
－One man＇s virtue is another man＇s sin，and vice versa．
－一个人的美德是另一个人的罪恶，反之亦然。

Sunset：As we know，the story happened at sunset with the development at night．Sunset is the starting point of night which signifies evil and arises people＇s fear of unknown．The author chooses such a time for the purpose of building up horrific atmosphere and what＇s more，of demonstrating the dark side of the nature of human beings．
日落：正如我们所知，故事发生在日落时分，发展在夜晚。日落是夜晚的起点，象征着邪恶，并引发人们对未知的恐惧。作者选择这样的时间，目的是营造恐怖的氛围，更重要的是，展示人性黑暗的一面。
Pink Ribbons：According to Bible，red represents evil while white represents holiness．And the color of ribbons is pink－between red and white．So the pink ribbons represent two sides of Faith－purity and kindness as a wife and evil as one who joined in such a ritual，but also represent Brown＇s religious belief．
粉色丝带：根据《圣经》，红色代表邪恶，白色代表神圣。而丝带的颜色是粉色——介于红色和白色之间。因此，粉色丝带象征信仰的两面——作为妻子的纯洁和善良，以及作为参与这种仪式者的邪恶，同时也代表布朗的宗教信仰
Faith：This name is repeated throughout the whole story．At the beginning of the story，Brown put his head back，after crossing the threshold，to exchange a parting kiss with his young wife．And Faith，as the wife was aptly named．．．Faith who wore such a cap tried to detain her husband，which also meant Brown tried to temporally abnegate his religious belief to leave for the evil party．And when he entered the forest and met the companion，he said＂Faith kept me back a while．＂Faith is comprehended in two ways：the recently married wife Faith begrudgingly let him join the ritual．Brown＇s religious belief
信仰：这个名字在整个故事中反复出现。故事一开始，布朗越过门槛后，仰头与他年轻的妻子交换了一个告别之吻。而妻子恰如其名，叫做信仰……戴着那顶帽子的信仰试图挽留她的丈夫，这也意味着布朗试图暂时放弃他的宗教信仰，去参加那个邪恶的聚会。当他进入森林遇到同伴时，他说：“信仰让我耽搁了一会儿。”信仰有两层含义：新婚妻子信仰不情愿地让他参加仪式；布朗的宗教信仰
made him hesitated before his departure．
使他在出发前犹豫了
Forest：The forest symbolizes the dark evil force，which indicates man＇s fearful nature towards the mysterious and the unknown．
森林：森林象征着黑暗的邪恶力量，代表了人类对神秘和未知的恐惧本性

An epic is a long narrative which presents characters of high position in a series of adventures of high significance． Usually the epic is unified around a central figure of heroic stature，and generally it deals with actions of great importance to a nation or people．Moby Dick is clearly a long tale of adventures which are profoundly meaningful，for they make us feel deeply the dangers of pride and hatred，and they bring forth much of the inexplicable mystery of life．Ahab is a character of gigantic proportions，even though we may shudder at him even as we admire（and perhaps pity）him．Symbolically，the actions are important on a national level，for the story can be read as an allegory of the risks involved in trying to subjugate nature to the will of man－a danger quite obvious to Americans in a century in which the annihilation of humanity has become a possibility．
史诗是一种长篇叙事作品，描绘地位崇高的人物经历一系列重大意义的冒险。通常，史诗围绕一个具有英雄气概的中心人物统一展开，通常涉及对一个国家或民族极为重要的行动。《白鲸》显然是一部关于冒险的长篇故事，这些冒险具有深刻的意义，因为它们让我们深切感受到骄傲与仇恨的危险，并揭示了生命中许多难以解释的神秘。亚哈是一个巨大的角色，尽管我们可能在敬佩（或许还有同情）他的同时对他感到战栗。从象征意义上讲，这些行动在国家层面上具有重要性，因为这个故事可以被解读为试图将自然驯服于人类意志的风险的寓言——这一危险对美国人来说尤为明显，因为在一个人类灭绝成为可能的世纪里，这种风险尤为突出。
Besides the general considerations，however，there are specific ways in which Moby Dick seems epical：
除了上述一般性考虑外，《白鲸》在具体方面也表现出史诗的特征：
a．It uses a long journey（journeys，especially sea voyages，are standard in epics）；
a．它使用了长途旅行（旅行，尤其是海上航行，是史诗中的标准元素）；
b．It uses elevated language frequently，especially at moments of high passion；
b．它经常使用高雅的语言，尤其是在激情高涨的时刻；
c．There are a series of battles，which remind one of the single combats of ancient epics；
c．有一系列战斗，让人联想到古代史诗中的单人决斗；
d．Omens and，apparently，God s intervention function significantly in the novel as in the epic；
d．预兆和显然的神的干预在小说中起着重要作用，就像在史诗中一样；
e．A sense of a pervasive influence of fate in life reminds us of some epics．Other parallels can easily be drawn， although we may be tempted into some comparisons that are strained．
e．对命运在生活中无处不在的影响的感觉让我们想起一些史诗。其他相似之处也很容易找到，尽管我们可能会被诱导做出一些牵强的比较。

Actually，Melville employs not one technique，but several．Most important，of course，is Ishmael，the first－person narrator of the book．But even this primary narrative device is complex；Ishmael seems to be more than one person－or at least more than one viewpoint．There is the older，wiser Ishmael who tells the story，and the younger Ishmael who experiences its events．There is also the Ishmael who is more or less involved in，or observing，the action，and then there is the philosophic Ishmael who examines all this experience and tries to understand its meaning in the ultimate scheme of things．We see other techniques used：
实际上，梅尔维尔采用的不是一种技巧，而是多种技巧。当然，最重要的是以第一人称叙述的伊什梅尔。但即使是这个主要的叙述手法也很复杂；伊什梅尔似乎不止一个人——或者至少不止一个视角。有讲述故事的年长而睿智的伊什梅尔，也有经历事件的年轻伊什梅尔。还有或多或少参与或观察行动的伊什梅尔，以及那个哲学性的伊什梅尔，他审视所有这些经历，试图理解其在终极意义上的含义。我们还看到使用了其他技巧：
a．The dramatic method，and stage directions；
a．戏剧手法和舞台指示；
b．The dramatic monologue，interior or psychological monologue；
b．戏剧独白，内心或心理独白；
c．The catalogue，as in＂Cetelogy＂；
c．目录式写法，如《鲸类学》；
d．The device of the＂story－within－a－story＂；
d．“故事中故事”的手法；
e．The＂omniscient author＂technique－several times we get information which Ishmael could not possibly give us，and at other times the tone of the narrative indefinitely not Ishmael＇s．Further variation in the novel is achieved by occasional flashbacks and reminiscences．
e．“全知作者”技巧——我们多次获得伊什梅尔不可能提供的信息，叙述的语气在其他时候也明显不是伊什梅尔的。小说的进一步变化通过偶尔的闪回和回忆实现。
（除此之外，还可以答象征 symbolism 手法）
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15．How does Melville＇s method of characterization help him to develop his themes？
15．梅尔维尔的人物刻画方法如何帮助他发展主题？
Melville s characters，with the possible exception of Ahab，are not developed from within，but in terms of their relationship to others or to external forces．Ahab is a character with many facets，but the others seem to be one－sided，with their function that of contrasting with each other or with some aspect of Ahab．Therefore Starbuck becomes an embodiment of the well－meaning but indecisive man of faith，contrasting with Ahab s driving hate and skepticism．Stubb＇s refusal to think and his happy－go－lucky temperament contrast with Ahab s and Starbuck＇s intellectual seriousness，as Flask＇s materialistic stupidity contrast with all the others．Just as important，these four characters all react very differently to Moby Dick，to nature，and to life in general－keeping us aware that the novel is not only about Ahab，but about the ways men
梅尔维尔的人物，除了可能的例外——亚哈，不是从内心发展出来的，而是通过他们与他人或外部力量的关系来表现的。亚哈是一个多面的角色，但其他人物似乎是单方面的，他们的功能是与彼此或与亚哈的某些方面形成对比。因此，斯塔布克成为一个善意但优柔寡断的信仰者的化身，与亚哈那种驱动的仇恨和怀疑形成对比。斯塔布克拒绝思考和他那无忧无虑的性格与亚哈和斯塔布克的理智严肃形成对比，而弗拉斯克的物质主义愚蠢则与其他所有人形成对比。同样重要的是，这四个角色对《白鲸》、对自然以及对生活的反应都非常不同——让我们意识到这部小说不仅仅是关于亚哈的，更是关于人们的各种方式
confront the world they live in as well．
也要直面他们所生活的世界
The other characters function in much the same manner．Queequeg is marvelously impressive－we admire his skill，his bravery，and his selflessness－but we never really come to know him as a person， He is there for what he does and what he is，not for who he is．Tashtego and Daggoo are merely savage－they represent an attitude toward life，and are far less complete as people than Queequeg．The carpenter and blacksmith are likewise merely types，with no real life of their own． The Manxman mouths important oracular sayings，but has no personality．Fedallah is evil，but he is simply an ugly presence，not a human being．Pip，of course，is a fuller character．
其他角色的功能大致相同。奎克格令人惊叹——我们钦佩他的技能、勇气和无私——但我们从未真正了解他的个性。他的存在是为了他的所作所为和他的身份，而不是为了他是谁。塔什特戈和达古只是野蛮人——他们代表一种生活态度，作为人物远不如奎克格完整。木匠和铁匠同样只是类型，没有真正的生命力。曼克斯人说着重要的神谕话语，但没有个性。费达拉是邪恶的，但他只是一个丑陋的存在，而非一个真正的人。皮普当然是一个更丰满的角色。

To say all this is not to attack Melville＇s characterization－far from it．It is simply to point out that he is interested in reflecting various attitudes toward life，and does this－very successfully－through his characters．He has no desire to introduce us to each character in the fullness of his humanity，but rather，we might say，to the narrowness of his humanity． Ironically，the richest，ripest person in the whole novel is hardly a＂character＂at all－for it is Ishmael whom we come to know best of all，and who gives us most of himself．
说这些并不是在批评梅尔维尔的人物刻画——恰恰相反。只是指出他有兴趣反映各种生活态度，并且通过他的角色——非常成功地——做到了这一点。他并不想让我们全面了解每个角色的人性，而是可以说，展示他们人性的狭隘。具有讽刺意味的是，整部小说中最丰富、最成熟的人物几乎根本不算是“角色”——因为我们最了解的正是以实马利，他给予了我们最多的自我

Moby Dick possesses various symbolic meanings for various individuals．
《白鲸》对不同的人具有不同的象征意义。
To the Pequod＇s crew，the legendary White Whale is a concept onto which they can displace their anxieties about their dangerous and often very frightening jobs．Because they have no delusions about Moby Dick acting malevolently toward men or literally embodying evil，tales about the whale allow them to confront their fear，manage it，and continue to function． Ahab，on the other hand，believes that Moby Dick is a manifestation of all that is wrong with the world，and he feels that it is his destiny to eradicate this symbolic evil．
对小皮夸德号的船员来说，这只传说中的白鲸是一个可以让他们转移对危险且常常令人恐惧的工作的焦虑的概念。因为他们并不幻想白鲸会恶意对待人类或字面上代表邪恶，关于这只鲸鱼的故事使他们能够面对恐惧，控制恐惧，并继续工作。另一方面，亚哈认为白鲸是世界上一切错误的体现，他觉得消灭这个象征性的邪恶是他的命运。

Moby Dick also bears out interpretations not tied down to specific characters．In its inscrutable silence and mysterious habits，for example，the White Whale can be read as an allegorical representation of an unknowable God．As a profitable commodity，it fits into the scheme of white economic expansion and exploitation in the nineteenth century．As a part of the natural world，it represents the destruction of the environment by such hubristic expansion．
《白鲸》还承载着不依附于特定人物的解读。例如，在其难以理解的沉默和神秘的习性中，白鲸可以被解读为一个不可知的上帝的寓言象征。作为一种有利可图的商品，它符合十九世纪白人经济扩张和剥削的模式。作为自然界的一部分，它代表了这种傲慢扩张对环境的破坏

Moby Dick（这个可以和上面那道做一个综合）：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark To Ahab，the whale is either an evil creature itself or the agent of an evil force that controls the universe，or perhaps both
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对于亚哈来说，鲸鱼要么是邪恶的生物本身，要么是控制宇宙的邪恶力量的代理人，或者两者兼而有之。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark To Ishmael the whale is an astonishing force，an immense power，which defies rational explanation due to a sense of mystery it carries．It is beautiful but malignant at the same time．It also represents the tremendous organic vitality of the universe，for it has a life force that surges onward irresistibly，impervious to desires or wills of men．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对于以实玛利来说，鲸鱼是一种令人惊叹的力量，一种巨大的能量，由于它所带有的神秘感，理性无法解释。它既美丽又恶意。同时，它也代表了宇宙巨大的有机生命力，因为它拥有一种不可抗拒地向前涌动的生命力，不受人类欲望或意志的影响。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark To readers，a symbol of the physical limits that life imposes on men．It may also be regarded as symbol of nature，or an instrument of God＇s vengeance upon evil man．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 对于读者来说，是生命对人类施加的身体极限的象征。它也可以被视为自然的象征，或是上帝对邪恶人类的复仇工具
Voyage：Voyage of the mind in quest of the truth and knowledge of the universe，a spiritual exploration into man＇s deep reality and psychology．
航行：心灵的航行，追寻宇宙的真理与知识，是对人类深层现实和心理的精神探索。

Land：a symbol of safety  陆地：安全的象征
Sea：adventure and danger
海洋：冒险与危险
Pequod：the microcosm of human society
皮夸德号：人类社会的缩影
Ahab：self－reliant man，loneliness，suicidal individualism
亚哈：自力更生的人，孤独，带有自杀倾向的个人主义
Ishmael：escapist，wanderer，narrator
以实玛利：逃避现实者，流浪者，叙述者

a．The Limits of Knowledge：As Ishmael tries，in the opening pages of Moby Dick，to offer a simple collection of literary excerpts mentioning whales，he discovers that，throughout history，the whale has taken on an incredible multiplicity of
a．知识的局限性：正如伊什梅尔在《白鲸》开篇试图提供一组简单的关于鲸鱼的文学摘录时所发现的那样，纵观历史，鲸鱼承载了令人难以置信的多重意义。
meanings．Over the course of the novel，he makes use of nearly every discipline known to man in his attempts to understand the essential nature of the whale．Each of these systems of knowledge，however，including art，taxonomy，and phrenology， fails to give an adequate account．The multiplicity of approaches that Ishmael takes，coupled with his compulsive need to assert his authority as a narrator and the frequent references to the limits of observation（men cannot see the depths of the ocean，for example），suggest that human knowledge is always limited and insufficient．When it comes to Moby Dick himself，this limitation takes on allegorical significance．The ways of Moby Dick，like those of the Christian God，are unknowable to man，and thus trying to interpret them，as Ahab does，is inevitably futile and often fatal．
在小说的过程中，他几乎运用了人类已知的所有学科，试图理解鲸鱼的本质。然而，这些知识体系，包括艺术、分类学和颅相学，都未能给出充分的解释。伊什梅尔采取的多种方法，加上他强迫性地确立自己作为叙述者的权威，以及频繁提及观察的局限性（例如人类无法看到海洋的深处），都暗示了人类知识始终有限且不足。至于白鲸本人，这种局限性具有寓言意义。白鲸的方式，正如基督教上帝的方式，对人类来说是不可知的，因此像亚哈那样试图解读它，注定是徒劳且常常致命的
b．The Deceptiveness of Fate：In addition to highlighting many portentous or foreshadowing events，Ishmael＇s narrative contains many references to fate，creating the impression that the Pequod＇s doom is inevitable．Many of the sailors believe in prophecies，and some even claim the ability to foretell the future．A number of things suggest，however，that characters are actually deluding themselves when they think that they see the work of fate and that fate either doesn＇t exist or is one of the many forces about which human beings can have no distinct knowledge．Ahab，for example，clearly exploits the sailors＇ belief in fate to manipulate them into thinking that the quest for Moby Dick is their common destiny．Moreover，the prophesies of Fedallah and others seem to be undercut in Chapter 99，when various individuals interpret the doubloon in different ways，demonstrating that humans project what they want to see when they try to interpret signs and portents．
b．命运的欺骗性：除了突出许多预兆或伏笔事件外，伊什梅尔的叙述中还包含了许多关于命运的提及，营造出小白鲸号注定毁灭的印象。许多水手相信预言，有些甚至声称能够预知未来。然而，有许多迹象表明，当人物认为自己看到了命运的作用时，实际上是在自我欺骗，命运要么不存在，要么只是人类无法明确认识的众多力量之一。例如，亚哈明显利用水手们对命运的信仰，操纵他们认为追捕白鲸是他们共同的命运。此外，第 99 章中，费达拉和其他人的预言似乎被削弱，因为不同的人对金币的解读各不相同，显示出人们在试图解读征兆和预兆时，往往投射出自己想看到的东西
c．The Exploitative Nature of Whaling：At first glance，the Pequod seems like an island of equality and fellowship in the midst of a racist，hierarchically structured world．The ship＇s crew includes men from all corners of the globe and all races who seem to get along harmoniously．Ishmael is initially uneasy upon meeting Queequeg，but he quickly realizes that it is better to have a＂sober cannibal than a drunken Christian＂for a shipmate．Additionally，the conditions of work aboard the Pequod promote a certain kind of egalitarianism，since men are promoted and paid according to their skill．However，the work of whaling parallels the other exploitative activities－buffalo hunting，gold mining，unfair trade with indigenous peoples－that characterize American and European territorial expansion．Each of the Pequod s mates，who are white，is entirely dependent on a nonwhite harpooner，and nonwhites perform most of the dirty or dangerous jobs aboard the ship． Flask actually stands on Daggoo，his African harpooner，in order to beat the other mates to a prize whale．Ahab is depicted as walking over the black youth Pip，who listens to Ahab＇s pacing from below deck，and is thus reminded that his value as a slave is less than the value of a whale．
c．捕鲸的剥削本质：乍一看，鹈鹕号似乎是在一个种族主义、等级森严的世界中平等与友爱的岛屿。船员来自世界各地、各种族，似乎和谐相处。伊什梅尔最初见到奎奎格时感到不安，但很快意识到“清醒的食人族胜过醉酒的基督徒”作为船友更好。此外，鹈鹕号上的工作条件促进了一种平等主义，因为人们根据技能获得晋升和报酬。然而，捕鲸工作与其他剥削性活动——如野牛狩猎、淘金、与土著人民的不公平贸易——类似，这些活动都是美国和欧洲领土扩张的特征。鹈鹕号上的每位白人副手完全依赖一位非白人鱼叉手，而非白人则承担船上大部分肮脏或危险的工作。弗拉斯克实际上踩在他的非洲鱼叉手达古身上，以便比其他副手更快地抢到奖赏鲸鱼。亚哈被描绘成踩着黑人少年皮普走过，皮普在船舱下听着亚哈的脚步声，从而被提醒他作为奴隶的价值是.. 价值还不及一头鲸鱼。

19．Analyze Ahab in Moby Dick．
19．分析《白鲸》中的亚哈。
Ahab，the Pequod＇s obsessed captain，represents both an ancient and a quintessentially modern type of hero．Like the heroes of Greek or Shakespearean tragedy，Ahab suffers from a single fatal flaw，one he shares with such legendary characters as Oedipus and Faust．His tremendous overconfidence，or hubris，leads him to defy common sense and believe that，like a god，he can enact his will and remain immune to the forces of nature．He considers Moby Dick the embodiment of evil in the world，and he pursues the White Whale monomaniac ally because he believes it is inescapable fate to destroy this evil．According to the critic M．H．Abrams，such a ragic hero＂moves us to pity because，since he is not an evil man，his misfortune is greater than he deserves；but he moves us also to fear，because we recognize similar possibilities of error in our own lesser and fallible selves．＂
亚哈，捕鲸船“皮夸德号”上痴迷的船长，既代表了一种古老的英雄类型，也体现了典型的现代英雄形象。像希腊或莎士比亚悲剧中的英雄一样，亚哈有一个致命的缺陷，这一点他与俄狄浦斯和浮士德等传奇人物相同。他极度的自负，或称傲慢，使他违背常理，坚信自己如同神明一般，能够施展意志而不受自然力量的影响。他认为白鲸莫比·迪克是世间邪恶的化身，因而执着地追捕这头白鲸，坚信摧毁这邪恶是不可避免的命运。正如评论家 M·H·艾布拉姆斯所说，这样的悲剧英雄“令我们生出怜悯，因为他并非恶人，他的不幸超过了他应得的；但同时也令我们感到恐惧，因为我们在自己有限且易犯错的本性中看到了类似的可能性。”
Unlike the heroes of older tragic works，however，Ahab suffers from a fatal flaw that is not necessarily inborn but instead stems from damage，in his case both psychological and physical，inflicted by life in a harsh world．He is as much a victim as he is an aggressor，and the symbolic opposition that he constructs between himself and Moby Dick propels him toward what he considers a destined end．
然而，与早期悲剧作品中的英雄不同，亚哈的致命缺陷不一定是天生的，而是源于生活在严酷世界中所造成的伤害，在他的情况下，这种伤害既有心理上的也有身体上的。他既是受害者，也是侵略者，他在自己与白鲸之间构建的象征性对立推动他走向他认为的命中注定的结局

20．Gothic Novel（2005／2013 北语 2012／2015 人大）
定义：The Gothic novel，or＂Gothic romance＂flourished through the early nineteenth century is a story of terror and
定义：哥特小说，或称“哥特浪漫”，在十九世纪早期盛行，是一个关于恐怖和…
suspense，usually set in a gloomy old castle or monastery of the Middle Ages．
悬念，通常设定在中世纪阴暗的古老城堡或修道院中
设定时间：Authors of such novels set their stories in the medieval period，地点：often in a gloomy castle，元素：and made plentiful use of ghosts，mysterious disappearances，and other sensational and supernatural occurrences；目的：Their principal aim was to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery，cruelty，and a variety of horrors．
设定时间：这类小说的作者将故事设定在中世纪时期，地点：通常是在阴森的城堡中，元素：大量使用幽灵、神秘失踪以及其他耸人听闻的超自然事件；目的：他们的主要目的是通过利用神秘、残酷和各种恐怖来唤起令人毛骨悚然的恐惧
另：In an extended sense，many novels that do not have a medievalized setting，but which share a comparably sinister， grotesque，or claustrophobic atmosphere have been classified as Gothic．
另：从广义上讲，许多没有中世纪背景但具有类似阴森、怪诞或幽闭氛围的小说也被归类为哥特小说。
主题：The persecution of a beautiful maiden by an obsessed and haggard villain is often the central story．
主题：一个美丽少女被痴迷且憔悴的恶棍迫害，常常是故事的核心情节。
人物：Stock characters：tyrant，villains，persecuted maiden，mad women，magicians，vampires，monsters，ghosts．
人物：典型角色：暴君、恶棍、受迫害的少女、疯女人、魔法师、吸血鬼、怪物、鬼魂。
反对：In rebellion against the increasing commercialism and rationalism，gothic novels open up the dark，irrational side of human nature to readers．
反对：作为对日益增长的商业化和理性主义的反抗，哥特小说向读者展示了人性中黑暗、非理性的一面
举例：
Real originator of Gothic novel was Horace Walpole，＂The Castle of Otranto＂，the first of its kind．
哥特小说的真正创始人是霍勒斯·沃波尔，《奥特兰托城堡》是同类作品中的第一部。
Marry Shelley：Frankenstein－the first scientific horror novel
玛丽·雪莱：《弗兰肯斯坦》——第一部科学恐怖小说
Hawthorne，Poe－representative of American Gothic novels
霍桑、坡——美国哥特小说的代表人物
影响了：20th century surrealism literature movement
影响了：20 世纪超现实主义文学运动

小说（短篇）：
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Brevity：short enough to finish at one sitting to acquire（or as long as＂The Fall＂）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 简洁性：足够短，可以一次读完以获得（或与《陨落》一样长）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Attractive first sentence：The first sentence ought to help to bring out the＂single effect＂of the story and desired effect on the reader
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 吸引人的第一句：第一句话应有助于突出故事的“单一效果”及对读者的预期影响
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Abruptness of the last sentence：A tale should reveal some logical truth，and should end with the last sentence，leaving a sense of finality with the reader．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 结尾句的突然性：故事应揭示某种逻辑真理，并以最后一句话结束，给读者留下终结感
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Concise，devoid of tedious sentence：No word should be used－does not contribute to the＂pre－established＂design of the story．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 简洁，避免冗长句子：不应使用任何不符合故事“预设”设计的词语。
诗歌：古典 + 浪漫
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 简洁：poem should be short and concise，readable at one setting（or as long as＂The Raven＂）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 简洁：诗歌应简短凝练，能一次性读完（或与《乌鸦》长度相当）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 基调：＂thus melancholy is the most legitimate of all the poetic tones＂
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 基调：“因此，忧郁是所有诗歌语调中最正当的”
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 内容：＂the death of a beautiful woman is，unquestionably，the most poetic topic in the world＂
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 内容：“美丽女性的死亡，无疑是世界上最具诗意的主题”
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美学：Its chief aim is beauty，namely，to produce a feeling of beauty in the reader．Beauty aims at＂an elevating excitement of the soul，＂and＂beauty of whatever kind，in its supreme development，invariably excites the sensitive soul to tears．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 美学：其主要目标是美，即在读者心中产生美的感受。美旨在“激发灵魂的高尚兴奋”，并且“任何形式的美，在其极致发展时，总能激起敏感的灵魂流泪”。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 说教：Poe is opposed to＂the heresy opposed the didactic＂，and calls for＂pure＂poetry．（浪漫主义倾向）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 说教：坡反对“反对说教的异端”，并呼吁“纯粹”的诗歌。（浪漫主义倾向）
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 形式：He stressed the form of poetry，especially the beautiful and neat rhyme，he define poetry as＂the rhythmical creation of beauty．＂
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 形式：他强调诗歌的形式，尤其是优美整洁的韵律，他将诗歌定义为“节奏感的美的创造”。

22．Analysis of The Raven（2020 北交）
22．《乌鸦》分析（2020 北交）
1）It took Poe four years to complete this poem．It was first published in 1845 and revised several times in later editions．
1）坡花了四年时间完成这首诗。它首次发表于 1845 年，后来几个版本中进行了多次修订。
2）Poe cited this poem as an example in The Philosophy of Composition to show how a poem should be composed．This poem corresponds to Poe＇s basic principles of poetry writing．
2）坡在《创作哲学》中引用了这首诗作为示例，展示诗歌应如何创作。这首诗符合坡的基本诗歌创作原则。
3）It is an elegy，expressing the sorrow or grief over somebody＇s sudden death．
3）这是一首挽歌，表达了对某人突然去世的悲痛或哀伤。
4）It is not long， 108 lines，readable at one sitting．
4）诗篇不长，共 108 行，可以一口气读完
5）The poetic theme is the lamentation over the death of a beautiful woman．
5）诗歌的主题是对一位美丽女子去世的哀叹。
6）The general tone of the poem is melancholy．
6）整首诗的基调是忧郁的。
7）It reads very rhythmical，with different varieties of rhymes．
7）朗读起来节奏感很强，带有多种不同的押韵形式。

8）The poem is composed of 18 six－line stanzas，the first five lines being trochaic octameter，and the sixth line a trochaic tetrameter．
8）这首诗由 18 节六行诗组成，前五行为八音步抑扬格，第六行为四音步抑扬格
9）The repetition of the sound at the end of different rhymes and the refrain（lines repeated at the end of stanzas or a poem for expressive effect），＂nevermore＂，suggest mourning and grief．
9）不同韵尾和副歌（在诗节或整首诗的结尾重复的句子，用于表达效果）中重复出现的声音“nevermore”，暗示了哀悼和悲伤。
10）The rhyming scheme of the poem is $abcbbb$$abcbbb$abcbbba b c b b b
10）这首诗的押韵模式是 $abcbbb$$abcbbb$abcbbba b c b b b

Free verse：refers to the poetry without a fixed beat or regular rhyme scheme．A looser and more open－ended syntactical structure is frequently favored．Lines and sentences of different lengths are left lying side by side，just as things are， undisturbed and separate．It attempts to avoids any predetermined verse structure．It uses the cadences of natural speech． American poet Walt Whitman is the precursor to use free verse．His poetry is a catalog of American and British thought pervading with democracy，openness，freedom，and individualism．Free verse is the best form for Whitman to express his ideas of freedom，individualism，democracy．
自由诗：指没有固定节拍或规律押韵模式的诗歌。通常采用更松散、更开放的句法结构。不同长度的诗行和句子并列存在，就像事物本身一样，未被打扰且各自独立。它试图避免任何预设的诗歌结构，采用自然语言的韵律。美国诗人沃尔特·惠特曼是使用自由诗的先驱。他的诗歌是美国和英国思想的目录，充满了民主、开放、自由和个人主义。自由诗是惠特曼表达自由、个人主义和民主思想的最佳形式
a）Free verse allows the poet to deliver poetry from the restrictions of formal．
a）自由诗允许诗人摆脱形式的限制来创作诗歌。
Metrical patterns and to recreate instead the free rhythms of natural speech．
韵律模式，转而重现自然语言的自由节奏。
Whitman wrote lines of varying length and cadence，usually not rhymed．the
惠特曼写作的诗句长短和节奏各异，通常不押韵。
Emotional content or meaning of the work was expressed through its rhythm．
作品的情感内容或意义通过其节奏来表达
b）As a revolutionized American poet，Whitman always challenge the conventions of the day．
b）作为一位革命性的美国诗人，惠特曼总是挑战当时的传统规范。
As an admirer of Emerson，Whitman responded to Emerson＇s call for a meter－making argument．He rejected traditions of poetic scansion and elected diction，improving the form of free verse．While adopting a widely ranging vocabulary， he was opening new possibilities for poetic expression．
作为爱默生的崇拜者，惠特曼回应了爱默生关于创造韵律的号召。他拒绝传统的诗歌格律和选词，改进了自由诗的形式。在采用广泛词汇的同时，他为诗歌表达开辟了新的可能性。
c）Whitman thought that the voice of democracy should not be haltered by traditional forms of verse．
c）惠特曼认为民主的声音不应被传统诗歌形式所束缚。
He rebelled against regular meters，other standard poetic devices of sound－alliteration，assonance，balance and so on． To him，the poet did not know his idea until he used free verse style when we read his poems．They are just like a person telling us story freely and frequently．He organized the words as he liked to show his ideas freely．
他反抗固定的韵律和其他标准的声音手法——头韵、元音韵、平衡等。对他来说，诗人在使用自由诗体时才真正理解了自己的思想，当我们阅读他的诗歌时，它们就像一个人自由且频繁地讲述故事。他按照自己的喜好组织词语，自由地表达思想

Dickinson＇s poems are usually based on her experiences，her sorrows and joys．But within her little lyrics Dickinson addresses those issues that concern the whole human beings，which include religion，death，immorality，love，and nature．
狄金森的诗歌通常基于她的经历、她的悲伤与欢乐。但在她的小诗中，狄金森探讨了关乎全人类的问题，包括宗教、死亡、不朽、爱情和自然。
a）Her religious poems：she wrote about her doubt and belief about religious subjects While she desired salvation and immortality，she denied the orthodox view of paradise．Although she believed in God，she sometimes doubted His benevolence．
a）她的宗教诗：她写到了自己对宗教主题的怀疑与信仰。虽然她渴望救赎和永生，但她否认正统的天堂观。尽管她相信上帝，有时却怀疑祂的仁慈。
b）Her poems concerning death and immortality：These poems are closely related to her religious poetry，ranging over the physical as well as the psychological and emotional aspects of death．She showed her ambiguous attitude towards death and immortality．She looked at death from the point of view of both the living and the dying．She even imagined her own death，the loss of her own body，and the journey of her soul to the unknown．Perhaps her greatest rendering of the moment of death is to be found in＂Theard a Fly buzz－when I died－＂．A poem universally considered one of her masterpieces．
b）她关于死亡与不朽的诗：这些诗与她的宗教诗密切相关，涵盖了死亡的物质、心理及情感层面。她表现出对死亡与不朽的矛盾态度。她从生者和临终者的角度审视死亡。她甚至想象自己的死亡、自己身体的消逝以及灵魂前往未知的旅程。或许她对死亡瞬间最精彩的描绘见于《我死时听见一只苍蝇嗡嗡响》，这首诗被普遍认为是她的杰作之一
c）Her love poems：Love is another subject Dickinson dwelt on．
c）她的爱情诗：爱情是狄金森经常描写的另一个主题
One group of her love poems treats the suffering and frustration love can cause．These poems are clearly the reflection of her own unhappy experience，closely related to her deepest and most private feelings．Many of them are striking and original depictions of the longing for shared moments，the pain of separation，and the futility of finding happiness． The other group of love poems focuses on the physical aspect of desire，in which Dickinson dealt with，allegorically， the influence of the male authorities over the female，emphasizing the power of physical attraction and expressing a mixture offer and fascination for the mysterious magnetism between sexes．However，it is those poems dealing with
她的一组爱情诗描写了爱情带来的痛苦和挫折。这些诗显然反映了她自身的不幸经历，与她最深刻、最私密的感情密切相关。许多诗作生动而独特地描绘了对共享时光的渴望、分离的痛苦以及追求幸福的徒劳。另一组爱情诗则聚焦于欲望的肉体层面，狄金森通过寓言手法处理了男性权威对女性的影响，强调了肉体吸引力的力量，并表达了对两性之间神秘磁力的恐惧与迷恋的复杂情感。然而，正是那些处理..
marriage that have aroused critical attention first and showed Dickinson＇s confusion and doubt about the role of women in the 19th century America．
婚姻引起了批评界的关注，首先展示了狄金森对 19 世纪美国女性角色的困惑和怀疑
d）Her nature poems：More than 500 of her poems are about nature，in which her general skepticism about the relationship between man and nature is well expressed．
d）她的自然诗：她的诗歌中有 500 多首是关于自然的，充分表达了她对人与自然关系的一般怀疑态度
On the one hand，she shared with her romantic and transcendental predecessors who believed that a mythical bond between man and nature existed，that nature revealed to man things about mankind and universe．
一方面，她与她的浪漫主义和超验主义前辈们有共同之处，这些前辈们相信人与自然之间存在一种神话般的联系，自然向人类揭示了关于人类自身和宇宙的事物。
On the other hand，she felt strongly about nature＇s inscrutability and indifference to the life and interests of human beings．
另一方面，她强烈感受到自然的难以理解和对人类生命及利益的冷漠。
However，Dickinson managed to write about nature in the affirmation of the sheer joy and the appreciation，unaffected by philosophical speculations．Her acute observations，her concern for precise details and her interest in nature are pervasive， from sketches of flowers，insects，birds，to the sunset，the fully detailed summer storms，and the change of seasons；from keen perception to witty analysis．
然而，狄金森设法以肯定纯粹的喜悦和欣赏的态度来书写自然，不受哲学思辨的影响。她敏锐的观察力、对精确细节的关注以及对自然的兴趣无处不在，从花卉、昆虫、鸟类的素描，到日落、详尽描绘的夏季风暴和季节的更替；从敏锐的感知到机智的分析。

Her poetry is unique and unconventional in its own way．
她的诗歌以其独特和非传统的方式而著称。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Her poems have no titles，hence are always quoted by their first lines．In her poetry there is a particular stress pattern， in which dashes are used as a musical device to create cadence and capital letters as a means of emphasis．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 她的诗歌没有标题，因此总是以首句来引用。在她的诗中，有一种特殊的重音模式，破折号被用作音乐手段来创造韵律，大写字母则用来强调。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Most of her poems borrow the repeated four lines，rhymed stanzas of traditional Christian hymns，with two lines of four－beat meter alternating with two lines of three－beat meter．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 她的大多数诗歌借用了传统基督教赞美诗中反复出现的四行押韵诗节，采用两行四拍节奏与两行三拍节奏交替的形式。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark A master of imagery that makes the spiritual materialize in surprising ways，Dickinson managed manifold variations within her simple form：She used imperfect rhymes，subtle breaks of rhythm，and idiosyncratic syntax and punctuation to create fascinating word puzzles，which have produced greatly divergent interpretations over the years．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 作为一位形象大师，能够以令人惊讶的方式使精神层面具象化，狄金森在其简单的形式中实现了多种变化：她使用不完全押韵、微妙的节奏断裂，以及特有的句法和标点，创造出引人入胜的文字谜题，这些谜题多年来产生了极为不同的解读
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Dickinson＇s irregular or sometimes inverted sentence structure also confuses readers．However，her poetic idiom is noted for its laconic brevity，directness and plainness．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 狄金森不规则或有时倒装的句子结构也让读者感到困惑。然而，她的诗歌语言以简洁、直接和平实著称。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Her poems are usually short，rarely more than twenty lines，and many of the mare centered on a single image or symbol and focused on one subject matter．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 她的诗通常很短，很少超过二十行，许多诗歌围绕一个单一的意象或象征，集中于一个主题。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Due to her deliberate seclusion，her poems tend to be very personal and meditative．She frequently uses personae to render the tone more familiar to the reader，and personification to vivify some abstract ideas．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 由于她刻意的隐居，她的诗歌往往非常个人化且富有沉思性。她经常使用人物形象使语气更亲切，并用拟人手法使一些抽象的观念生动起来。
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark Dickinson＇s poetry，despite its ostensible formal simplicity，is remarkable for its variety，subtlety and richness；and her limited private world has never confined the limitless power of her creativity and imagination．
$✓$$✓$✓\checkmark 尽管狄金森的诗歌表面上形式简单，但其多样性、微妙性和丰富性令人瞩目；她有限的私人世界从未限制她无限的创造力和想象力