INTRODUCTION … 10 导言 ... 10
Part I. 第一部分.
THE KEY PRINCIPLES OF WRITING … 15 写作的主要原则...... 15
THE TEN UNBREAKABLE RULES OF WRITING … 17 十条牢不可破的写作法则...... 17
A SIMPLE GUIDE TO PUNCTUATION … 35 标点符号简明指南 ... 35
PLANNING YOUR WRITING … 51 规划你的写作 ... 51
THE DRAFTING PROCESS … 59
Part II. 第二部分.
WRITING FOR A SPECIFIC PURPOSE … 69 为特定目的而写作...... 69
HOW TO WRITE E-MAILS … 71 如何写电子邮件...... 71
HOW TO WRITE TEXT MESSAGES … 91 如何编写短信...... 91
HOW TO WRITE LETTERS … 97 如何写信...... 97
HOW TO WRITE AN ARTICLE … 117 如何撰写文章...... 117
HOW TO WRITE A SHORT STORY … 127 如何写短篇小说...... 127
HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY … 139 如何写作文...... 139
CONCLUSION … 157 结论...... 157
Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2022 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation 在 Kahle/Austin 基金会的资助下，互联网档案馆于 2022 年将其数字化
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in reviews and specific other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law. 保留所有权利。未经出版商事先书面许可，不得以任何形式或通过任何手段（包括影印、录制或其他电子或机械方法）复制、分发或传播本出版物的任何部分，但评论中的简短引用和版权法允许的其他特定非商业性用途除外。
Based on the methods in this book, the author is now running on/offline writing workshops for foreign students of English. 根据本书中的方法，作者目前正在为英语专业的外国学生开办在线/离线写作讲习班。
To find out more visit: www.tomczaban.com 欲了解更多信息，请访问： www.tomczaban.com
INTRODUCTION 引言
Learning how to write well in English rarely receives as much attention as the disciplines of speaking and listening. 与口语和听力学科相比，学习如何用英语写好文章很少受到重视。
The assumption is that if you can speak and understand your new language, it should be easy for you to express yourself through the written word. 我们的假设是，如果您能说并理解您的新语言，那么您应该很容易通过书面语言来表达自己。
But this is rarely the case. 但这种情况很少发生。
The writing you produce is a combination of the good and bad habits you’ve picked up along your English language journey. 你所写的文章是你在英语学习过程中养成的好习惯和坏习惯的结合。
Mistakes that can be easily hidden or overlooked in speech become glaringly apparent when written down. 在演讲中很容易被掩盖或忽视的错误，在写下来时就会变得非常明显。
Your patchwork of knowledge is why your writing tends to expose you as a non-native. 正是因为你的知识东拼西凑，所以你的文章才会暴露出你的非母语倾向。
Maybe at some point in the past, you’ve resolved to improve your English writing, but gave up due to the magnitude of the task. 也许在过去的某个时候，你曾下定决心要提高自己的英语写作水平，但由于任务过于艰巨而放弃了。
Perhaps you have attempted to develop your writing, but the improvements you saw were minimal, considering the time you put in. 也许你曾尝试过提高写作水平，但考虑到你投入的时间，你看到的进步微乎其微。
Either way, you’ve reached a point where you’re beginning to think you will never write like an English native. 无论如何，你已经到了开始认为自己永远写不出像英语母语人士那样的文章的地步了。
I’m here to tell you that improving your English writing only seems so difficult because you’re attempting to fix a million tiny errors rather than looking at the bigger picture. 我在这里要告诉你，提高英语写作水平之所以看起来如此困难，是因为你试图纠正无数微小的错误，而不是从大处着眼。
In this book, I propose a new approach. 在本书中，我提出了一种新的方法。
You will clarify the key principles you need to know and erase the bad habits you have accumulated. 您将明确需要了解的关键原则，并消除积累的坏习惯。
Relax. This doesn’t mean you need to learn the mechanics of the language all over again. I’m not going to re-teach you the frustrating grammar rules you’ve spent so much time memorising. 放松。这并不意味着你需要重新学习语言的机制。我不会重新教你那些让人头疼的语法规则，你已经花了很多时间去记忆了。
Instead, I will present you with some simple tools to instantly improve your writing - without the hassle of reading long, dry textbooks on English grammar and style. 相反，我将向你介绍一些简单的工具，让你立即提高写作水平，而无需阅读冗长枯燥的英语语法和风格教科书。
You’ll soon realize that writing clearly, succinctly, and impressively is far easier than you’ve ever thought. 你很快就会意识到，清晰、简洁、令人印象深刻的写作比你想象的要容易得多。
You’ll no longer feel stressed out every time you write an e-mail. 每次写电子邮件时，你都不会再感到压力。
You won’t have to spend your precious time agonizing over each section of your cover letter. 您不必把宝贵的时间花在求职信的每个部分上。
And, you’ll walk into your English writing exams with far more than just a pen in your hand and panic in your heart. 而且，在英语写作考试中，你手中的笔和心中的恐慌将远不止这些。
How can I say this with such confidence? 我怎么能如此自信地说出这样的话呢？
Well, I’ve been a student of writing for as long as I can remember. I’ve read a hell of a lot of books aimed at teaching people how to write. And, through trial and error, I have discovered what works and what doesn’t. 从我记事起，我就一直在学习写作。我读过很多教人如何写作的书。通过不断尝试，我发现了哪些方法有效，哪些方法无效。
I’ve used my experience in the discipline to support my roles as a reporter, scriptwriter, copywriter, and editor. 我利用我在这门学科的经验来支持我作为记者、编剧、文案和编辑的角色。
For the past ten years, I have taught these techniques to university students overseas. 在过去的十年里，我一直在海外向大学生传授这些技巧。
Through correcting thousands of written assignments, I have compiled a list of the key areas in which foreigners consistently make mistakes. 通过批改数千份书面作业，我整理出了一份外国人经常犯错的关键领域清单。
Until recently, I had no practical use for this list. Then, a student of mine asked for a book recommendation. His exact words were, “I need a book to help me improve my English writing…something which isn’t five hundred pages long.” 直到最近，我还没有实际使用过这份书单。后来，我的一个学生要求我推荐一本书。他的原话是："我需要一本书来帮助我提高英语写作水平......一些不长达五百页的书"。
That evening, I searched my bookshelf but found nothing suitable. When it came to short, clear, and functional books for foreigners that covered the key aspects of writing, there were none. 那天晚上，我翻遍了书架，却没有找到合适的书。说到为外国人编写的简短、清晰、实用的书籍，并且涵盖了写作的关键方面，没有一本是合适的。
So, I decided to write one myself. 于是，我决定自己写一篇。
English writing is more adaptable than many foreigners believe it to be. Yes, there are some definite rules, but there is also ample opportunity to make choices - and that’s where the confusion begins. 英语写作的适应性比许多外国人认为的要强。是的，有一些明确的规则，但也有充分的机会做出选择，而这正是困惑的开始。
By making these choices for you, showing you the easiest methods, and highlighting only the most important principles of literature, I have simplified the process of writing for non-natives. 我为你做出这些选择，向你展示最简单的方法，只强调最重要的文学原则，从而简化了非本地人的写作过程。
In order to make writing easier for foreigners, I have chosen to focus solely on British English and the typical style of writing used in England. 为了方便外国人写作，我选择只关注英式英语和英国的典型写作风格。
Why? 为什么？
Firstly, because I am British, and secondly, because I want you to write like a native English speaker. You can’t do that if you’re borrowing elements from various English-speaking countries. 首先，因为我是英国人，其次，因为我想让你写出以英语为母语的文章。如果你从不同的英语国家借鉴元素，你就无法做到这一点。
I’m not saying the British way is the only way to communicate - far from it - but it is crucial that you pick a style and stick to it. 我并不是说英式沟通方式是唯一的沟通方式--远非如此--但选择并坚持一种风格至关重要。
When I finished writing this book, I gave it to a group of students and asked for feedback. 写完这本书后，我把它交给了一群学生，征求他们的反馈意见。
One of the more diligent students announced that it was surely too short to address all the difficulties non-natives face wher writing in English. 一位比较勤奋的学生说，要解决非英语国家学生在用英语写作时遇到的所有困难，这篇文章肯定太短了。
“It’s even shorter than that,” I replied. “You only have to read the first four chapters. The rest is a reference. Simply turn to the page that covers the problem you’re having.” "比这还短，"我回答道。"你只需要读前四章。其余的都是参考资料。只需翻到涉及你所遇到问题的那一页即可。"
The student looked doubtful, but the others seemed pleased. One in particular, who often tried to avoid assignments, said, “in that case, I might actually read it.” 这位学生一脸疑惑，但其他学生似乎很高兴。尤其是一位经常逃避作业的学生说："这样的话，我可能真的会读一读"。
I guess it’s true what they say: if you want to find the most effective way to get something done, ask the laziest person in the room. He or she will point the way to the fastest route. 我想这就是人们常说的：如果你想找到完成一件事的最有效方法，就去问房间里最懒的人。他或她会指出最快的路线。
When I returned to the same classroom the following week, the feedback was far more positive than I’d expected. 当我下周回到同一间教室时，得到的反馈比我预想的要积极得多。
Nearly all of the students said the first four chapters had improved their understanding of writing in English. 几乎所有学生都说，前四章提高了他们对英语写作的理解。
This was encouraging, but I wanted to know whether the book actually helped students become better writers, so I assigned each student a writing task and told them to use specific chapters from the book to help. 这让我很受鼓舞，但我想知道这本书是否真的能帮助学生提高写作水平，于是我给每个学生布置了写作任务，并告诉他们用书中的具体章节来帮助写作。
When it came to the writing tasks, the book had a far greater impact than I ever expected. The assignments I received were of a much higher quality than usual. 在写作任务方面，这本书的影响远远超出了我的预期。我收到的作业质量比平时高得多。
Apparently, the students found it easier to write in English when using the templates provided in the book. The other improvements could be attributed to the ideas in the first four chapters. 显然，学生们发现使用书中提供的模板更容易用英语写作。其他改进可归功于前四章中的观点。
There’s no real magic to any of this. 这一切都没有真正的魔力。
The fact is, most students have never been taught how to properly structure a letter, e-mail, or essay, and once you know how to organise your writing, it frees up your energy to focus on the content, spelling, and grammar. 事实上，大多数学生从未被教导过如何正确组织信件、电子邮件或文章的结构，而一旦你知道了如何组织你的写作，你就可以腾出精力来专注于内容、拼写和语法。
As you’re still here, I can only assume that improving your English writing genuinely matters to you. 既然你还在这里，我只能假设提高英语写作水平对你来说真的很重要。
So, shake off any of those negative thoughts telling you that writing like an English native is an impossible goal to achieve. 因此，摆脱那些告诉你像英语母语人士一样写作是不可能实现的目标的消极想法吧。
You are holding in your hands everything you need to revolutionise your English writing. 您手中握有彻底改变英语写作所需的一切。
Turn the page, and get started on that journey right now. 翻过这一页，现在就开始这段旅程。
Part 1. 第 1 部分.
CHAPTER 1 第 1 章
THE TEN
UNBREAKABLE
RULES OF WRITING 十条牢不可破的写作法则
In this chapter, I will show you some easy strategies to improve your writing. I suggest you print out these rules and stick them above your computer, so whenever you write, the guidelines stay at the forefront of your mind. 在本章中，我将向你介绍一些提高写作水平的简单策略。我建议你将这些规则打印出来，贴在电脑上方，这样无论何时写作，这些准则都会在你的脑海中挥之不去。
These ten rules will give your writing a proficient, straightforward, and professional feel. If you follow them, you will appear less like someone who is fumbling around looking for the right words, and more like a confident English writer. 这十条规则会给你的写作带来熟练、直接和专业的感觉。如果你能遵守这些规则，你就不会像一个四处寻找合适词语的人，而更像一个自信的英语作家。
After reading the rules in this chapter, you may realise the underlying message in your writing is often unclear. Once you make this discovery, you need to decide what, exactly, you’re trying to say every time you write. 读完本章的规则后，你可能会意识到你写作中的潜在信息往往是不明确的。一旦你发现了这一点，你就需要确定每次写作时你到底想表达什么。
The first step to becoming a better writer is to possess a clear understanding of your key ideas. 要想成为更好的作家，第一步就是要清楚地了解自己的主要观点。
If you don’t know what you’re trying to say, how will anyone find your work meaningful? 如果你不知道自己想说什么，别人怎么会觉得你的作品有意义呢？
The aim of a piece of writing is to share well-defined concepts with your reader, otherwise you waste everyone’s time - including your own. 写作的目的是与读者分享明确的概念，否则就会浪费每个人的时间，包括你自己的时间。
With that in mind, let’s move onto the ten unbreakable rules. 有鉴于此，让我们来看看这十条牢不可破的规则。
THE TEN UNBREAKABLE RULES OF WRITING 十条牢不可破的写作法则
1. Keep it simple 1.保持简单
Some people believe they need to sound sophisticated when they write in order to be taken seriously, so they discard the way they usually communicate and complicate their language. 有些人认为自己在写作时必须听起来高深莫测，才能被人认真对待，因此他们摒弃了通常的交流方式，将语言复杂化。
Your aim should be to communicate as clearly as possible. Attempting to write in a flamboyant manner will make your writing less proficient. 你的目标应该是尽可能清晰地表达。试图以华丽的方式写作会使你的写作水平大打折扣。
If you are able to use complicated vocabulary without making mistakes - which is unlikely - the resulting work will be seen as pretentious. 如果您能够使用复杂的词汇而不出错（这不太可能），那么您的作品就会被视为自命不凡。
Conversely, if you cannot maintain the consistency in your writing - some sentences are accurate and poetic, but others contain basic mistakes - then your writing will sound like spam. 反之，如果您不能保持写作的连贯性--有些句子准确而富有诗意，但有些句子却包含基本错误--那么您的文章听起来就会像垃圾邮件。
The last thing you want is for your readers to suspect you’re about to ask them to wire undefined to an offshore bank account to access a generous inheritance left to you by your dying third cousin, who may or may not also be an African prince. 您最不希望看到的是，您的读者怀疑您要让他们把 undefined 汇到一个离岸银行账户，以获得您垂死的三表兄留给您的一笔丰厚遗产，而您的三表兄可能是非洲王子，也可能不是。
Below is an example of how fancy writing can make your text sound like junk mail: 下面是一个例子，说明花哨的文字会让你的文字听起来像垃圾邮件：
“Good morning on this warm and glorious day. I hope that life is veritable and you are in the highest of spirits. I am well, indeed, and so it is that I decided to contact you to share in my own good fortune.” "在这温暖灿烂的日子里，早上好。我希望你生活美满，精神奕奕。我确实很好，所以我决定与您联系，分享我的好运气。"
Some people fear that if they write in a basic way, their texts will be perceived as childish and naïve. 有些人担心，如果用基本的方式写作，他们的文章会被认为是幼稚和天真。
But, as Leonardo da Vinci once wrote, “simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.” 但是，正如达芬奇曾经写过的那样，"简约是最终的精致"。
If you disagree with da Vinci, just look at the writing of Hemingway or Orwell. 如果你不同意达-芬奇的观点，那就看看海明威或奥威尔的作品吧。
In their novels, these writers avoid complicated sentence structures and long words, yet the writing style is far from childish. The work of these master authors is clear and direct, which gives their writing depth and elegance. 在他们的小说中，这些作家避免使用复杂的句子结构和冗长的词语，但写作风格却绝非幼稚。这些大师级作家的作品清晰而直接，这赋予了他们的文字以深度和优雅。
For ESL writers, I would amend da Vinci’s quote so it becomes, “simplicity is the ultimate sophistication and minimizes mistakes.” 对于 ESL 写作人员，我会将达-芬奇的这句话修改为 "简单是最终的复杂，并能最大限度地减少错误"。
When you try to write in a complicated or ‘sophisticated’ way you forget to take care of the basics. Neglecting the fundamentals will fail to impress the reader and make your English level appear far lower than it actually is. 当你试图以复杂或 "高深 "的方式写作时，你就会忘记基本的东西。忽视基础知识将无法给读者留下深刻印象，也会让你的英语水平看起来比实际水平低得多。
So, how can you write more simply? 那么，如何才能写得更简单呢？
First, you must begin to ‘write how you speak.’ 首先，你必须开始 "怎么说就怎么写"。
This is not an invitation to record your messages and transcribe them onto paper - you want to avoid writing e-mails that read like an Irvine Welsh ^(1){ }^{1} novel. 这并不是邀请您录制邮件并将其誊写到纸上--您要避免写出像 Irvine Welsh ^(1){ }^{1} 小说一样的电子邮件。
The point I’m making is that you should strive to write in the simple manner you use when you speak in your everyday interactions. 我想说的是，你应该努力用你在日常交流中使用的简单方式来写作。
When you’re in a supermarket, you ask the sales assistant, “where is the butter?” You don’t say, “I’m pursuing some yellow foodstuff to spread on my whole-grain bread. Can you furnish me with coordinates?” 在超市里，你会问售货员 "黄油在哪里？"你不会说："我在寻找一种黄色食品，涂在我的全麦面包上。你能告诉我坐标吗？"
You may think this is an exaggeration, but that example is very similar to many of the assignments I have graded. 你可能觉得这有点夸张，但这个例子与我批改过的许多作业非常相似。
The second thing you must do to simplify your writing is to remember Orwell’s maxim, “never use a long word where a short one will do.” 要想简化写作，第二件事就是牢记奥威尔的格言："在用短词的地方绝不用长词"。
Orwell’s advice is relevant for every writer - native or otherwise. His principle applies to all areas of communication, regardless of the language. 奥威尔的建议适用于每一位作家--无论是母语作家还是非母语作家。他的原则适用于所有交流领域，无论使用何种语言。
The purpose of communication is to be understood, and overly sophisticated vocabulary reduces the likelihood that the general public will understand what you’re saying. 交流的目的是为了让别人理解，过于复杂的词汇会降低大众理解你所说内容的可能性。
Why write “utilise” when “use” serves nearly the exact same function in the sentence? Opting for longer, lesser-used words will only disrupt the rhythm of your writing and confuse the reader. 既然 "使用 "在句子中的作用几乎完全相同，为什么还要写 "利用 "呢？使用较长、较少使用的词语只会扰乱写作节奏，让读者感到困惑。
The third thing you need to do in order to keep your writing simple is to limit the use of a thesaurus. To apply vocabulary correctly, you must truly understand the words you are using. 为了保持写作的简洁性，你需要做的第三件事就是限制使用术语词库。要正确使用词汇，必须真正理解所使用的词汇。
In English, there is a lot of nuance from one word to the next. Picking a word at random from a thesaurus is something many students do because they think it will give their writing variation. 在英语中，一个词与另一个词之间有很多细微差别。很多学生都会从词库中随意选取一个词，因为他们认为这样会使他们的写作富有变化。
Unfortunately, they often select old-fashioned or inappropriate words that would rarely be used in that particular context. 遗憾的是，他们往往会选择那些在特定语境中很少使用的过时或不恰当的词语。
Whenever I read an assignment in which the writer has used words that he or she doesn’t fully understand, I am reminded of an episode of the sitcom Friends - when Joey discovers the thesaurus function on his computer and uses it to write a recommendation letter. 每当我读到一篇作业，作者使用了自己并不完全理解的词语时，我就会想起情景喜剧《朋友》中的一集--乔伊发现了电脑上的词库功能，并用它来写一封推荐信。
Joey’s conversation ^(2){ }^{2} with Monica and Chandler highlights the dangers of overusing a thesaurus better than I ever could: 乔伊与莫妮卡和钱德勒的对话 ^(2){ }^{2} 比我更能突出过度使用辞典的危险：
Joey: I’ve finished my recommendation, and I think you’ll be very, very happy. It’s the longest I’ve ever spent on a computer without looking at porn. 我已经完成了我的推荐，我想你会非常非常高兴的。这是我用电脑时间最长的一次，没有看色情片。
Chandler: I don’t…understand 钱德勒我不......明白
Joey: Some of the words a little too sophisticated for you? 乔伊：有些词对你来说太复杂了？
Monica: It doesn’t make any sense. 没道理啊。
Joey: Of course it does. It’s smart. I used a thesaurus. 当然了。真聪明我用了辞典
Chandler: On every word? 钱德勒对每一个字？
Joey: Yep! 乔伊：是的！
Monica: What was this sentence originally? 莫妮卡这句话的原意是什么？
Joey: Oh, “they’re warm, nice people with big hearts.” 哦，"他们是热情、善良、心胸宽广的人"。
Chandler: And that became, “they’re humid, prepossessing Homo sapiens with full-sized aortic pumps.” 钱德勒"他们是潮湿、傲慢的智人" "拥有全尺寸的主动脉泵"
Joey: And, hey, I really mean it, dude. 嘿，我是认真的，老兄。
Monica: Uh, Joey, I don’t think we can use this. 莫妮卡乔伊 我觉得我们不能用这个 Uh, Joey, I don't think we can use this.
Joey: Why not? 乔伊：为什么不呢？
Monica: Well, because you signed it “Baby Kangaroo.” 莫妮卡因为你签了 "袋鼠宝宝"
2. Use fixed phrases 2.使用固定短语
The quickest way to ensure your writing is always appropriate is to use fixed phrases. 确保您的写作始终得体的最快方法就是使用固定短语。
Let’s take e-mail as an example. 让我们以电子邮件为例。
Most people have certain expectations about what an e-mail should look like, and if you fail to meet those expectations, your e-mail might come across as odd and even offensive. 大多数人对电子邮件的外观都有一定的期望，如果你不能满足这些期望，你的电子邮件可能会让人觉得奇怪，甚至令人反感。
Fifty percent of each e-mail I write is made up of the same basic expressions. If you use these fixed-phrases, you can be confident your English is at least fifty percent accurate every time. 在我写的每封邮件中，有 50% 都是由相同的基本表达组成的。如果你使用这些固定短语，你就可以确信你的英语每次都至少准确百分之五十。
In my classes, there are always a few students who object to using fixed-phrases. Their argument is that using the same sentences all the time is unoriginal and disingenuous. 在我的课堂上，总有一些学生反对使用固定短语。他们的理由是，总是使用同样的句子既没有新意，又缺乏诚意。
I would agree with them when it comes to writing fiction, but, in all other scenarios, fixed phrases provide an excellent framework for efficient communication. 在写小说时，我会同意他们的观点，但在所有其他情况下，固定短语为高效沟通提供了一个极好的框架。
With most writing tasks, the aim is to express what you want to say with accuracy and clarity - and the best way to do this is to adhere to convention. 对于大多数写作任务来说，目的是准确、清晰地表达您想表达的意思，而做到这一点的最佳方法就是遵守惯例。
3. Don't stress over formal versus informal language 3.不要强调正式语言和非正式语言的区别
Students of English often worry too much about the difference between informal and formal language in their writing. 英语专业的学生在写作时往往过于担心非正式语言和正式语言之间的区别。
The beauty of the English language is that it has grown and evolved with its speakers. 英语的魅力在于它与使用者共同成长和发展。
Natives of the language mix formal and informal techniques all the time, and there are very few fixed rules governing the definition of formal speech. 当地人经常将正式和非正式的技巧混用，很少有固定的规则来定义正式的语言。
When I return a formal assignment, students are often horrified to discover they have used contractions (’). But such conventions matter far less than students think they do. In fact, very few English-speaking readers will register a difference. 当我交回一份正式作业时，学生们往往会惊恐地发现自己使用了缩略词（'）。但这些习惯用法远没有学生想象的那么重要。事实上，很少有英语读者会发现其中的差别。
Look at how the writer in this next example mixes formal and informal elements in the following YouTube comment: 看看下一个例子中的作者是如何在下面的 YouTube 评论中混合正式和非正式元素的：
"There has not been a piece of entertainment that was not vastly improved by adding Richard Ayoade to the cast. He’s genuinely funny."3 "理查德-阿尤德的加入使娱乐节目的质量大大提高。他真的很有趣。
I doubt anyone looked at this comment and wondered why the writer used contractions in the second sentence but not in the first. 我怀疑有没有人看了这篇评论后会想，为什么作者在第二句中使用了缩略词，而在第一句中却没有。
Mastercard used contractions in their famous advertising slogan: 万事达卡在其著名的广告语中使用了缩略词：
“There are some things money can’t buy. For everything else, there’s Mastercard.” "有些东西是金钱买不到的其他的东西，万事达卡都能买到"。
As far as I know, there were zero complaints about a prestigious bank writing so informally. 据我所知，对一家著名银行如此非正式地撰写报告的投诉为零。
Perhaps the reason ESL writers are so concerned about formality and informality is that these aspects are much more important in their native languages. ESL 写作者之所以如此关注正式性和非正式性，也许是因为这些方面在他们的母语中更为重要。
For example, I live in the Czech Republic, where there are two types of speech - tykáni (informal) and vykáni (formal). If you were to use the informal with a stranger who is older than you, you’d be committing a grave offence. 例如，我生活在捷克共和国，那里有两种语言--tykáni（非正式）和vykáni（正式）。如果你对比你年长的陌生人使用非正式语言，你就犯了严重的错误。
In English, the difference between formal and informal is less obvious. Between the poles of formal and informal, there exists a large grey area. You can often lean toward the informal or the formal without the reader even noticing. 在英语中，正式和非正式之间的区别并不那么明显。在正式和非正式两极之间，存在着很大的灰色地带。你常常可以在不知不觉中倾向于正式或非正式。
I’m not saying you should forget about formal and informal writing altogether - certain conventions still need to be followed. For example, “Hello mate” is not a good start to a business e-mail. 我并不是说你应该完全忘记正式和非正式写作--某些惯例仍然需要遵守。例如，"你好，伙计 "并不是商务电子邮件的好开头。
But, in general, English-speaking offices are much more casual than they used to be, so natives will rarely use a greeting like “sir” or “ma’am.” 但是，一般来说，讲英语的办公室比过去随意得多，所以本地人很少会使用 "先生 "或 "女士 "这样的问候语。
When native English speakers write an e-mail, they don’t 以英语为母语的人在写电子邮件时，不会
3 Oursisthefury (commenter) on Under the Skin with Russell Brand & Richard Ayoade (YouTube) 3 Oursisthefury (评论者) on Under the Skin with Russell Brand & Richard Ayoade (YouTube)
think, “I need to sound like a businessperson now.” They use the same phrases they have used for years, automatically avoiding words and phrases that sound too casual. 认为 "我现在需要听起来像个商务人士"。他们使用多年来一直使用的短语，自动避免使用听起来过于随意的词语和短语。
Some non-native English speakers are so obsessed with the line between informal and formal that they fill their informal writing tasks with slang. As a result, it looks like they have employed a teenager to write for them. 有些非英语母语的人非常纠结于非正式和正式之间的界限，以至于在非正式写作任务中充斥着俚语。结果，他们看起来就像雇用了一个青少年来为他们写作。
Do you really want to sound like an adolescent when you’re writing to a friend? 在给朋友写信时，你真的想让自己听起来像个青少年吗？
If your answer is no, follow the methods outlined in this book. 如果答案是 "否"，请按照本书介绍的方法进行操作。
That way, you will write clearly, formally, and succinctly enough for almost any audience. 这样，你就能写出清晰、正式、简洁的文章，几乎适合任何读者。
4. Avoid idioms 4.避免使用成语
Some students believe idioms are a shortcut to sounding like a native speaker, but I would argue that authors - of any level - should avoid the use of idioms all together. 有些学生认为成语是让自己听起来像母语使用者的捷径，但我认为，任何水平的作者都应该避免使用成语。
Native English speakers don’t use idioms as often in writing as they do in speech - idioms tend to be confusing and, on the whole, lame. 以英语为母语的人在写作中使用成语的频率并不像在说话中那样高--成语往往容易引起混淆，而且从总体上看，很蹩脚。
ESL students, however, seem to like idioms, and they often misuse them. 然而，ESL 学生似乎喜欢成语，而且经常滥用成语。
For example, look at the following paragraph written by one of my students. 例如，请看下面我的一个学生写的一段话。
“One could say that it is calling the kettle black. There is nothing worse than having one bird in the hand and only two in the bush, because it means that we will miss this opportunity. Even if you are the devil’s advocate I think you would agree…” "可以说这是釜底抽薪。一鸟在手，二鸟在林，没有比这更糟糕的事情了，因为这意味着我们将错失良机。即使你是魔鬼代言人，我想你也会同意......"
In this example, the student has misunderstood and misused so many idioms that the paragraph is nonsensical. 在这个例子中，学生误解和滥用了大量成语，以至于该段毫无道理可言。
Firstly, he has misquoted “the pot calling the kettle black” - an idiom which means someone is being hypocritical. 首先，他错误地引用了 "釜底抽薪 "这个成语，这个成语的意思是有人在虚伪。
According to the way this writer has used it, “calling the kettle black” can only be taken literally, and readers will rightly wonder why a kettle is named “Black,” and, more to the point, why they’re reading about it. 按照这位作家的用法，"把水壶说成是黑的 "只能从字面上理解，读者会理所当然地想知道为什么水壶会被命名为 "黑的"，更重要的是，他们为什么会读到这样的文章。
Secondly, the writer has both misquoted and misunderstood the idiom “a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush” - which means it’s better to hold onto something you already have than to risk losing it by trying to attain something better. 其次，作者对 "一鸟在手，胜过两鸟在林 "这句成语的引用和理解都有误，这句成语的意思是说，与其冒着失去的风险去争取更好的东西，不如紧紧抓住已经拥有的东西。
Again, the way the writer has used the idiom means it must be read literally, so the subject matter has now moved from naming kettles to the difficulties of birdkeeping. 同样，作者使用这个成语的方式意味着它必须按照字面意思来理解，因此主题已经从给水壶命名转移到了养鸟的困难上。
Finally, the writer misquctes and misuses the idiom “to play devil’s advocate” - which means to pretend to be against an idea in order to stimulate debate. 最后，作者错误地引用和误用了成语 "to play devil's advocate"--意思是假装反对某种观点以激发辩论。
In doing so, the writer suggests the reader is siding with the devil - an accusation that many readers may find disturbing. 作者这样做是在暗示读者站在魔鬼一边--许多读者可能会对这一指控感到不安。
I’m not quoting this student’s essay to humiliate him. I just want to show you how easy it is to make mistakes with idioms. 我引用这个学生的作文不是为了羞辱他。我只是想告诉大家，使用成语是多么容易犯错误。
If you’re really smart, you’ll use this student’s example to ensure you never employ idioms in your writing again. 如果你真的很聪明，你就会利用这位学生的例子来确保自己再也不会在写作中使用成语。
5. Say what you need to say. Say it well, and politely leave 5.有话直说。好好说，礼貌地离开
I’ve often wondered why ESL students write so much more than is required to get their point across. 我经常在想，为什么 ESL 学生写的东西要比需要表达的意思多得多。
Most students say they dislike writing in English, so you’d think they’d want to be as succinct as possible. 大多数学生都说他们不喜欢用英语写作，所以你会认为他们希望尽可能简洁。
Instead, they spend pages and pages trying to communicate something that could have been said in a line. 相反，他们花了一页又一页的篇幅，试图传达一些本可以用一行字表达的内容。
Perhaps this overwriting is due to nerves. ESL writers who lack confidence in their work tend to ramble in a disorganized way. 也许这种过度写作是因为紧张。对自己的作品缺乏自信的 ESL 写作者往往会杂乱无章地滔滔不绝。
These students hope the length of their compositions will disguise the deficiencies in their writing. Spoiler alert. This never works. 这些学生希望作文的篇幅能掩盖他们写作中的不足。剧透一下。这永远行不通。
Fortunately, there are a couple of easy methods you can employ to make your writing more succinct. 幸运的是，有几种简单的方法可以让你的文章更加简洁。
I. DELETE UNNECESSARY WORDS I.删除不必要的词语
Removing unnecessary words makes your writing leaner and more sophisticated. 去掉多余的词语，让你的文章更精炼、更精致。
Be honest about whether you can eliminate some of the words without altering the message. 诚实地考虑是否可以在不改变信息的前提下删除一些词语。
You’ll be amazed at how many words you can delete from a sentence and preserve the underlying message. 你会惊奇地发现，从一个句子中删除多少个字，都能保留基本信息。
Adverbs are one of the chief culprits of sluggish, indirect writing, so be ruthless in deleting them. 副词是造成写作迟缓、间接的罪魁祸首之一，因此要毫不留情地删除它们。
Adverbs modify a verb - or any type of word apart from a noun and pronoun. 副词修饰动词--或除名词和代词之外的任何类型的词。
Their purpose is to provide additional details about 其目的是提供以下方面的更多细节
how, where, when, in what manner, and to what extent something is done or happens. 如何、在哪里、何时、以何种方式以及在多大程度上完成或发生某件事情。
As a general rule, adverbs often end in “-ly.” 一般来说，副词通常以"-ly "结尾。
Ex. “He walked sadly to the shop,” “she drank slowly from the cup,” etc. 例如"他悲伤地走向商店"，"她慢慢地喝着杯子里的水"，等等。
You can avoid adverbs by choosing more specific verbs. 您可以通过选择更具体的动词来避免副词。
Ex. “He trudged to the shop,” or “she sipped from the cup,” etc. 例如"他蹒跚地走到商店 "或 "她端起杯子喝了一口 "等。
II. USE THE ACTIVE VOICE II.使用主动语态
The active voice is another shortcut to brevity. 主动语态是简洁的另一捷径。
When you use the active voice, the person or thing responsible for the action comes first. 使用主动语态时，对动作负责的人或事排在前面。
For example, “the policemen took statements from the witnesses.” 例如，"警察向证人录口供"。
In a passive sentence, the thing or person acted on comes first, and the person or thing responsible for the action appears at the end. 在被动句中，行动的事或人在前，对行动负责的人或事在后。
For example, “statements were taken from the witnesses by the policemen.” 例如，"警察向证人录取了口供"。
Notice how the passive voice is more complicated to digest and uses more words? 注意到被动语态更复杂、用词更多了吗？
Check your work for passive sentences with this threestep method. 使用此三步法检查您的作业中是否存在被动句。
Look for any forms of the verb ‘to be’ - was, were, etc. - where the person or thing responsible for the action is either missing or introduced after the verb. 查找动词 "to be "的任何形式--was、were 等。- 在这些形式中，对动作负责的人或事要么没有出现，要么出现在动词之后。
For example: “my dog was stolen” or “my sandwiches were eaten by a bird.” 例如："我的狗被偷了 "或 "我的三明治被鸟吃了"。
2) Move the actor to the beginning of the sentence, and place the object of the action after the verb. If no actor is specified in the passive sentence, then one must be added. 2) 将行为者移到句首，并将动作的宾语放在动词之后。如果被动句中没有指定行为主体，则必须添加一个。
The first sentence might become, “someone stolen my dog.” 第一句话可能会变成 "有人偷了我的狗"。
The second sentence becomes, “a bird eaten my sandwiches.” 第二句变成了 "一只鸟吃了我的三明治"。
3) The above sentences are grammatically incorrect, so the final step is to change the form of the verb as needed. 3) 上述句子在语法上不正确，因此最后一步是根据需要改变动词的形式。
“Someone stole my dog.” "有人偷了我的狗"
“A bird ate my sandwiches.” "一只鸟吃了我的三明治"
Very few people are able to catch all the examples of passive voice in their writing. However, even if you change some of the instances of the passive voice, your text will become more dynamic. 很少有人能在写作中抓住所有被动语态的例子。但是，即使你改变了一些被动语态的例子，你的文章也会变得更有活力。
6. Consider your reader 6.考虑读者
When you lack confidence in your English writing skills, it’s natural to worry that your mistakes will reflect badly on you. 当您对自己的英语写作技巧缺乏信心时，自然会担心自己的错误会给自己带来不好的影响。
Worrying that your writing might make a bad impression will only stress you out and slow down the writing process. 担心自己的文章会给人留下不好的印象只会给自己带来压力，拖慢写作进程。
A better mindset is to stop obsessing about making mistakes, and, instead, concentrate on ensuring your writing is more digestible for the reader. 更好的心态是不要再纠结于犯错，而是集中精力确保你的文章更容易被读者消化。
For example, as your write an e-mail, imagine how the recipient will feel when they open that e-mail after a long day. 例如，在撰写电子邮件时，想象一下收件人在忙碌一天后打开邮件时的感受。
If your writing is complicated and elaborate, it will be very difficult to ascertain what you want. 如果您的写作复杂而精细，就很难确定您想要什么。
At worst, the recipient will give up on your e-mail and forget about it all together. 在最坏的情况下，收件人会放弃你的电子邮件，把它忘得一干二净。
At best, they will return to the e-mail later - but by this point your message will have become a chore. 充其量，他们会在稍后返回该电子邮件--但此时你的信息已经成为一种琐事。
This is just one of the many reasons why it makes sense to keep the reader at the forefront of your mind. 这只是将读者放在首位的众多原因之一。
7. Leave plenty of space on the page 7.在页面上留出足够的空间
During written exams, some students fill every square centimetre of the page with writing. There are barely any spaces between words, let alone between paragraphs. Other students write so close to the margin they end up writing on the table - as if their teachers are going to grade the desk. 在笔试中，有些学生把每一平方厘米的页面都写满了字。字与字之间几乎没有空格，更不用说段与段之间了。还有的学生写得太近，最后写到桌子上--好像老师要给桌子打分似的。
Filling the page with writing isn’t confined to handwritten assignments. I’ve opened countless e-mails that are just one huge block of text - the writer managed to put spaces in between the words, but there were no paragraph breaks. 用文字填满页面并不局限于手写作业。我曾打开过无数封只有一大段文字的电子邮件--作者设法在字与字之间加了空格，但却没有段落分隔符。
When marking essays, I subconsciously push the essays that don’t contain any white space to the bottom of the pile. And, that’s what people will do outside of the classroom, too. 批改作文时，我会下意识地把没有留白的作文压到最下面。在课堂之外，人们也会这么做。
If you leave plenty of space on the page, it makes your writing more inviting to read - and you want your writing to be read, right? 如果你在页面上留出足够的空间，就会让你的文章更吸引人阅读--而你希望你的文章被人阅读，对吗？
8. Allow your writing style to evolve 8.让自己的写作风格不断发展
‘Writing style’ refers to the author’s word choice, tone, and the “voice” that people hear when they read a writer’s work. This is 写作风格 "指的是作者的用词、语气以及人们在阅读作家作品时听到的 "声音"。这是
what people are alluding to when they say they enjoy the style of a particular author. 当人们说他们喜欢某位作家的风格时，他们所指的是什么。
If the fundamentals of your writing change from one paragraph to the next, your work will look like it has been patched together by a number of different authors. 如果一个段落与另一个段落之间的写作基本要素发生了变化，那么你的作品看起来就像是由许多不同的作者拼凑而成的。
The reason this happens is that you may be too fixated on developing a particular writing style. 出现这种情况的原因是，你可能过于执着于形成一种特定的写作风格。
I can understand why you want your writing to look a particular way. 我能理解你为什么希望自己的文章看起来有某种特别的风格。
As a teenager, I spent years mimicking my favourite authors. First, I tried to copy the rhythm of Jack Kerouac, ^(4){ }^{4} then I switched to the concise style of Hemingway. 少年时代，我曾多年模仿自己喜欢的作家。首先，我试图模仿杰克-凯鲁亚克（Jack Kerouac）的节奏， ^(4){ }^{4} 然后我转而模仿海明威（Hemingway）简洁的风格。
When attempting to emulate these writers, a single sentence took forever because I constantly had to stop and think about my word choice and sentence structure. It was impossible to keep the style consistent because it wasn’t really my own. 当我试图模仿这些作家时，一个句子就得花上很长时间，因为我不得不不断停下来思考我的用词和句子结构。要保持风格一致是不可能的，因为这不是我自己的风格。
Eventually, I gave up on copying other people’s writing style and began to focus on writing clearly, using common vocabulary, and minimizing mistakes. 最后，我放弃了模仿别人的写作风格，开始专注于清晰地写作、使用常用词汇和减少错误。
When I began to do this, the writing process became much more straightforward, and my work became more authentic. 当我开始这样做时，写作过程变得更加简单明了，我的作品也变得更加真实。
I suggest that you, too, focus on writing clearly and simply, use fixed phrases, and delete unnecessary words. 我建议你也要注重简洁明了的写作，使用固定的短语，删除不必要的词语。
Your writing style will then emerge organically through your natural word choice and unique message. 这样，你的写作风格就会通过自然的用词和独特的信息有机地展现出来。
Better still, it will be a style you can maintain over the length of your work and even the entirety of your writing career. 更好的是，这种风格可以在你的作品甚至整个写作生涯中一直保持下去。
9. Organise your ideas 9.整理你的想法
You may be familiar with the quote, attributed to Abraham Lincoln, “give me six hours to chop down a tree, and I will spend the first four sharpening the axe.” 你可能熟悉亚伯拉罕-林肯的一句话："给我六个小时砍树，我会用前四个小时磨斧头"。
Like Lincoln, writers should also recognize the importance of preparation. 与林肯一样，作家也应认识到准备工作的重要性。
If you fail to organize your ideas before you write, disorganised thoughts will spill onto the page - forcing your readers to untangle your meaning and decipher the buried message. 如果你在写作之前没有整理好思路，那么杂乱无章的想法就会跃然纸上--迫使你的读者解开你的意思，解读被掩盖的信息。
It is essential you plan your writing so that you are making a clear topic statement ^(5){ }^{5} and supporting that thought with evidence laid out in a logical order. 您必须对写作进行规划，以便提出明确的主题陈述 ^(5){ }^{5} ，并按照逻辑顺序提供证据来支持这一观点。
Even for short tasks, like e-mails, get into the habit of noting the main points you want to make and arranging them in an order that makes sense. 即使是简短的任务，比如电子邮件，也要养成记下要点的习惯，并按照合理的顺序排列。
Eventually, you won’t even have to put in this extra effort, because it will come naturally. 最终，你甚至不需要付出额外的努力，因为它会自然而然地发生。
10. Self-edit 10.自我编辑
Never submit anything without editing it first. 切勿在未经编辑的情况下提交任何内容。
This sounds obvious, but you’d be amazed at how many ESL writers neglect to edit their work. 这听起来很明显，但你会惊讶于有多少 ESL 写作者忽视了对作品的修改。
I’m not quite sure why this is. 我不太清楚这是为什么。
The odds of you writing something perfect, right off the top of your head, are astronomical. 你要想写出完美的东西，从头开始，那是天方夜谭。
Professional authors edit their work, and students of a foreign language need to as well. 专业作家会编辑自己的作品，学习外语的学生也需要。
My guess is that people avoid editing because: 我猜想，人们避免编辑的原因是：
I. They don’t want to go back and read what they’ve written because they’re worried they won’t like what they see. I. 他们不想回头看自己写的东西，因为他们担心自己不喜欢看到的东西。
II. They can’t be bothered - “I’ve finished it. Why should I go back and look at it all over again?” II.他们懒得去看--"我已经看完了。我为什么要回头再看一遍呢？
III. They don’t know how to fix what they have written, even if they do go back to edit it. III.他们不知道如何修改自己写的东西，即使回去修改也是如此。
In response to the first explanation, I’d ask the following question. Which would you prefer, addressing the English errors yourself or your reader pointing them out to you after you’ve submitted the document? 针对第一种解释，我会提出以下问题。你更喜欢哪种方式，是自己解决英文错误，还是在提交文件后由读者向你指出错误？
Before you answer that, remember the second route could make you look very stupid, and prevent you from getting what you want from the communication. 在回答这个问题之前，请记住，第二种方法可能会让你看起来非常愚蠢，也会让你无法从交流中得到你想要的东西。
If you avoid editing because you can’t be bothered, there’s little I can do to help. This attitude makes it clear that you don’t care about writing well. 如果你因为懒惰而逃避编辑，那我也帮不上什么忙。这种态度表明你根本不在乎写好文章。
The third explanation for students that fail to self-edit is the most common. Fortunately, it is possible to learn how to fix what you have written. 学生自我编辑失败的第三种解释是最常见的。幸运的是，我们可以学会如何修改自己写的东西。
I will speak more about how to clean up your writing in Chapter 4. For now, just remember that you cannot address all your errors simultaneously. 我将在第 4 章中详细介绍如何清理您的写作。现在，请记住，您不能同时处理所有错误。
Think of editing like running a brush through your hair. First, you remove the biggest knots, and then, as you continue to brush, you remove the smaller ones until you’re left with smooth and shiny locks. 把编辑工作想象成用梳子梳理头发。首先，梳掉最大的发结，然后继续梳，梳掉较小的发结，直到留下光滑亮泽的发丝。
CHAPTER 2 第 2 章
A SIMPLE GUIDE TO 入门指南
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation is often treated as a minor branch of grammar, but it is a discipline in its own right. 标点符号通常被视为语法的一个次要分支，但它本身就是一门学科。
Grammar covers how to structure the language, while punctuation is used to clarify meaning and improve a reader’s understanding of the text. 语法包括如何构建语言结构，而标点符号则用于阐明含义，加深读者对文章的理解。
The majority of writing mistakes aren’t the result of bad grammar, but poor use of punctuation. 大多数写作错误不是因为语法错误，而是标点符号使用不当。
In this chapter, I will discuss some of the main types of punctuation and how they are used. My goal is to deal with the elements of punctuation that seem to cause ESL students the most trouble. 在本章中，我将讨论一些主要的标点符号类型及其使用方法。我的目标是处理那些似乎给 ESL 学生带来最多麻烦的标点符号元素。
In many respects, English punctuation is quite unformulaic. 在许多方面，英语标点符号都很不规范。
Of course, English punctuation rules do exist, some of which can never be broken - capital letters after a full stop, for example. 当然，英语中确实存在标点符号规则，其中有些规则是绝对不能违反的，例如句号后的大写字母。
But, punctuation in English is, in general, much freer and more intuitive than many other languages. 但是，总的来说，英语中的标点符号比许多其他语言更自由、更直观。
If you understand why you’re using different types of punctuation, you will soon be able to use your own judgement in terms of what ‘sounds’ best. 如果您了解为什么要使用不同类型的标点符号，您很快就能根据自己的判断来选择最 "听起来 "顺耳的标点符号。
Before we look at punctuation in more detail, I’d like to remind you that the techniques you’re learning in this book are designed to work together. So, to improve your use of punctuation, leverage rule number five from the previous chapter - keep your writing brief. 在更详细地了解标点符号之前，我想提醒你，你在本书中学到的技巧都是为了相互配合而设计的。因此，要改进标点符号的使用，请利用上一章的第五条规则--保持写作简短。
If you keep your sentences short, you will minimise the need for commas, colons, etc., and reduce the chances of you misplacing punctuation. 如果句子简短，就可以尽量少用逗号、冒号等，减少标点符号放错的机会。
Remember, the chief function of punctuation is to increase clarity and make writing easier to read. 请记住，标点符号的主要功能是提高清晰度，使文章更容易阅读。
When editing English writing, I spend far more time deleting punctuation than adding it. 在编辑英语写作时，我删除标点符号的时间远远多于添加标点符号的时间。
So, before you use a piece of punctuation, ask yourself if it is absolutely necessary. 因此，在使用标点符号之前，先问问自己是否绝对有必要。
If the punctuation doesn’t increase clarity or make your writing easier to read, delete it. 如果标点符号不能提高文章的清晰度或使文章更容易阅读，那就删掉它。
CAPITAL LETTERS IN TITLES 标题中的大写字母
Capitalization of the first letters of words in titles often causes confusion. This is because punctuation rules vary from one style manual to the next. 标题中单词首字母的大写常常会引起混淆。这是因为不同的样式手册对标点符号的规定不尽相同。
A style manual contains guidelines about formatting, grammar, and punctuation. There are numerous style manuals out there, and the content varies from one to the next. 风格手册包含有关格式、语法和标点符号的指南。目前有许多风格手册，内容也各不相同。
If you’re unsure about which style manual your institution adheres to, ask your teacher or boss. 如果您不确定您所在的机构遵循哪种风格手册，请询问您的老师或老板。
In general, a good rule to follow is to capitalize each word of the title, except for ‘a,’ ‘an,’ ‘the,’ ‘at,’ ‘by,’ ‘for,’ ‘in,’ ‘of,’ ‘on,’ ‘to,’ ‘up,’ ‘and,’ ‘as,’ ‘but,’ ‘or,’ and ‘nor.’ 一般来说，除了 "a"、"an"、"the"、"at"、"by"、"for"、"in"、"of"、"on"、"to"、"up"、"and"、"as"、"but"、"or "和 "nor "之外，标题中的每个单词都要大写。
Ex. 1: A Guide to Grammar and Punctuation Ex.1: 语法和标点符号指南
Ex. 2: Why I Hate Studying Punctuation 例 2：我为什么讨厌学习标点符号
APOSTROPHES (') 撇号
Even some advanced English students find apostrophes confusing. But, using apostrophes really isn’t as complicated as you might think. 即使是一些英语水平较高的学生也会觉得撇号令人困惑。但是，撇号的使用其实并不像您想象的那么复杂。
These are the main uses of apostrophes: 这些是撇号的主要用途：
1. To shorten words 1.缩短单词
Apostrophes used to combine and shorten words are known as contractions. 用于合并和缩短单词的省略号称为缩略语。
A contraction condenses two words into a shortened, single word by adding an apostrophe where letters have been omitted. 缩略词通过在省略字母的地方加上撇号，将两个单词浓缩成一个简短的单词。
For example, ‘it’s’ (it is), ‘they’re’ (they are), ‘you’re’ (you are), ‘isn’t’ (is not). 例如，"it's"（它是）、"they're"（他们是）、"you're"（你是）、"is't"（不是）。
You’d be amazed at how many people write ‘your’ when they mean ‘you’re’ and vice versa. 你会惊讶于有多少人在写 "你的 "时其实是 "你的"，反之亦然。
The best way to check you’re using contractions correctly is to read the sentence without contractions during your final edit. For example, read ‘you’re’ as ‘you are.’ 检查您是否正确使用缩略词的最佳方法是在最后修改时阅读没有缩略词的句子。例如，将 "you're "读成 "you are"。
That way, you’ll be able to determine whether the sentence still makes sense with your chosen contraction. 这样，您就能确定所选缩略词是否仍能使句子通顺。
Make sure you’re putting the apostrophe in the correct location. The apostrophe replaces the omitted letters. For example, ‘is’nt’ does not exist. 确保撇号的位置正确。撇号代替省略的字母。例如，"is'nt "不存在。
It’s true that contractions can make your writing sound less formal, but even if you’re deliberately writing in an informal style, I suggest using a combination of both contractions and standard wording. 诚然，缩略词会让你的文章听起来不那么正式，但即使你刻意使用非正式的写作风格，我也建议你将缩略词和标准措辞结合起来使用。
If you’re writing formally, lean toward forgoing the use of contractions, but it’s perfectly acceptable if a few slip through along the way. 如果是正式写作，应尽量避免使用缩略词，但如果在写作过程中漏掉了一些缩略词，也是完全可以接受的。
2. To show possession 2.表明拥有
To indicate that something belongs to someone/something, an apostrophe is used. For example, “it is Martin’s house,” or “it is Samantha’s problem.” 为了表示某物属于某人/某物，要使用撇号。例如，"这是马丁的房子 "或 "这是萨曼莎的问题"。
When dealing with words in the plural form (children, men, people), simply add an apostrophe to show possession as if the word wasn’t plural. 在处理复数形式的单词（孩子、男人、人）时，只需加上撇号表示拥有，就像该单词不是复数一样。
E.g. “it is the children’s home,” or “he believes in men’s rights.” 例如，"这是儿童之家 "或 "他相信男权"。
The only exception is if a plural word ends in ’ ss ’ (actors, guys, girls). In this instance, the apostrophe is placed after the ‘s.’ 唯一的例外是以" ss "结尾的复数词（actors、guys、girls）。在这种情况下，撇号要放在's'后面。
For example, “this is the guys’ fitting room, and this is the girls’ fitting room.” 例如，"这是男生试衣间，这是女生试衣间"。
Many students start throwing in apostrophes whenever a word ends in ‘s’. Resist the urge. 很多学生一看到以 "s "结尾的单词就开始加撇号。抵制这种冲动。
QUOTATION MARKS ("") 引号
In English, quotation marks always look like this: “…”. 在英语中，引号总是这样的："...".
I mention this because in other languages - some central European countries for example - they look like this: „…". 我之所以提到这一点，是因为在其他语言中，例如在一些中欧国家，它们看起来是这样的："...".
Typically, students are confused about quotation marks in the following circumstances. 通常，学生在以下情况下会对引号感到困惑。
1. Direct quotes 1.直接引语
The most obvious use for quotation marks is in direct speech. 引号最明显的用途是在直接讲话中使用。
For example, “We are delighted to announce our cooperation with our new partner,” said Alice Jones, Sales Director. 例如，销售总监 Alice Jones 说："我们很高兴宣布与新合作伙伴的合作。
A common mistake is failing to attribute the quote to the speaker quickly enough for readers to comfortably understand the scene. 一个常见的错误是没有足够快地将引文归属于说话者，让读者能够轻松地理解场景。
When quotes are longer, leaving the attribution to the end can be confusing, because the reader goes a long time without knowing which character is speaking. 如果引文篇幅较长，将署名留到最后可能会造成混乱，因为读者很长时间都不知道是哪个人物在说话。
For example, “We are delighted to announce our cooperation with our new partner. For many years, we have been looking to develop our company through collaboration with different firms. It has taken a long time, but we have finally secured a partner that understands and aligns with our values,” said Alice Jones, Sales Director. 例如，"我们很高兴宣布与新合作伙伴的合作。多年来，我们一直希望通过与不同公司的合作来发展公司。虽然花了很长时间，但我们终于找到了一个理解并符合我们价值观的合作伙伴，"销售总监 Alice Jones 说。
In the above example, it would be best to move the attribution to the beginning. 在上面的例子中，最好将归因移到开头。
For example, Sales Director, Alice Jones, said: 6 “For many years, we have been looking to develop our company through collaboration with different firms. It has taken a long time, but we have finally secured a partner that understands and aligns with our values.” 例如，销售总监 Alice Jones 说：6 "多年来，我们一直希望通过与不同的公司合作来发展公司。虽然花了很长时间，但我们终于找到了一个理解并符合我们价值观的合作伙伴。
2. Titles of certain works 2.某些作品的标题
The rules around quotation marks and titles are pretty vague. Again, it depends on the style manual you’re operating under. 关于引号和标题的规定非常模糊。同样，这也取决于您所使用的样式手册。
If you’re referencing the title of another work within your writing, I suggest using quotation marks for smaller works such as chapters in books and articles. Indicate titles of longer works like books or movies with italics. 如果您在写作中引用了其他作品的标题，我建议对较小的作品（如书籍和文章中的章节）使用引号。对于书籍或电影等较长作品的标题，则用斜体表示。
3. To suggest an alternate meaning 3.提出另一种含义
Sometimes, quotation marks are used when the writer wants to distance themselves from a word or phrase. Often this is done to indicate irony. 有时，当作者想与某个词或短语保持距离时，会使用引号。这通常是为了表示讽刺。
For example, 'when I got there, I met a number of “experts.”" 例如，'当我到达那里时，我遇到了许多'专家'"。
In this example, the writer casts doubt over the credentials of the experts he met. 在这个例子中，作者对他遇到的专家的资历表示怀疑。
ESL writers have a habit of randomly putting quotation marks around words, which makes it look like the author is being ironic when it clearly wasn’t the intention. ESL 写作者有一个习惯，就是随意在单词周围加上引号，这让人觉得作者是在讽刺，但这显然不是作者的本意。
COMMAS (,)
How do we know when to use a comma? 我们如何知道何时使用逗号？
Well, there are rules surrounding different clauses, but in my experience, this only confuses students. 不同的分句有不同的规则，但根据我的经验，这只会让学生感到困惑。
Such rules even confuse native speakers; it is rare to find a native speaker who uses commas correctly with any kind of consistency. 这样的规则甚至让母语使用者感到困惑；很少有母语使用者能正确、一致地使用逗号。
That is why, when it comes to commas, I tend to offer suggestions rather than rules. 因此，在谈到逗号时，我倾向于提出建议而不是规则。
Suggestion 1 建议 1
Use the ‘pause for breath’ approach. 采用 "暂停呼吸 "的方法。
This is a method I learned in primary school, and it has served me well ever since. 这是我在小学时学到的方法，一直沿用至今。
Simply read your work aloud - as if to another person then add a comma whenever a pause is required in order to clarify your message. 只需大声朗读您的作品--就像朗读给他人听一样，然后在需要停顿的地方加上逗号，以澄清您的信息。
If a long sentence has no commas, you may find you run out of breath before you can reach the end of the sentence. If you run out of breath, it is an indicator that punctuation is missing. 如果一个长句子没有逗号，你可能会发现还没读完句子就喘不过气来了。如果您喘不过气来，就说明缺少标点符号。
Go back and read your sentence aloud again and add commas where you’d naturally pause if this were a spoken comment. 回过头来，再次朗读您的句子，并在您自然停顿的地方加上逗号，如果这是一句口头评论的话。
When you add the commas, be sure to check they don’t hinder understanding or change the meaning of your sentences. Commas in the wrong place can have a huge impact on the meaning of a text. 添加逗号时，一定要检查它们是否会妨碍理解或改变句子的意思。逗号加错位置会对文章的意思产生巨大影响。
For example: 例如
i) Rachel finds inspiration in cooking, her family, and her dog. i) 瑞秋从烹饪、家人和她的狗身上找到灵感。
ii) Rachel finds inspiration in cooking her family and her dog. ii) 瑞秋从烹饪家人和她的狗身上找到了灵感。
On the other hand, if, when you read the work aloud, the commas impede the flow, and make you stop and start in unnatural places, delete the offending commas or move them to a more natural position. 另一方面，如果在朗读作品时，逗号妨碍了语句的流畅，让人在不自然的地方停顿和开始，那么就删除不恰当的逗号，或者将它们移到更自然的位置。
Once you’ve been through this process a few times, you’ll begin to develop an instinct for where commas should go. 一旦你经历过几次这样的过程，你就会开始对逗号的位置形成一种直觉。
Granted, you might not put commas in the right place every time, but you’ll certainly improve the overall accuracy. 当然，你可能不会每次都把逗号放在正确的位置，但你肯定会提高整体的准确性。
Suggestion 2 建议 2
As a general rule, there are several introductory phrases/ transitions where commas should be used: 一般来说，有几个导语短语/过渡句应该使用逗号：
‘However,’ 然而
‘Nevertheless,’ 然而
‘Still,’ 还是
‘In the end,’ 最后
‘After all,’ 毕竟
‘For example,’ 例如
‘That being said,’ 话虽如此
Suggestion 3 建议 3
Students often struggle with whether or not to put a comma before the words “but” and “and.” 学生常常纠结于是否要在 "但是 "和 "并且 "前面加上逗号。
Again, if you want to get this one hundred percent correct every time, you will need to research clauses and deeply understand the parts of speech. 同样，如果想每次都百分之百正确，就需要研究分句，深入理解语篇。
If you are looking for a quick answer, omit the comma before these words, particularly if you’re using short sentences. 如果您想快速找到答案，请省略这些词语前的逗号，尤其是在使用短句时。
That being said, there may be times when it feels like the separation is necessary, and it helps with the rhythm especially with longer sentences which, otherwise, will just run on and on. 尽管如此，有时还是有必要把句子分隔开来，这样有助于掌握节奏，尤其是长句子，否则就会滔滔不绝。
Suggestion 4 建议 4
When listing things, avoid confusion by placing a comma between each item. 在列举事物时，每个项目之间用逗号隔开，以免混淆。
For example: “She bought a balloon, a birthday card, some wrapping paper, and a pair of scissors.” 例如："她买了一个气球、一张生日卡、一些包装纸和一把剪刀"。
In the above example, the final comma is known as the oxford comma. Many style manuals demand its usage and it improves clarity. 在上例中，最后一个逗号被称为牛津逗号。许多文体手册都要求使用这种逗号，因为它能提高文章的清晰度。
Suggestion 5 建议 5
Another area in which commas should be used, is when you’re attributing a sentence to someone. 另一个应该使用逗号的地方是，当您将句子归因于某人时。
“He always eats too much food,” said his mother. "他的母亲说："他总是吃得太多。
His mother said, “he always eats too much food.” 他妈妈说，"他总是吃得太多"。
There are exceptions, though. 不过也有例外。
If there is already punctuation within the quotation marks, then that quotation replaces the comma. 如果引号内已有标点符号，则该引号将取代逗号。
“He always eats too much food!” said his mother. "他总是吃得太多了！"母亲说。
A second exception is if you’re electing to use a partial quote. 第二个例外是，如果您选择使用部分引用。
A partial quote is when you use a section of the full quote in your sentence. 部分引用是指在句子中使用完整引用的一部分。
His mother said “he eats far too much” when he is on holiday. 他的母亲说，他在度假时 "吃得太多了"。
Suggestion 6 建议 6
Commas are also used when you’re extending a thought. 逗号还可用于扩展思想。
“He took a bus to the supermarket, where he bought the cake last week.” "他坐公交车去了超市 上周他在那里买的蛋糕"
In general, the following words signify you’re extending a thought: 一般来说，以下词语表示你在延伸一个想法：
1), which is 1），即
“She lives in London, which is the capital of England” "她住在英国首都伦敦"
2), whose 2），其
“He knew a girl called Alice, whose father was a policeman” "他认识一个叫爱丽丝的女孩 她父亲是警察"
3), where 3），其中
“I went to the football stadium, where I saw Jim in his usual seat” "我去了足球场" "在那里我看到吉姆坐在他的老座位上"
Suggestion 7 建议 7
Another instance to use commas is when you’re delivering two completely different pieces of information in one sentence. 另一种使用逗号的情况是，当您在一句话中传递两个完全不同的信息时。
One way to achieve this is to use two commas in order to bracket one idea within the other. 实现这一目的的方法之一是使用两个逗号，以便将一个想法括在另一个想法中。
For example, say you have the following two points to make: 例如，您有以下两点需要说明：
David is the festival director 大卫是艺术节总监
David likes to run during his free time 大卫喜欢在空闲时间跑步
You might say, “David, the festival director, likes to run during his free time.” 你可能会说："电影节导演大卫闲暇时喜欢跑步"。
Notice that if you remove the extra information within the commas, the sentence still makes sense: 请注意，如果去掉逗号内的额外信息，这个句子仍然是有意义的：
“David likes to run during his free time.” "大卫喜欢在空闲时间跑步"
If your sentence does not make sense when you remove the additional information, you need to alter the idea until it does. 如果去掉附加信息后，您的句子没有意义，您就需要修改想法，直到它有意义为止。
COLONS (:) 横线 (:)
The main function of the colon is to introduce lists. 冒号的主要功能是引入列表。
For example, “when he opened the drawer, he saw: a pen, a half-eaten packet of crisps, a mobile phone, and a lightbulb.” 例如，"当他打开抽屉时，他看到了：一支笔、一包吃了一半的薯片、一部手机和一个灯泡"。
Colons can also be used to attribute quotes. Again, this is a matter of preference - so long as the attribution is at the beginning. 冒号也可用于引文的署名。同样，这也是一个偏好问题--只要署名在开头即可。
Joseph said: “give me that!” 约瑟夫说"给我！"
Another way colons are used is to add further information to something that has already been mentioned in the sentence. 冒号的另一种用法是为句子中已经提到的内容添加更多信息。
In this way, the sentence that comes after the colon offers a summarisation or explanation of the first part of the sentence, and, in doing so, completes a thought. 这样，冒号后的句子就对句子的前半部分进行了总结或解释，从而完成了一个思想。
Thus you can use the colon to connect thoughts instead of writing the two connected ideas as separate sentences. 因此，您可以使用冒号来连接思想，而不是将两个相关联的想法写成独立的句子。
For example: 例如
“You make a good point: we should go there.” "你说得好，我们应该去那里"
“She is very selfish: she never helps anyone.” "她非常自私，从不帮助任何人"
SEMICOLONS (;) 半圆 (;)
A simple way to approach semicolons is to think of them as slightly longer pauses than commas. 处理分号的一个简单方法是将其视为比逗号稍长的停顿。
They can be used to slow a sentence down with the intention of improving the rhythm of the passage and building anticipation. 它们可以用来放慢句子的语速，目的是提高段落的节奏感，让人产生期待。
For example: 例如
“The candidate is old; he is also experienced.” "候选人年事已高，但经验丰富"。
Notice how the slightly longer pause brings out the meaning of the sentence. 注意稍长的停顿是如何突出句子含义的。
If we were speaking this same sentence, we would certainly leave a bigger pause between ‘old’ and ‘he’ in order for the meaning to be clear. The use of the semicolon in the written version of the sentence is reflective of the spoken version. 如果我们说的是同一个句子，我们肯定会在 "old "和 "he "之间留一个更大的停顿，这样意思才会清楚。该句书面语中分号的使用反映了口语中分号的使用。
Another use of the semicolon is in very complex lists. Semicolons can be used instead of commas to mark the separation between each item in the list. 分号的另一种用法是在非常复杂的列表中使用。分号可以代替逗号来标记列表中每个项目之间的分隔。
BRACKETS () 支架 ()
If you’re using brackets often, it indicates you’re including a lot of information that is only remotely relevant to the main topic of the passage. Tangents divert the reader’s attention away from your main point. 如果你经常使用括号，这表明你包含了很多与段落主题只是勉强相关的信息。切入点会转移读者对主要内容的注意力。
To avoid using brackets, see if you can restructure the sentence using commas instead. 为了避免使用括号，看看能否用逗号代替括号来重组句子。
Also, consider whether the side-point you’re making is critical to a reader’s comprehension. If you decide the point 此外，还要考虑您提出的旁白是否对读者的理解至关重要。如果您认为该观点
is crucial, perhaps it deserves its own sentence, rather than it being presented as an afterthought in brackets. 是至关重要的，也许应该有自己的一句话，而不是作为括号中的一个后缀。
CAPITAL LETTERS (ABC) 大写字母
We know a new sentence should always start with a capital letter, but what about using capital letters within the sentence itself? 我们知道新句子的开头应始终使用大写字母，但在句子中使用大写字母又如何呢？
It’s best to use capital letters within your sentences as sparingly as possible. Too many capital letters are distracting and disrupts the flow of the piece. 最好在句子中尽量少用大写字母。太多大写字母会分散注意力，扰乱文章的流畅性。
If all of your sentences are filled with capital letters, it is likely you are doing something wrong. 如果你的所有句子都是大写字母，那很可能是你做错了什么。
There are however, some words that always require the use of capital letters: 不过，有些单词始终需要使用大写字母：
Days, months, and holidays: Monday, February, Easter 日、月和节假日：星期一、二月、复活节
Countries, languages, nationalities, and religions: England, English, English, Christianity 国家、语言、民族和宗教：英国、英语、英语、基督教
People’s names and titles: Simon, Dr Harris 人们的姓名和头衔西蒙、哈里斯博士
Names of organisations and companies: the World Health Organisation, Apple 组织和公司名称：世界卫生组织、苹果公司
Specific places: London, London Bridge, Downing Street 具体地点伦敦、伦敦桥、唐宁街
Titles of books, films, and media: The War of the Worlds, Pulp Fiction 书籍、电影和媒体名称：世界大战》、《纸醉金迷
Dashes (-/-) 破折号 (-/-)
Dashes are not to be confused with hyphens. 破折号不能与连字符混淆。
Hyphens are slightly shorter than dashes and used to link two words to show that they are working together. For example, “runner-up,” and “self-esteem.” 连字符比破折号稍短，用于连接两个单词，以表示它们是连在一起的。例如，"亚军 "和 "自尊"。
There are two types of dashes. 破折号有两种类型。
The first is the En dash, which is slightly longer than a hyphen, and is used when you have a range of things, such as numbers. This mark basically means “through”. 第一种是 "En "破折号，它比连字符稍长，用于数字等一系列事物。这个标记的基本意思是 "通过"。
For example, ‘you will find the answers on pages 25-7 of the textbook’. 例如，"你可以在教科书第 25-7 页找到答案"。
Similarly, if you wanted to say January to March then you could also use an En dash. 同样，如果您想表达一月到三月，也可以使用 "En "破折号。
For example, ‘I lived in Australia from January - March’. 例如，"1 月至 3 月我住在澳大利亚"。
The second type of dash is known as an Em dash. 第二种破折号称为 Em 破折号。
An Em dash is used to clarify or elaborate on an idea. Em破折号用于澄清或阐述一个观点。
For example, “I got a phone call from Alice - the girl I met last week in a bar.” 例如，"我接到了爱丽丝的电话，她是我上周在酒吧认识的女孩"。
The Em dash is an amazing stylistic tool, but be wary of overusing it, or your writing may begin to feel disjointed. Em破折号是一种很好的文体工具，但要注意不要过度使用，否则你的文章可能会开始感觉不连贯。
Concluding thoughts on punctuation 关于标点符号的结束语
Having read this chapter, you should possess a much better idea of why and how to use the most common punctuation marks. 读完本章后，你应该对为什么和如何使用最常用的标点符号有了更深入的了解。
When it comes to punctuation, remember that less is more. 在使用标点符号时，请记住 "少即是多"。
If you use colons in every sentence, they’ll lose their impact. If you use brackets all the time, the reader’s attention will be pulled away from your thesis. 如果你在每个句子中都使用冒号，它们就会失去作用。如果你总是使用括号，读者的注意力就会从你的论点上转移开。
Distracting the reader defeats the purpose of punctuation, which, as you now know, is meant to increase clarity and help your writing to flow naturally. 分散读者的注意力有违标点符号的初衷，正如您现在所知道的，标点符号的目的是提高清晰度，帮助您的文章自然流畅。
CHAPTER 3 第 3 章
PLANNING YOUR WRITING 规划写作
Sometimes, writing can seem like a terrifying task. 有时，写作似乎是一项可怕的任务。
It is best to divide the process into manageable segments to avoid overwhelm. 最好将整个过程划分为易于管理的几个部分，以免手忙脚乱。
Effective, engaging writing demands a clear topic and a logical argument. 有效、引人入胜的写作要求有明确的主题和合乎逻辑的论证。
Investing a little bit of time into planning will help you build a sophisticated message. 投入一点时间进行规划，将有助于您制作出精致的信息。
Planning your writing will bring you the following benefits: 规划写作会给你带来以下好处：
i) Your writing will become more organised and easier to read. i) 你的写作会变得更有条理，更容易阅读。
You can always tell when someone has neglected to plan. The text is confusing, and the argument goes around in circles, as if the author was unsure what to say next. 你总能看出有人疏于计划。文章内容混乱，论证绕圈子，似乎作者不知道下一步该说什么。
Instead of reacting in the way the author intended, readers spend their time attempting to decode key points. Poorly executed writing hands an unwelcome job to the reader, who will detest the added work. 读者非但不会按照作者的意图做出反应，反而会把时间花在解读关键点上。拙劣的写作将不受欢迎的工作交给了读者，读者会厌恶这种额外的工作。
ii) Planning helps to decrease the stress induced by writing. ii) 规划有助于减轻写作带来的压力。
The most stressful thing about writing is staring at a blank page. Nothing tops the anxiety of seeing all that white space and knowing you have to fill it. 写作中最令人紧张的事情就是盯着空白页。没有什么比看到所有的空白处，知道自己必须把它填满时的焦虑更强烈了。
If you plan correctly, you have something that belongs on the paper right away, you know the direction you’re heading in and just need to execute the plan. 如果计划得当，你就能马上在纸上写出属于自己的东西，知道自己的方向，只需执行计划即可。
iii) Planning saves time. iii) 规划节省时间。
Students often question whether they have time to plan, but the question they should be asking themselves is whether they have time not to plan. 学生们经常质疑自己是否有时间做计划，但他们应该问自己是否有时间不做计划。
If you begin writing without a plan, you will spend hours staring at a blank page wondering what to write, and then, when you finally force yourself to begin writing, you’ll stray off topic and end up deleting half your work in the editing stage. 如果你开始写作时没有计划，你就会花几个小时盯着白纸不知道写什么，然后，当你终于强迫自己开始写作时，你就会偏离主题，最后在编辑阶段删掉一半的作品。
Plan for five minutes or lose hours fixing your mistakes. The choice is yours. 计划五分钟，还是花几个小时来纠正错误。选择权在你手中。
iv) Planning forces you to think more deeply about the topic. iv) 规划迫使你更深入地思考主题。
When you plan, you begin to generate ideas you weren’t even aware were floating around in your head. This is particularly useful for larger projects, such as writing articles or essays. 当你制定计划时，你会开始产生一些你甚至没有意识到的想法。这对大型项目尤其有用，比如撰写文章或论文。
Planning also ensures you address all the points you need and allows you to dispose of the ones you don’t. 规划还能确保您解决所有需要解决的问题，并能让您处理掉不需要的问题。
THE PLANNING PROCESS 规划过程
This method of planning works for my students, so I am sure it will work for you, too. 这种计划方法对我的学生有用，所以我相信对你也有用。
There are just three steps: 只有三个步骤：
Mindmap 思维导图
Outline 概要
Write 写
1. Mindmap 1.思维导图
A mindmap is a visual representation of all the things you know about the topic you’re preparing to write about. 思维导图是你对准备写作的主题的所有了解的直观呈现。
When mindmapping, be sure to use a pen and paper. It doesn’t work so well on a computer. Perhaps it’s got something to do with the contact between pen, paper, and the flow of ideas in your mind. 绘制思维导图时，一定要用纸笔。电脑上的效果并不好。这也许与笔、纸之间的接触以及头脑中想法的流动有关。
A step-by-step guide to creating a mindmap 创建思维导图的分步指南
Draw a circle in the centre of a piece of paper and write the task inside it. For example, “a letter to my boss,” or “human rights essay.” 在纸的中心画一个圆，然后在圆内写上任务。例如，"给老板的一封信 "或 "人权论文"。
Set a timer for five minutes, and press start. 将计时器设置为五分钟，然后按开始。
Write down the first thing that comes to mind about the topic. Draw a circle around this point and connect it to the centre circle with a line. 写下关于该主题的第一件事。在这一点周围画一个圆，并用一条线将其与中心圆连接起来。
Write down the next idea that comes to mind. Draw a circle around it. If it is connected to your last point, then connect the two ideas with a line. 写下你想到的下一个想法。在它周围画一个圆圈。如果它与上一个想法有联系，则用一条线将这两个想法连接起来。
If the new idea is not connected to the previous idea, therı instead draw a line connecting it to the circle at the centre of the page. 如果新构思与前一个构思没有联系，则画一条线将其与页面中心的圆圈连接起来。
Repeat this process until five minutes is up. 重复这一过程，直到五分钟结束。
A key element of this process is resisting the temptation to edit or overthink. 这一过程的关键因素是抵制编辑或过度思考的诱惑。
Before we put anything down on paper, we have a habit of judging it in order to assess whether it is ‘good enough.’ 在把任何东西写在纸上之前，我们都会习惯性地对它进行评判，以评估它是否 "足够好"。
Right now, this critical instinct is counterproductive. 现在，这种批判的本能适得其反。
Continue adding ideas, regardless of how stupid they may seem. 继续添加想法，无论它们看起来多么愚蠢。
If you find yourself judging what you’re writing down, remind yourself that you don’t need to use any of this material in the final text. Perhaps you’ll trash ninety percent of the ideas you have brainstormed; perhaps you’ll use them all. 如果你发现自己对自己写下的东西有意见，请提醒自己，你并不需要在最终文本中使用这些材料中的任何一个。也许你会毁掉头脑风暴中百分之九十的想法，也许你会全部使用它们。
The validity of each idea is irrelevant at this stage. Just keep writing for the allotted time and only stop when the five minutes have elapsed. 在这个阶段，每个想法的有效性都无关紧要。只需在规定的时间内继续写，五分钟一到就停笔。
Mindmapping is particularly useful for longer tasks, but it can also help prepare you for smaller assignments, like e-mails, too. 心智图法对较长的任务特别有用，但它也能帮助你为较小的任务（如电子邮件）做好准备。
You’ll find it’s much easier to mould your raw ideas into great content than it is to come up with fully formed concepts right away. 你会发现，将你的原始想法塑造成优秀的内容，要比立即提出完全成型的概念容易得多。
Once you’ve finished mindmapping, you’ll probably have something that looks like the diagram below. 完成思维导图后，你可能会得到类似下图的东西。
Don’t worry if your mindmaps are messier than this - you’re the only person who will ever see them anyway. 如果你的思维导图比这还乱，也不用担心，反正只有你一个人会看到。
2. Outlining 2.概述
Look at your mindmap and pull out the main points. By main points, I mean the largest and most compelling ideas the ones you feel it is most important to include. 看看你的思维导图，找出要点。我所说的要点是指最大、最有说服力的想法，也就是你认为最重要的想法。
Now copy these main points onto a fresh sheet of paper or type them into a word processor. It’s best to use a computer at this stage because it makes it easier to shuffle ideas around. 现在，将这些要点复制到一张新纸上，或输入到文字处理器中。在这个阶段最好使用电脑，因为这样可以更方便地调整想法。
Once you’ve extracted the main ideas, look at your mindmap again and pick out smaller ideas that could be used as supporting evidence for your main points. 提取出主要观点后，再看一遍思维导图，找出可以作为主要观点佐证的小观点。
Write these smaller ideas beneath your main points. 将这些较小的想法写在要点下面。
As you do this, new ideas may pop into your head. Don’t waste them. Add these points to the relevant areas of your outline - and be grateful that ideas are now arriving of their own accord. 在此过程中，你的脑海中可能会蹦出一些新想法。不要浪费它们。将这些要点添加到大纲的相关区域--并庆幸现在有了自己的想法。
Now you have your main points and sub-points, you can decide on the most effective order in which to present your argument, and number the sections accordingly. 现在您已经有了要点和次要点，您可以决定最有效的论证顺序，并对各部分进行相应的编号。
It’s okay if the order isn’t perfect, there will be time to improve the chronology of your ideas later. 如果顺序不完美也没关系，以后有时间改进你的想法的时间顺序。
Once you’ve finished, your outline will look something like the example below. 完成后，您的提纲将与下面的示例相似。
Rules of Writing 写作规则
1. Always self-edit 1.经常自我编辑
People avoid self-editing because they don’t want to read their work through. 人们逃避自我编辑，是因为他们不想通读自己的作品。
2. Organise your ideas 2.整理你的想法
Use a new paragraph for each new idea. 每个新想法都要用一个新段落来表述。
Many countries don’t teach how to use paragraphs. 许多国家不教如何使用段落。
3. Writing style 3.写作风格
Don’t overthink how you want you writing to look stylistically. 不要过多地考虑你希望自己的写作风格是怎样的。
Don’t attempt to mimic the style of other authors. 不要试图模仿其他作家的风格。
Be clear. 要清楚。
4. Avoid idioms 4.避免使用成语
5. Be brief 5.简明扼要
Don’t ramble 不要漫无边际
Say what you want to say and leave politely 有话直说，礼貌离开
Rambling comes from nervousness, poor planning and a lack of organisation 胡思乱想源于紧张、计划不周和缺乏组织性
The ideas listed in your outline may not be fully developed, but you will have a much clearer idea of what you’re going to write about and how you might order these ideas. 提纲中列出的观点可能还没有完全形成，但你会更清楚地知道自己要写什么，以及如何安排这些观点的顺序。
Now that you have an outline in place, you’re nearly ready to progress to the writing itself. 现在您已经有了提纲，差不多可以开始写作了。
But I’d like to note that if you’re working on a more substantial project, you will need to complete the mindmapping and outlining process more than once. 但我想指出的是，如果你正在做一个更大型的项目，你需要不止一次地完成思维导图和大纲的绘制过程。
If you’re writing a thesis, your original mindmap will help you to identify the key sections and themes you’ll include. When you begin to write each section, it’s best to mindmap again, this time for each individual section - to generate more detailed ideas for that particular part. 如果您要撰写论文，最初的思维导图将帮助您确定要包含的关键部分和主题。当您开始撰写每个部分时，最好再次绘制思维导图，这次是针对每个单独的部分--为特定部分生成更详细的想法。
THE DRAFTING PROCESS 起草过程
Hemingway famously said, “the only kind of writing is rewriting.” 海明威有句名言："唯一的写作就是改写"。
It’s almost impossible to write something perfect at the first attempt. Our minds are incapable of focussing on organisation, content, spelling, and grammar all at once. 第一次尝试就写出完美的文章几乎是不可能的。我们的大脑无法同时专注于组织、内容、拼写和语法。
Therefore, your goal should only be to do the best you can with your initial version, and then carefully mould that draft into something you can be proud of. 因此，你的目标应该只是尽你所能完成你的最初版本，然后再小心翼翼地将草稿塑造成你可以引以为豪的作品。
This is best achieved by following a four-step drafting process. 要做到这一点，最好遵循四步起草程序。
I realise that four steps sounds intimidating, and you may be concerned about the extra time this will require. 我知道这四个步骤听起来很吓人，您可能会担心这需要额外的时间。
But once you understand the principles, the process will soon become second nature and you’ll forget you’re drafting at all. 但是，一旦你理解了其中的原理，这个过程很快就会成为你的第二天性，你甚至会忘记自己是在起草。
DRAFT ONE - FAST WRITING 第一稿--快速写作
Writing a first draft is less about writing and more about dumping your ideas into the framework of your outline. I actually have my students call this first draft ‘a dump.’ 写初稿与其说是写作，不如说是将你的想法倾倒进大纲的框架中。实际上，我让我的学生把这种初稿叫做'倾倒'。
By removing unrealistic expectations, you can begin your writing from a much healthier mindset. 消除不切实际的期望，你就能以更健康的心态开始写作。
The most important thing to remember when writing a first draft is to write quickly and squash the urge to edit as you go. 在写初稿时，最重要的是要记住快速写作，压制边写边改的冲动。
It’s tempting to go back and perfect a line here and there, but approaching your work in a more systematic 回过头来完善这里或那里的某一行很有诱惑力，但以更系统的方式来处理您的作品
way will make you a faster writer and a more effective communicator. 这样，你的写作速度会更快，沟通效率会更高。
The only aim when writing a first draft is to get from the beginning to the end of your narrative. 写初稿时，唯一的目的就是把叙述从开头写到结尾。
When you have a finished first draft - no matter how awful you perceive it to be - you have something to work with. 当你完成了初稿--无论你认为它有多糟糕--你就有了工作的基础。
After this first hurdle is overcome, maintaining forward momentum is easy. 克服了这第一个障碍之后，保持前进的动力就很容易了。
I know how difficult it is to give yourself permission to write something that sucks. 我知道，允许自己写一些糟糕的东西有多难。
But, remember, your first draft doesn’t have to be a masterpiece - you’re the only one who ever needs to see it. 但是，请记住，你的初稿不一定要成为杰作--你是唯一需要看到它的人。
DRAFT TWO - CONTENT AND ORGANISATION 草案二--内容和组织
To write the second draft, you’ll need to remove your creative hat and put on your analytical one. Writing versus editing requires us to use our brains in different ways. 要写第二稿，你需要摘掉创作的帽子，戴上分析的帽子。写作与编辑需要我们以不同的方式使用大脑。
Whenever you write, you have to play the role of both writer and editor. It is difficult to do both of these things at once. So it’s best to write first, and then return to edit your work later. 无论何时写作，你都必须同时扮演作家和编辑的角色。要同时做好这两件事是很难的。因此，最好先写作，然后再回来编辑你的作品。
A typical misconception about editing is that it’s limited to checking the grammar and correcting your spelling. 关于编辑的一个典型误解是，编辑仅限于检查语法和纠正拼写错误。
Forget about grammar and spelling for now, and begin your second draft by analysing your content for unnecessary repetition or unclear phrasing. 暂时不要考虑语法和拼写问题，在开始第二稿时，先分析一下内容是否有不必要的重复或不清楚的措辞。
Now, look at the content again. 现在，再看看内容。
Have you forgotten to include anything? 您是否忘记了什么？
This can easily happen when you’re caught up in the writing process. 当你沉浸在写作过程中时，这种情况很容易发生。
If you notice you’ve left something out, add it in the relevant place. 如果发现有遗漏，请在相关位置补充。
Once you’re satisfied with the clarity of your message, it’s time to look at the organisation of your content. 一旦您对信息的清晰度感到满意，就该看看内容的组织了。
Does it flow well from one paragraph to the next, or could you improve clarity by moving things around? 从一个段落到下一个段落是否流畅，还是可以通过移动内容来提高清晰度？
Fiddle with the sequence until you have an order that works. 调整顺序，直到找到一个合适的顺序。
When you’ve landed on a logical flow for your ideas, you’re ready to move to draft three. 当你为自己的想法确定了一个合理的流程后，就可以进入第三稿了。
DRAFT THREE CLEANING UP THE WORK 草案三 清理工作
The third stage is all about tidying up your writing. 第三阶段主要是整理文章。
Will a better word choice shorten a sentence, improve the rhythm, or make the text less confusing? 更好的用词是否会缩短句子、改善节奏或使文章不那么混乱？
Will a transition phrase create a smoother link from one idea to the next? 过渡短语是否能更顺畅地从一个想法连接到下一个想法？
These are the kinds of questions you should be addressing in this draft. 这些都是您应该在草案中解决的问题。
Be honest with yourself and consider creative strategies to fix the problems you find. 诚实地面对自己，考虑采取创造性的策略来解决发现的问题。
During the third stage, I suggest reading your text aloud. This will allow you to create more distance between yourself and the work. The more distance you can create, the more objective your analysis of the writing will be. 在第三阶段，我建议您大声朗读文本。这将使你与作品之间拉开更多的距离。距离拉得越远，你对文章的分析就越客观。
I know it might feel silly reading aloud to yourself. But it’s better to read aloud and feel a little embarrassed than to submit poorly edited writing that makes the reader question your state of mind. 我知道，自己大声朗读可能感觉很傻。但是，朗读时感到有点尴尬，总比提交编辑不佳的文章，让读者质疑你的精神状态要好。
When you have read your work aloud from start to finish, and it feels fluid, comfortable to read, and easy to understand, you’re ready to move onto the final step. 当您从头到尾朗读了自己的作品，感觉流畅、读起来舒服、易于理解时，您就可以进入最后一步了。
DRAFT FOUR PROOFREADING 第四稿校对
You’ve now reached the stage in which you can check for language errors - predominantly grammar and spelling. 现在您已经到了可以检查语言错误（主要是语法和拼写错误）的阶段。
You may have corrected many of these errors as you’ve combed through each of the previous drafts, but a final check, with one hundred percent focus, is essential. 在梳理之前的每一稿时，您可能已经纠正了其中的许多错误，但最后一次百分之百专注的检查是必不可少的。
It’s amazing what you miss when your mind is on other things. 当你把心思都放在其他事情上时，你会错过什么，这真是令人惊讶。
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 问答
Do I have to adhere to this drafting process when completing short tasks like composing an e-mail? 在完成撰写电子邮件等简短任务时，我是否必须遵守这一起草流程？
Drafting is necessary for all types of writing. Even very short content. 所有类型的写作都需要打草稿。即使是非常简短的内容。
It takes very little time to apply these steps to an e-mail or a text message, and most native speakers do these things automatically when they write. 将这些步骤应用到电子邮件或短信中只需要很少的时间，大多数母语使用者在写作时都会自动完成这些步骤。
Once you understand the principles of drafting, the process becomes far less tedious. You will soon reach a stage where you draft automatically. 一旦您了解了起草的原则，起草过程就不会那么繁琐了。您很快就能达到自动起草的阶段。
The earlier you get into the habit of drafting, the sooner you’ll get used to it. 越早养成起草的习惯，你就会越快适应它。
I’m trying to write my first draft, but I have writer’s block, and the drafting process isn’t helping. What can I do about it? 我正试着写我的初稿，但我有写作障碍，而起草过程并没有帮助我。我该怎么办？
Have you used the mindmapping technique? 您使用过思维导图技术吗？
If not, go back and give it a try. 如果没有，就回去试一试。
This often solves the problem of feeling like you have nothing to write. 这往往能解决你感觉无话可写的问题。
If mindmapping doesn’t work, realise that writer’s block is just perfectionism in disguise. It is resistance we create in our minds, and it stems from the high standards we set for ourselves. 如果思维导图不起作用，请认识到写作障碍只是变相的完美主义。它是我们在头脑中制造的阻力，源于我们为自己设定的高标准。
It’s not that you can’t write anything, it’s that you’ve decided what you are about to write isn’t good enough. So, you write nothing. 不是你什么都写不出来，而是你觉得自己要写的东西不够好。所以，你什么也没写。
In reality, you do have something to write; you’re just judging it so harshly that you refuse to immortalise the thought on paper. 实际上，你确实有东西要写，只是你对它的评判过于苛刻，以至于你拒绝将这种想法永存于纸上。
If I put a gun to your head and demanded you write something in the next five minutes, I’m sure you’d fill the page. 如果我用枪指着你的头，要求你在接下来的五分钟里写点什么，我相信你会写满整页纸。
You may not know what to write, but you do have something to say. 你可能不知道该写什么，但你确实有话要说。
Try writing in a stream of consciousness about how you feel about the writing assignment or the topic. Once you get the words flowing, it’s often much easier to direct them in a desirable way. Beginning is always the most difficult part. 试着用意识流的方式写出你对写作任务或主题的感受。一旦你的文思泉涌，往往更容易将它们引向理想的方向。开头总是最困难的部分。
Ultimately, my advice is not to judge your writing in the first draft stage. Just get your thoughts down and keep writing. Let go, and you’ll be amazed at what you can come up with. 最后，我的建议是，不要在初稿阶段对自己的写作妄加评论。把你的想法写下来，然后继续写。放手去做，你会惊讶于自己能想到什么。
Even if your first draft is as bad as you think it is, there will be plenty of time to improve what you’ve written as you progress through the editing stages. 即使你的初稿和你想象的一样糟糕，随着编辑阶段的进展，你也有足够的时间来改进你所写的东西。
I’ve finished my first draft and it’s dreadful. There’s nothing I can do to save it. Should I just delete it and start again? 我已经完成了我的初稿，它糟透了。我没有办法挽救它。我应该删掉它，然后重新开始吗？
It’s fine to be unhappy with your first draft. In fact, if you think your first draft is perfect, you’re probably not being honest with yourself. 对初稿不满意没关系。事实上，如果你认为自己的初稿很完美，那可能是你对自己不够诚实。
But what makes you think writing a first draft will be easier the second time around, or that you’ll produce a different result? 但是，你凭什么认为第二次写初稿会更容易，或者你会写出不一样的结果？
Hemingway once said, “the first draft of anything is shit.” 海明威曾说过 "任何东西的初稿都是狗屎"
So, if you feel the same way about your first draft, you’re in excellent company. 所以，如果你对自己的初稿也有同样的感受，那你就是一个很好的伙伴。
Writers are generally better at improving on their first draft than starting from scratch. 与从头开始相比，作家通常更善于改进初稿。
My third draft seems very stop and start. Why is this? 我的第三稿似乎时好时坏。这是为什么呢？
Problems with rhythm are common at this stage because, up to now, you’ve been focussing exclusively on content. 在这个阶段，节奏问题很常见，因为到目前为止，您一直只关注内容。
When things seem to stop and start, it is often due to a lack of transitions between paragraphs and ideas. Consider ways 当事情看起来时断时续时，往往是由于段落和观点之间缺乏过渡。考虑方法
to link together the ideas you shifted around during the second draft. 将您在第二稿中转换的想法串联起来。
You will find more details about transition words and phrases in Chapter 10. 关于过渡词和短语的更多详情，请参阅第 10 章。
I’m looking at my third draft, and I don’t know where to begin in terms of what should and shouldn’t be changed. How do I know where to start? 我正在看我的第三稿，我不知道该从哪里开始，哪些该改，哪些不该改。我怎么知道从哪里开始呢？
There is an English expression, “you can’t see the wood for the trees.” 英国有句俗语："只见树木，不见森林"。
You are so close to the work that you can’t view it objectively. 你离作品如此之近，以至于无法客观地看待它。
If you are writing something important, the best place to start is to ask someone else to read it. 如果您要写重要的东西，最好先请别人读一读。
It’s amazing what a second pair of eyes will pick up on - even if you perceive the reader as less qualified than yourself. 第二双眼睛会发现什么，即使你认为读者不如你自己有资格，这也是令人惊讶的。
Alternatively, take a break from your computer and do something else for five minutes - make a cup of tea, smoke a cigarette, drink a smoothie. 或者，在电脑前休息五分钟，做点别的事情--泡杯茶、抽根烟、喝一杯冰沙。
Even a short break will allow you to see the draft with fresh eyes. 即使是短暂的休息，也能让你以全新的眼光看待草案。
When you return, you should have created enough distance to recognise what works and what doesn’t. 当你回来时，你应该已经有了足够的距离来认识什么是有效的，什么是无效的。
How do I know when my final draft is finished? 如何知道我的终稿何时完成？
If you’re only adding or removing a comma each time you read through the draft, it’s time to let go. 如果你每次通读草稿时都只是增加或删除一个逗号，那就该放手了。
This hyper-detailed fault-finding is a wonderful sign of an analytical mind, however, this level of deliberation may also create a fear of publishing or submitting your work. 这种超细节的找茬是分析型思维的绝佳表现，然而，这种深思熟虑的程度也可能会让你对发表或提交作品产生恐惧。
Remember, writing isn’t like science or maths - there are no clear right or wrong answers. 请记住，写作不像科学或数学，没有明确的对错之分。
If you’ve followed the steps, done your best, and truly feel you can do no more, then your final draft is finished. 如果您已经按照步骤，尽了最大的努力，并且真的觉得不能再做什么了，那么您的终稿就完成了。
Part 11. 第 11 部分.
CRAPTERS 唧筒
HOW TO WRITE E-MAILS 如何写电子邮件
Composing e-mails may be the most common form of English writing you do. 撰写电子邮件可能是最常见的英语写作形式。
When we write an e-mail that demands professionalism, it is normal to fret over our mastery of the language. 当我们撰写一封要求专业性的电子邮件时，为自己的语言驾驭能力发愁是很正常的。
If you have such an e-mail to write, read this chapter before you begin. 如果您有这样一封邮件要写，请在开始之前阅读本章。
Then, keep this book open to the fixed phrases section at the end of this chapter as a reference while you write. 然后，在写作时打开本书，查看本章末尾的固定短语部分，作为参考。
THE SUBJECT-LINE 主题行
Most people pay very little attention to what they write in the subject-line of an e-mail. 大多数人很少关注自己在电子邮件主题行中写了些什么。
Remember, the subject-line will be the first connection point you have with the recipient. 请记住，主题行将是您与收件人的第一个连接点。
It is just as important as the content of the e-mail itself. 它与电子邮件内容本身同样重要。
The average office worker gets around 100 e-mails per day, and it is estimated that 79 percent of e-mails never get opened. Make sure yours belong to the 21 percent that do. 办公室工作人员平均每天收到约 100 封电子邮件，据估计，79% 的邮件从未被打开过。确保你的邮件属于那 21% 被打开的邮件。
In general, you want to make the topic of your e-mail crystal clear. 一般来说，你要让电子邮件的主题一目了然。
For example: M&S Job application (Job code: 7573) 例如M&S 职位申请（职位代码：7573）
Attract attention to your message by adding “FAO” (For The Attention Of), to your subject-line so the recipient sees his or her own name. 在邮件主题行加上 "FAO"（For The Attention Of），让收件人看到自己的名字，从而吸引他们的注意。
The example becomes: (FAO Mark Kinsley) M&S Job application (Job code:7573) 示例变为：（FAO 马克-金斯利）M&S 职位申请（职位代码：7573）
Studies have shown that personalising a subject-line gives your e-mail a 17 percent better chance of being read. 研究表明，个性化主题行能使电子邮件被阅读的几率提高 17%。
That statistic should motivate you to use the recipient’s name in the subject-line if you have it. 这一统计数字应促使您在有收件人姓名的情况下在主题行中使用收件人姓名。
Your e-mail is more likely to be read if you are specific about what you want - so avoid vague subject-lines such as “question,” or “query.” 如果你能具体说明你的要求，你的电子邮件就更有可能被阅读，因此要避免使用 "问题 "或 "询问 "等含糊不清的主题词。
Don’t try to tempt the recipient into opening your e-mail with subject-lines such as “the greatest opportunity of your life.” 不要试图用 "你一生中最重要的机会 "这样的主题词来引诱收件人打开你的电子邮件。
Firstly, these clickbait-type titles sound like spam. Secondly, when your e-mail fails to live up to the grand promises you’ve made in the subject-line, the recipient will feel cheated. 首先，这些点击诱饵式的标题听起来就像垃圾邮件。其次，当你的电子邮件无法兑现你在主题行中所做的宏伟承诺时，收件人会有一种被欺骗的感觉。
Ultimately, you need to consider who you’re writing to and how you can motivate them to open your e-mail. 归根结底，您需要考虑您的写信对象是谁，以及如何促使他们打开您的电子邮件。
If you are clear, specific, and personal in the subject-line it will give your e-mail the best chance of being read. 如果您在主题行中写得清晰、具体、有个性，那么您的电子邮件就最有可能被阅读。
HOW TO ADDRESS RECIPIENTS 如何称呼收件人
If you are writing a more formal e-mail, and you don’t know the name of the person you are writing to, it’s best to begin your message with “Dear Sir/Madam.” 如果您要写一封比较正式的电子邮件，而您又不知道对方的姓名，最好以 "亲爱的先生/女士 "开头。
It is, however, significantly more effective, and more polite to use the name of the person you’re writing to, even if this means doing a little bit of research. 不过，使用写信人的名字要有效得多，也更礼貌，即使这意味着要做一些调查。
Addressing the person by name makes the e-mail more personal. It looks like you actually care about your recipient, rather than firing off an e-mail addressed to an anonymous person. 称呼对方的姓名会使电子邮件更有个性。这看起来就像你真正关心你的收件人，而不是向一个匿名者发送一封电子邮件。
Once you have the name you can write: “Dear Mr Harris”, or “Dear Ms Harris”, or “Dear Dr Harris”. 有了名字后，你就可以写"亲爱的哈里斯先生"、"亲爱的哈里斯女士 "或 "亲爱的哈里斯博士"。
It’s important to be sure you’re using the correct title for that person. 重要的是，要确保您为该人使用了正确的头衔。
Note that in American English, a period follows the title, e.g., “Mr. Harris,” “Ms. Harris,” “Dr. Harris.” 请注意，在美式英语中，标题后面是句号，如 "哈里斯先生"、"哈里斯女士"、"哈里斯博士"。
Only use “Mrs” if you know the woman is married - or have seen her referred to as Mrs elsewhere. 只有当您知道该女士已婚，或在其他地方见过她被称为 "夫人 "时，才使用 "夫人 "一词。
If you use “Ms” and later notice the woman refers to herself as “Mrs,” adjust your subsequent e-mails accordingly. 如果您使用了 "女士"，但后来发现这位女士称自己为 "夫人"，那么请相应调整您随后的邮件。
ESL learners also struggle with when to move from the formal to the informal when addressing someone with whom they’ve been in correspondence for some time. ESL 学习者在称呼与他们有一段时间书信往来的人时，也会纠结于何时从正式口语转为非正式口语。
For example, if you’re regularly e-mailing back and forth, it can begin to feel ridiculous to call each other Mr or Mrs in each message. 例如，如果你们经常来回发送电子邮件，那么在每封电子邮件中称呼对方为先生或太太就会开始让人觉得可笑。
In some cultures, there is very specific formal and informal language, and you are required to ask the other person if they would mind switching to the informal. 在某些文化中，正式和非正式语言有非常明确的区分，你需要询问对方是否介意改用非正式语言。
In English, the movement towards informality plays out beneath the surface, with the communication gradually becoming more casual over time. 在英语中，"非正式 "是一种表面现象，随着时间的推移，交流逐渐变得更加随意。
For example, you might start with “Dear Mrs (surname),” and a few e-mails later, she might begin to address you with “Hi (first-name).” 例如，你可能会以 "亲爱的夫人（姓）"开头，而几封邮件之后，她可能会以 "嗨（名）"开始称呼你。
My advice is to wait for the other person to initiate and then follow their lead if they decide to make things more informal 我的建议是等待对方主动提出，如果对方决定让事情变得更加非正式，就顺着他们的思路去做。
HOW TO SIGN OFF 如何签收
There are many different ways to close an e-mail: “yours faithfully,” “sincerely,” “all the best,” etc. 结束电子邮件的方式有很多种："您忠实的"、"真诚的"、"万事如意 "等。
When in doubt, I suggest using “kind regards.” 如果有疑问，我建议使用 "亲切的问候"。
This sign off is less formal than some of the other options, but formal enough to be used for almost every occasion. 与其他选项相比，这种签字方式不那么正式，但也足够正式，几乎适用于所有场合。
You may even want to add “kind regards” to your e-mail signature - that way, you don’t need to think about it ever again. 你甚至可以在电子邮件签名中加上 "亲切的问候"，这样你就不用再考虑这个问题了。
Initially, you should sign off with your full name, but after a little back and forth you may feel it’s appropriate to switch to just your first name. 起初，你应该用全名签名，但经过一段时间的反反复复，你可能会觉得只用名更合适。
For example, if the person you are writing to began their last e-mail with “Dear John,” you’re going to look unnecessarily formal if you sign off with “Johnathon Michael Harris.” 例如，如果你要写信给的人上一封邮件的开头是 "亲爱的约翰"，那么如果你用 "约翰逊-迈克尔-哈里斯 "作为结尾，就会显得不必要的正式。
HOW TO END THE CHAIN OF CORRESPONDENCE 如何结束通信链
When e-mail first emerged, people used to close out the chain of correspondence with a thank-you e-mail. 电子邮件刚出现时，人们习惯用一封感谢邮件来结束一连串的通信。
Sometimes, this would be just a single line. 有时，这只是一行。
For example, “thanks for your hard work on this, I really appreciate it.” 例如，"谢谢你的辛勤工作，我真的很感激"。
These days, this is happening less and less. 如今，这种情况越来越少了。
We often receive an e-mail begging us for something, and then, when we give the person what they need, we don’t even receive a response. 我们经常会收到一封电子邮件，向我们乞求什么，然后，当我们把他们需要的东西给了对方之后，我们甚至没有收到任何回复。
It is not only good manners to acknowledge the end of the correspondence in a polite way, but it also sustains the respectable image you have built over the course of the correspondence. If you need to write to the same person again someday, your e-mail will be well received. 以礼貌的方式确认通信的结束不仅是一种良好的礼仪，而且还能保持你在通信过程中建立的受人尊敬的形象。如果有一天你需要再次写信给同一个人，你的电子邮件也会受到欢迎。
It’s crucial to be polite when writing e-mails because messages tend to be interpreted more negatively than intended, probably because you can’t see the person’s face. 写电子邮件时要有礼貌，这一点很重要，因为信息往往会被解读为更消极的信息，这可能是因为你看不到对方的脸。
Being polite is not just a case of filling your e-mails with pleases and thank-yous. The content must be polite, too. 彬彬有礼并不仅仅是在电子邮件中写满 "请 "和 "谢谢"。内容也必须彬彬有礼。
Make it clear you value the other person’s time. 明确表示你珍惜对方的时间。
When dealing with busy office employees, it may even push your e-mail closer to the top of the reply pile. 在与繁忙的办公室员工打交道时，它甚至会把你的邮件推到回复堆的顶端。
If you write an unsolicited e-mail in which you ask for something from the other person, be sure to mention what the other person will get in return. 如果您在写未经请求的电子邮件时要求对方提供某些东西，请务必提及对方会得到什么回报。
Sometimes, I ask my students to write a speculative job application via e-mail. This means contacting a company to see if they have a suitable job for you, even though they aren’t advertising positions. 有时，我要求学生通过电子邮件写一份推测性求职申请。这意味着联系一家公司，看看他们是否有适合你的工作，即使他们没有发布招聘广告。
When students write these applications, they often only think of discussing what they will get from the job. 学生们在撰写这些申请时，往往只想着讨论他们将从这份工作中得到什么。
For example, “I am seeking a job because I want to improve my English and travel the world. Also, I am saving for a car and the money will be useful for me.” 例如，"我想找一份工作，因为我想提高我的英语水平并周游世界。另外，我正在攒钱买车，这笔钱对我很有用"。
When grading these e-mails, I get irritated on behalf of the imaginary person the students have written to. 在批改这些电子邮件时，我会替学生写信的假想对象感到恼火。
Any time you send a speculative e-mail, clearly describe the benefits the other person can expect to receive if they agree to your request. 在发送任何推测性邮件时，都要清楚地描述如果对方同意你的请求，他们会得到什么好处。
If you ask the world of a stranger and offer nothing in a return, you’re unlikely to get a response. 如果你向一个陌生人索取全世界，却没有任何回报，那么你就不可能得到回应。
INCLUDING AN ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEVEL DISCLAIMER 包括英语水平的免责声明
The only reason to apologise for your English is to pre-empt any misunderstandings your language level may cause, or to clarify that you are not an uneducated native speaker when you inevitably make the odd mistake. 对自己的英语表示歉意的唯一原因，是为了避免因自己的语言水平可能造成的误解，或者在不可避免地犯了一些错误时，澄清自己不是一个没有受过教育的母语使用者。
If you include an apology, one of two things will happen. Either the recipient will not acknowledge the apology people are busy - or they will mention that your English is acceptable and you have no need to apologise for it. 如果您在邮件中道歉，那么会出现两种情况。要么收信人不承认道歉，因为人们都很忙--要么他们会说你的英语可以接受，你没有必要为此道歉。
If the recipient mentions your disclaimer in their response, it is not an invitation for you to discuss the difficulties of the English language. 如果收件人在回复中提到你的免责声明，这并不是邀请你讨论英语语言的困难。
English is the medium you’re using to communicate, don’t let it become the topic of your communication. 英语是你们交流的媒介，不要让它成为你们交流的主题。
Once you have sent the first message covering your English, consider that bit of business done. 一旦您发送了第一条涉及您的英语的信息，就可以认为这笔生意已经完成了。
Don’t apologise in every e-mail you send, it will seem like you’re fishing for compliments or signal that you’re lacking confidence. 不要在每封邮件中都道歉，这会让人觉得你是在寻求赞美，或者是你缺乏自信的信号。
WRITING VERY SHORT E-MAILS 撰写非常简短的电子邮件
Is it acceptable to write one-line e-mails? 可以接受写单行电子邮件吗？
Well, that depends on how far along you are in the correspondence. 这要看你在通信过程中走了多远。
For example, if you were sending a speculative job inquiry, I would not advise you to send something like this: 例如，如果您发送的是一份投机性的工作询问，我不建议您发送这样的内容：
“Dear Sir or Madam, "亲爱的先生或女士
Do you have any jobs available? 你们有工作机会吗？
Kind regards, 谨致问候、
-Jon” -乔恩"
On the other hand, if you’ve been sending e-mails back and forth for some time, there is nothing wrong with a one-line response. 另一方面，如果你们已经来回发送电子邮件有一段时间了，那么单行回复也没有什么问题。
For example: 例如
“Thanks for the information, Lucie.” Or “Thanks, I will get this back to you as soon as possible.” "谢谢你的信息，露西"或者 "谢谢，我会尽快给你回复"
In general, I suggest keeping your e-mails as brief as possible. 一般来说，我建议您的电子邮件尽量简短。
We live in an age of overflowing inboxes. 我们生活在一个收件箱泛滥的时代。
People haven’t got the time, energy, or patience to read e-mails that resemble epic poems. 人们没有时间、精力或耐心去阅读那些像史诗一样的电子邮件。
Some people even follow the 5 -sentence principle, in which all the e-mails they write - regardless of recipient or subject - are five sentences or less. If you tend to ramble, this might be a personal policy to consider. 有些人甚至遵循 "5 句原则"，即他们所写的所有电子邮件--无论收件人或主题--都不超过 5 句话。如果你有滔滔不绝的倾向，这可能是一个值得考虑的个人政策。
NUMBERING YOUR POINTS 编号
If you are writing an e-mail that contains a series of points, it’s best to number them. Numbers make it easier for the recipient to identify the elements that require a response. 如果您写的电子邮件包含一系列要点，最好给它们编号。编号可以让收件人更容易识别需要回复的内容。
Numbering your points also allows the recipient to add their responses under the relevant numbers in your e-mail. They no longer have to write, “with regards to this,” and, “in answer to question four,” etc. 给要点编号还可以让收件人在电子邮件中的相关编号下添加他们的回复。他们不必再写 "关于这个问题 "和 "回答第四个问题 "等。
When the recipient adds their responses below the numbers, it is also easier for you to read and understand the reply. 当收件人在数字下方添加回复时，您也更容易阅读和理解回复。
KEEPING YOUR PARAGRAPHS SHORT 保持段落简短
If the e-mail you’ve composed consists of big blocks of writing, consider ways to split the text into smaller paragraphs. 如果您撰写的电子邮件由大段文字组成，请考虑如何将文字分割成较小的段落。
Don’t just divide your writing randomly. 不要随意划分写作范围。
Instead, isolate the areas where the focus of you’re writing has shifted. 相反，应将写作重点转移的地方单独列出。
Remember, starting a new paragraph signifies the start of a new idea. 记住，开始一个新段落意味着一个新想法的开始。
For a better idea of how to separate your e-mails into paragraphs, look at the example below. 要更好地了解如何将邮件分段，请看下面的例子。
“I recently discovered your website, and I’m interested in "我最近发现了你们的网站，我对以下内容很感兴趣
the language courses you offer. A little about me: I am from Italy and have been studying English for a very long time, but I still make a lot of mistakes, so apologies for my English in this e-mail. I have some time off this summer, and I would like to take some classes. It would be great if you could send me some more information about the prices. Thank you for your time, and I hope we will meet soon.” 你们提供的语言课程。关于我的一些情况：我来自意大利，学习英语已经有很长一段时间了，但我还是会犯很多错误，所以对我在这封电子邮件中的英语表示歉意。今年夏天我有一段时间的假期，我想参加一些课程。如果您能给我发一些关于价格的更多信息，那就太好了。感谢您抽出时间，希望我们能尽快见面"。
If the same message were split into paragraphs, it might look something like this: 如果把同一条信息分成几个段落，可能会是这样的：
"I recently discovered your website, and I am interested in the language courses you offer. "我最近发现了你们的网站，我对你们提供的语言课程很感兴趣。
I have some time off during the summer, and I would like to take some classes. 暑假期间我有一些休息时间，我想参加一些课程。
It would be great if you could send me some more information about the prices. 如果您能提供更多有关价格的信息，那就太好了。
A little about me: I am from Italy and have been studying English for a very long time. However, I still make a lot of mistakes, so apologies for my English in this e-mail. 关于我的小故事我来自意大利，学习英语已经有很长一段时间了。不过，我还是会犯很多错误，所以对我在这封电子邮件中的英语表示歉意。
Thank you for your time, and I hope we will meet soon." 感谢您抽出时间，希望我们能尽快见面。"
Notice how the second example is easier to skim and more inviting to read? 注意到第二个例子更容易略读，也更吸引人阅读吗？
USING EMOJIS AND EMOTICONS 使用表情符号和表情符号
Whether you like it or not, emojis and emoticons are now a part of e-mail culture. 无论你喜欢与否，表情符号和表情符号已成为电子邮件文化的一部分。
How best to use them is tricky. 如何更好地使用它们很棘手。
In some cultures, e-mails are considered much more formal than in others. This is why I suggest using emojis and emoticons with caution. 在某些文化中，电子邮件被认为比其他文化更正式。因此，我建议谨慎使用表情符号和表情符号。
The less often you use emojis, the lower the risk of putting them in an inappropriate place. 使用表情符号的频率越低，将其放在不恰当位置的风险就越低。
In this instance, the smiley face seems sarcastic. 在这种情况下，笑脸似乎是一种讽刺。
It is tempting to overcome the problem of emojis by avoiding them altogether. 通过完全避免使用表情符号来克服表情符号问题是很有诱惑力的。
But if you never use emojis you can seem overly stern because many people have come to expect them. 但是，如果你从不使用表情符号，就会显得过于严厉，因为很多人已经习惯了使用表情符号。
So, somewhat predictably, the sweet spot lies somewhere in the middle. 因此，可以预见的是，甜蜜点就在中间的某个地方。
Personally, I would opt for the less is more approach - one smiley face in an e-mail is often enough. 就个人而言，我会选择少即是多的方法--电子邮件中一个笑脸往往就足够了。
USING FIXED PHRASES 使用固定词组
The beauty of learning to write for specific purposes is that seventy-five percent of what you write will be the same every time. 学会为特定目的写作的好处在于，你每次写的内容有 75% 都是一样的。
So, once you’ve learned the fixed phrases you don’t need to learn much more. 因此，一旦你学会了固定的短语，就不需要再学更多了。
Students who are quick to realise this never understand why their classmates struggle to produce a well put together e-mail. 很快就意识到这一点的学生永远不会明白，为什么他们的同学很难写出一封措辞严谨的电子邮件。
Don’t try to be a maverick and re-invent the wheel. 不要试图特立独行，重新发明轮子。
Take the path of least resistance and copy these phrases into your e-mails. 采取阻力最小的方式，将这些短语复制到您的电子邮件中。
COMMON EXAMPLES OF FORMAL E-MAILS 正式电子邮件的常见示例
Writing an inquiry 撰写调查报告
Business Management Classes (as advertised in the Daily Telegraph) 企业管理课程（《每日电讯报》广告）
Dear Sir or Madam, 亲爱的先生或女士
In response to your advertisement in today’s Daily Telegraph, I am writing to request more information about the classes you offer. 针对贵公司在今天的《每日电讯报》上刊登的广告，我特此致函，希望获得有关贵公司所提供课程的更多信息。
Specifically, I would like to know the following: 具体来说，我想了解以下情况：
Do you have any testimonials from previous students? 你们有以前学生的推荐信吗？
How much does the course cost? 课程费用是多少？
Do you have a website where I can learn more about the instructors? 你们有网站可以让我了解更多关于教员的信息吗？
Thank you for your time, and I look forward to your response. 感谢您抽出时间，我期待着您的答复。
Dear Mr Jeffries, 亲爱的杰弗里斯先生
I recently purchased a palate of cable wires from your company, and I am afraid they failed to meet my expectations. 我最近从贵公司购买了一批电缆线，但恐怕没有达到我的期望。
When I opened the boxes, I found that many of the cables were frayed. I am sure you will agree that this is extremely dangerous. 当我打开包装盒时，我发现许多电缆已经磨损。我相信你们也会同意，这是非常危险的。
In the attachment, you will find photographs of the wires for your reference. 附件中有电线的照片，供您参考。
I would appreciate it if you could send a replacement immediately. 如果你们能立即寄来替代品，我将不胜感激。
If you fail to comply with this request, I will be forced to take legal action. 如果您不遵守这一要求，我将被迫采取法律行动。
Thank you for your time, and I look forward to your response. 感谢您抽出时间，我期待着您的答复。
Kind regards, Tim Davies 谨致问候，蒂姆-戴维斯
Writing a follow up e-mail 撰写后续电子邮件
Q4 Meeting (September) 第四季度会议（9 月）
Dear Mr Kowalski, 亲爱的科瓦尔斯基先生
I contacted you on the 15 th of August to schedule a time for our quarterly meeting, and I have yet to receive a response. 我曾于 8 月 15 日与您联系，希望安排季度会议的时间，但至今仍未收到回复。
My diary is filling up fast, so I would appreciate it if you could get back to me with some potential dates as soon as possible. 我的日程表很快就排满了，如果您能尽快给我回复一些可能的日期，我将不胜感激。
I look forward to your response. 期待您的回复。
Kind regards, Jeff Thomas 谨致问候，杰夫-托马斯
FIXED PHRASES FOR FORMAL E-MAILS 正式电子邮件的固定用语
Addressing the recipient 称呼收件人
Dear Sir or Madam, 亲爱的先生或女士
Dear Sir/Madam, 亲爱的先生/女士
Dear Mr (surname), 亲爱的 先生
Dear Mrs (surname), 亲爱的夫人
Dear Ms (surname), 亲爱的（姓氏）女士
Dear all, 亲爱的各位
How to begin an e-mail response 如何开始回复电子邮件
Thank you for your e-mail regarding… 感谢您的电子邮件，关于...
Thank you for getting back to me so quickly. 谢谢你这么快就回复了我。
Sorry it took me so long to get back to you. 抱歉这么久才给你回复。
Stating the reason for writing 说明写作理由
I am writing to request some information about… 我写这封信是想了解一些关于...
I am writing to complain about… 我写信投诉
I am writing to inform you about… 我写这封信是想告诉您......
I am writing in response to your questions. 我现在写信回答您的问题。
I am writing with regard to… 我写信是为了...
I was sorry to hear about… 我很遗憾听到...
As we discussed,… 正如我们所讨论的，...
It was recently brought to my attention that… 最近，我注意到...
Regarding… 关于
How to reference attachments 如何引用附件
Please find the information attached. 请参见附件中的信息。
In the attachment/s you will find… 在附件中，您会发现...
I have attached… 我附上了...
Making a request 提出申请
Would you mind sending me… 你能不能把...
I was wondering if you would be able to… 我想知道你是否能够...
I would appreciate it if you could… 如果您能...
If possible, I would like to know about… 如果可能，我想了解...
I have a question about… 我有一个关于...
Perhaps you can clear something up for me, I am not sure about… 也许你能为我澄清一些事情，我不太清楚...
Answering questions 回答问题
The answers to your questions are below. 问题解答如下。
To answer your question, 回答你的问题
You will find my answers directly below the questions in your initial e-mail. 我的回答就在您最初邮件中问题的下方。
Giving good news 提供好消息
I am happy to let you know that… 我很高兴让你们知道...
You will be pleased to hear that… 您一定会很高兴听到...
You will be delighted to learn that… 您会很高兴地了解到...
I am delighted to inform you that… 我很高兴地通知你们......
Giving bad news 发布坏消息
I regret to inform you that… 我很遗憾地通知您
Unfortunately, 不幸的是
I am very sorry but, 非常抱歉，但是
Making a complaint 投诉
I was not very happy with… 我不太满意...
I am afraid…did not meet my expectations. 恐怕......没有达到我的预期。
If you refuse to comply with this request, I will be forced to take legal action. 如果您拒绝遵守这一要求，我将被迫采取法律行动。
Scheduling 日程安排
Will you be available on… 您是否可以在...
What does your schedule for next week/month/year look like? I have time on… 您下周/月/年的日程安排是怎样的？我有时间...
If possible, I would like to meet on… 如果可能的话，我想在...
I am afraid I am unavailable on that date. 恐怕那天我没空。
Tuesday at 17.30 works for me. 周二 17:30 对我来说很合适。
English level disclaimers 英语水平免责声明
Apologies for my English, it is not my first language. 抱歉，我的英语不是母语。
Please excuse any English mistakes, it is not my first language. 英语不是我的母语，如有错误，敬请原谅。
Ending your e-mail 结束电子邮件
I look forward to hearing from you. 期待您的来信。
I look forward to your response. 期待您的回复。
I look forward to meeting you in person. 我期待着与您见面。
Please let me know if you require any more information. 如果您需要更多信息，请告诉我。
Please do not hesitate to contact me if you require further information. 如果您需要更多信息，请随时与我联系。
Thanking the recipient for their time 感谢收件人的时间
Thank you for your time, I really appreciate it. 感谢您抽出时间，我真的很感激。
Thank you for your time and cooperation. 感谢您的时间和合作。
Thank you for your time and patience. 感谢您的时间和耐心。
Signing off 签字
Kind regards, 谨致问候、
FIXED PHRASES FOR INFORMAL E-MAILS 非正式电子邮件的固定短语
Addressing the recipient 称呼收件人
Hi [recipient’s first name], 你好[收件人姓名]、
Hello [recipient’s first name], 您好 [收件人姓名]、
Hey [recipient’s first name], 嘿 [收件人的名字]、
Starting your e-mail when responding to a previous e-mail 在回复前一封邮件时开始发送邮件
Thank you for your e-mail. 感谢您的邮件。
It was good to hear from you. 很高兴收到你的来信。
Stating your reason for writing 说明写作理由
I’m writing because… 我写信是因为
I was wondering if… 我想知道...
I just wanted to let you know that… 我只是想让你知道...
Just a quick question about… 我想问一下...
Scheduling 日程安排
Will you be around this week?" 你这周还会在吗？"
Can you give me a call ASAP?" 你能尽快给我打个电话吗？"
Ending your e-mail 结束电子邮件
Let’s meet up soon. 我们很快就能见面了。
Let’s catch up soon. 我们很快就会见面的。
Hope you’re having a good (insert day of the week). 希望你过得愉快（插入一周中的某一天）。
Hope you’re well. 希望你一切都好。
Signing off 签字
Thanks, 谢谢、
Take care, 保重、
Cheers, 干杯
HOW TO 如何
WRITE TEXT MESSAGES
You may laugh at the inclusion of this chapter, but these days we use short messages on a daily basis. 您可能会嘲笑本章的加入，但如今我们每天都在使用短信息。
So, in many ways, learning how to write an SMS/Facebook/ WhatsApp message is more important than learning to write a letter. 因此，在很多方面，学习如何写短信/Facebook/WhatsApp 消息比学习写信更重要。
I have students who speak excellent English, but when they write an SMS it looks like a five-year old wrote it. 我有一些学生英语说得很好，但当他们写短信时，看起来就像一个五岁小孩写的。
For that reason alone, I’ve decided to include this short chapter. 仅凭这一点，我就决定把这一小章写进去。
AVOID ABBREVIATIONS (TXTSPK) 避免使用缩略语（TXTSPK）
An odd thing happens when people write an SMS - they throw out everything they know about English writing conventions and use abbreviations instead. 人们在编写短信时会发生一件奇怪的事情--他们会抛开自己所知道的所有英语写作规范，转而使用缩写。
For example, “thx 4 evrythng m8” or “will b wiv uin 5 mins.” 例如，"thx 4 evrythng m8 "或 "will b wiv uin 5 mins"。
Avoid this in all circumstances. 在任何情况下都要避免这样做。
Chat speak will never improve your reputation, but it could certainly damage it. 聊天言论永远不会提高你的声誉，但肯定会损害你的声誉。
If you write clearly, briskly, and accurately, you will never get the tone wrong. 如果你写得清晰、明快、准确，你的语气就不会出错。
Very few style adjustments need to be made when writing text messages, so use the fundamentals you’ve learned in this book and you will be fine. 在撰写短信时，很少需要对文体进行调整，因此使用本书所学的基本知识就可以了。
EMOJIS AND EMOTICONS 表情符号和表情符号
If you never use emojis in your messages, you run the risk of coming off as cold. 如果你从不在信息中使用表情符号，你就有可能显得冷漠。
That said, it is certainly better to use none at all than too many. 尽管如此，不使用肯定比使用太多要好。
How do you know when and when not to use an emoji in an SMS? 如何判断何时在短信中使用表情符号？
Well, one method is to mimic the other person’s use of them. 那么，一种方法就是模仿对方使用它们。
If they’re using a lot of emojis, throw one in every so often. If they’re not using any emojis, you can still use a smiley face every now and then, but hold back on the crying faces and watermelons. 如果他们经常使用表情符号，那就偶尔用一个。如果他们不使用任何表情符号，你也可以时不时地用一个笑脸，但不要用哭脸和西瓜。
SOFTENING YOUR SENTENCES 软化句子
Short messages are easily misinterpreted in a negative way. 短信息很容易被误解为负面信息。
Anyone who has found a note from a flatmate will know what I’m talking about: “please don’t touch my food!” 任何发现过室友纸条的人都知道我在说什么："请不要碰我的食物！"
Even if written with good intentions, such notes can come off as aggressive. The same goes for short messages so, it’s best to try to soften them, at least a little. 即使是出于好意，这样的字条也会显得咄咄逼人。短信息也是如此，所以最好尽量软化，至少软化一点。
The best way to do this is to use softening phrases or indirect questions - you will find examples of these at the end of this chapter. 最好的办法是使用缓和短语或间接问题--本章末尾将举例说明。
Be wary of using exclamation marks and capital letters. They can come across as SHOUTY! 警惕使用感叹号和大写字母。它们会让人觉得很 "粗鲁"！
Finally, it may be an SMS, but you still need to use please and thank you. 最后，虽然这是一条短信，但您仍然需要使用 "请 "和 "谢谢"。
Look at the difference between these two messages, for example. 例如，看看这两条信息之间的区别。
“WON’T MAKE IT AT 7.” "7点赶不上"
“Sorry, but I’m running late and won’t make it by 7. Would you mind if we met a little later? Thanks.” "抱歉，我快迟到了，7点前赶不到 你介意我们晚一点见面吗？谢谢。"
I recently had an argument with a student who believed it was unnecessary to make an SMS sound pleasant, because an SMS is just the modern day version of the telegram. 我最近与一位学生发生了争论，他认为没有必要把短信说得那么动听，因为短信只是现代版的电报。
That may be, but telegrams were paid for by the word, so all parties understood their abruptness was due to economics. 也许是这样，但电报是按字数付费的，所以各方都明白电报的突然性是出于经济原因。
An SMS doesn’t cost as much as a telegram and so you can choose how many words you use when writing one. 短信不像电报那样昂贵，因此您可以选择写短信时使用的字数。
Expectations about how pleasant an SMS should be to read differ from one recipient to the next. Err on the side of caution and treat an SMS with the same care as the rest of your writing. 不同的收件人对短信阅读的愉悦程度有不同的期望。请慎重对待短信，就像对待您的其他文章一样。
SELF-EDITING 自我编辑
We’re all busy, and sometimes I, too, am guilty of sending a message without reading it trough. 我们都很忙，有时我也会犯发送信息而不仔细阅读的错误。
But, remember, while an SMS has a reputation for being less formal than other forms of communication, you’ll be judged on the messages you send, not the medium used. 但是，请记住，虽然与其他通信形式相比，短信有不那么正式的名声，但评判你的标准是你发送的信息，而不是使用的媒介。
If you’re making mistakes in your text messages (spelling, grammar, etc) it’s going to reflect badly on you because the other person has little else on which to judge you. 如果你在短信中出现错误（拼写、语法等），就会给对方留下不好的印象，因为对方几乎没有其他依据来判断你。
So, at the very least, read through what you’ve written before you send it to avoid glaring mistakes. 因此，在发送之前，至少要通读一遍你所写的内容，以避免出现明显的错误。
Take some time to format your messages - such as capitalising names and the first letters of your sentences. 请花一些时间调整您的信息格式，例如将姓名和句子的第一个字母大写。
Otherwise, you imply that you don’t care enough about the other person to follow commonly expected rules of communication. 否则，你就意味着你对对方不够关心，不愿意遵守通常预期的交流规则。
Get into the habit of doing this all the time, even with friends and family - it’ll soon become automatic. 养成经常这样做的习惯，即使是对朋友和家人--这很快就会成为一种自动行为。
Paying such close attention to formatting may sound pedantic, but if you fail to pay attention to it, your writing will look sloppy. 如此重视格式可能听起来很迂腐，但如果不重视格式，你的文章就会显得很草率。
And sloppy is not the kind of impression you want to give off. 马虎不是你想要给人留下的印象。
USE POSITIVE LANGUAGE 用积极的语言
For the recipient to associate your messages with positivity rather than negativity, you should use language like “that’s great” or “of course,” over language that contains a word with negative connotations such as “no problem.” 为了让收件人将你的信息与积极而非消极的事物联系起来，你应该使用 "太棒了 "或 "当然 "这样的语言，而不是 "没问题 "这样含有消极含义的语言。
The idea is that when someone reads the word “problem,” they subconsciously begin to associate you with problems. This may be pseudo-psychology, but it makes sense to keep your messages positive regardless. 这种观点认为，当别人读到 "问题 "一词时，他们会下意识地开始把你与问题联系起来。这可能是一种伪心理学，但无论如何，让你的信息保持积极正面是有意义的。
Fixed phrases to soften messages 软化信息的固定短语
Would you mind if… 你介意...
Would it be possible to… 能否...
Could you please… 你能不能...
I’m really sorry but,… 我真的很抱歉，但是...
Can you tell me if… 你能告诉我...
Do you have any idea if/whether… 您是否知道...
I was hoping you could… 我希望你能...
Do you think you could… 你认为你能...
I would love to, but… 我很想，但是...
I was wondering if/whether… 我想知道是否...
Is there any chance… 有没有可能...
I’m sorry for the inconvenience, but… 很抱歉给您带来不便，但是...
If it’s not too much trouble, can I ask you to… 如果不麻烦的话，我可以请你...
CHADTER 7
HOW TO WRITE LETTERS 如何写信
Letter writing may be a dying art, but there are still occasions when you may need to write one. 写信可能是一门即将失传的艺术，但在某些情况下您仍然需要写信。
In this chapter, I will focus on the types of letters you may still be called upon to write. 在本章中，我将重点介绍您可能仍需要撰写的信件类型。
It is easier to look at examples than to be told how to write letters in excruciating detail, so I have included some examples at the end of this chapter. 看例子比听别人详细讲述如何写信更容易，因此我在本章末尾列举了一些例子。
I should add that I have decided not to focus on informal letter writing. Yes, such letters do come up in exams from time to time, but in terms of real-life application, this is no longer a useful skill to learn. 我要补充的是，我决定不再重点学习非正式信函的写作。是的，考试中时不时会出现这类信件，但就实际应用而言，这不再是一项有用的学习技能。
If you are writing to someone informally, you will likely send an e-mail, and, if you do decide to send a letter, I doubt the other person will be concerned about whether you’ve formatted it correctly. They’ll more likely be marvelling at the fact that someone has bothered to write them something by hand and put it in the post. 如果您是非正式地写信给某人，您可能会发送电子邮件，如果您决定寄信，我怀疑对方是否会关心您的格式是否正确。他们更可能会惊叹于有人不辞辛苦地给他们手写并邮寄。
A formal letter carries additional gravity and weight. It is very useful for making something more official, so long as you don’t make any mistakes - the more formal the task is, the more mistakes will stand out. 正式信函具有额外的严肃性和分量。只要不犯任何错误，它对于使事情更加正式非常有用--任务越正式，错误就越明显。
The good news is that writing formal letters is quite formulaic, so once you learn the structure, you will be well on your way to writing great letters. 好在正式信函的写作是相当程式化的，因此一旦掌握了结构，就能顺利写出出色的信函。
FORMATTING 格式化
Everything you write reveals something about you. 你写的每一篇文章都透露着你的一些信息。
Like it or not, you will be judged on how you format your letter, so take control of the impression you make by adhering to the necessary conventions. 无论你是否愿意，你都会因信件的格式而受到评判，因此请遵守必要的惯例，控制好你给人留下的印象。
As you will see in the example letters at the end of this chapter, letters always follow a specific format. 正如您在本章末尾的信函范例中看到的，信函总是遵循特定的格式。
Let’s briefly look at the way letters are formatted: 让我们简单了解一下字母的格式：
Your address always goes at the top right of the page. 您的地址始终位于页面右上方。
Leave a small gap, and put today’s date under your address. 留一个小空隙，在地址下面写上今天的日期。
The recipient’s address should be written at the top left, starting below where your address concluded. 收件人地址应写在左上方，从您的地址下方开始。
Letters always begin with “Dear [insert recipients name],” If you don’t know the specific person you are writing to, use “Dear Sir or Madam.” 信件总是以 "亲爱的[填写收信人姓名]"开头，如果不知道写信给谁，就用 "亲爱的先生或女士"。
When you sign off, you should always sign your name in ink. 签字时，一定要用墨水签上自己的名字。
Below your signature, type your name. 在签名下方输入您的姓名。
Beneath your name you should include your job title and the name of your company (e.g, Head of Sales, Microsoft) 在您的姓名下方，请注明您的职称和公司名称（例如，微软公司销售主管）。
The diagram on the next page will give you a better idea of how a letter should be formatted from a visual perspective. 下一页的图表可以让你从视觉角度更好地了解信件的格式。
3. Write the address of the recipient here. 3.在此写下收件人地址。
4. Use Dear Sir or Madam if you don’t 4.如果不需要，请使用 "尊敬的先生或女士"。
know the specific person you’re writing to. 了解您写信的具体对象。
5. Sign your name 5.署名
in ink here. 在这里用墨水书写。
6. Type your name here. 6.在此输入您的姓名。
7. Write your job title/company here. 7.请在此处填写您的职称/公司。
HOW TO ENSURE FORMALITY 如何确保形式
There is no one way to ensure formality, but there are several elements that can work together to achieve the desired result. 没有一种方法可以确保正式性，但有几个要素可以共同作用，以达到预期效果。
The most important thing is to get the basics right and write clearly. So don’t get so caught up in these suggestions that you forget the fundamentals. 最重要的是掌握基本要领，写出清晰的文章。因此，不要被这些建议所迷惑，而忘记了基本要素。
Avoid contractions. 避免宫缩。
For example, write: “I am writing to you,” rather than “I’m writing to you.” 例如，写"我给你写信"，而不是 "我给你写信"。
Avoid informal words. 避免使用非正式词语。
For example, “totally,” “loads,” “awesome.” 例如，"完全"、"负荷"、"真棒"。
The best way to achieve this is to be precise in your word choice and opt for words that are less emotional. 要做到这一点，最好的办法就是用词准确，选择不那么情绪化的词语。
For example, instead of “awesome,” you might choose “helpful.” 例如，你可以选择 "有帮助"，而不是 "真棒"。
Avoid idioms and figures of speech. For example: “better late than never,” “I’m up to my neck in it.” 避免使用成语和比喻。例如："迟到总比不到好"、"我已经到了极限"
Do not use abbreviations such as “info,” “Aug,” “grad.” 请勿使用 "info"、"Aug"、"grad "等缩写。
Replace informal intensifiers such as “really” and “so” with more formal ones such as “extremely” and “highly.” 用 "极其 "和 "高度 "等更正式的强化词代替 "真的 "和 "如此 "等非正式强化词。
Avoid the word “anyway.” Some good alternatives include, “however,” “nevertheless,” and “that being said.” 避免使用 "无论如何 "一词。一些好的替代词包括 "然而"、"尽管如此 "和 "话虽如此"。
KEEP THE CONTENT RELEVANT 保持内容的相关性
If you include irrelevancies, these will stand out far more in letters than in other types of writing. 如果你在书信中加入无关紧要的内容，这些内容在书信中会比在其他类型的文章中更加突出。
ESL students have a habit of including all kinds of unnecessary information in their letters. ESL 学生习惯在信中包含各种不必要的信息。
Take this excerpt from a letter of application, for example. 以申请信中的这段摘录为例。
“I am a very responsible person. I have three dogs and I take care of them every day. One of them is called Allie, one is called Sam, and the other one is Steven. Allie is brown, Sam is also brown, and Steven is white. They are not related. I like to take care of my dogs very much. I also like other animals too.” "我是一个非常负责任的人。我养了三只狗，每天都会照顾它们。其中一只叫艾莉，一只叫萨姆，另一只叫史蒂文。艾莉是棕色的，萨姆也是棕色的，史蒂文是白色的。它们没有血缘关系。我非常喜欢照顾我的狗。我也喜欢其他动物"。
What’s wrong with this? Contrary to what you may think, not absolutely everything. 这有什么问题吗？与您的想法恰恰相反，并非绝对有问题。
The student shows she is responsible by using an example to support this claim, but she then includes some very irrelevant information about her dogs. 该学生用一个例子来支持这一说法，表明她是负责任的，但她随后又加入了一些与她的狗非常不相关的信息。
If she was applying for a job working with animals, then she might have got away with providing so much information about her pets, but in this instance, she was applying for a work experience at a bank. So, if you want to be seen as professional, remember to keep the content relevant. 如果她申请的是一份与动物打交道的工作，那么她可能就不会提供这么多关于她的宠物的信息，但在这种情况下，她申请的是在银行工作的经历。因此，如果你想让别人觉得你很专业，切记要保持内容的相关性。
LEAVE SPACE ON THE PAGE 留空
Imagine how you’d feel if you opened a letter to find a page tightly packed with words. 想象一下，如果你打开一封信，发现一页纸上密密麻麻写满了字，你会有什么感觉？
I’m sure you wouldn’t be desperate to read it. 我相信你不会不顾一切地去读它。
The best way to create space on the page is to adhere to the standard formatting rules and leave spaces between paragraphs. 在页面上创造空间的最佳方法是遵守标准格式规则，在段落之间留出空格。
For examples of this, see the sample letters at the end of this chapter. 有关示例，请参阅本章末尾的信函样本。
HOW TO END YOUR LETTER 如何结尾
The official rule is, if you have used a person’s name at the start of the letter then you should close your letter with “Yours sincerely.” 正式规则是，如果您在信的开头使用了某人的姓名，那么您应该在信的结尾写上 "此致敬礼"。
If you have used “Dear Sir” or “Dear Madam,” close the letter with “Yours faithfully.” 如果您使用了 "亲爱的先生 "或 "亲爱的女士"，请用 "您忠实的 "作为结尾。
WRITING AN APPLICATION LETTER 写申请信
Students write better letters when they know what they should include in the letter and in what order they should cover those topics. 当学生知道他们应该在信中写些什么以及应该按照什么顺序来写这些主题时，他们就能写出更好的信。
I suggest the following order for a letter of application: 我建议按以下顺序撰写申请信：
1. Reason for writing 1.写作原因
Where you saw the advertisement 您在哪里看到的广告
Relevant information about who you are 关于您是谁的相关信息
Relevant experience 相关经验
Explanation of why you want the job 说明您希望获得这份工作的原因
Availability 可用性
When writing a letter of application, remember to address everything the employer has asked for in the advertisement. 在撰写申请信时，切记要针对雇主在招聘广告中提出的所有要求。
Keep it brief, to the point, and relevant. 要简明扼要、切中要害、切合实际。
Below is a job advertisement and a sample letter of application to give you a better idea of what I mean. 下面是一则招聘广告和一封申请书样本，让您更好地理解我的意思。
Job Advertisement: 招聘广告：
Part-Time Bar Staff Needed! 需要兼职酒吧员工！
We have several vacancies at our central London sports bar. Bartending experience is not required, training will be provided. We are looking for sociable, hard-working, and enthusiastic individuals with a flexible schedule. Must be available for immediate start. To apply, write telling us about yourself and explain why you are suited to the job. 我们在伦敦市中心的体育酒吧有几个职位空缺。无需调酒经验，我们将提供培训。我们正在寻找善于交际、勤奋工作、充满热情且工作时间灵活的人员。必须能立即上岗。如需申请，请写信告诉我们您的情况，并说明您适合这份工作的原因。
Application Letter: 申请信：
Allstar Sports Bar Allstar 运动酒吧Leicester Square 莱斯特广场London 伦敦WC2H 7GU
Dear Sir or Madam, 亲爱的先生或女士
I am writing to apply for the position of bartender, which I saw advertised in ‘Metro Magazine’ on November 2 nd . 我是来应聘调酒师职位的，我在 11 月 2 日的《都市杂志》上看到了招聘广告。
I am a twenty-three-year-old student at University College London. 我是伦敦大学学院一名 23 岁的学生。
At university, I run a student society in which we visit various cultural events. I enjoy this because I am a very outgoing person, and I love to meet new people. 在大学里，我负责管理一个学生社团，在这个社团里，我们会参观各种文化活动。我喜欢这样做，因为我是一个非常外向的人，我喜欢结识新朋友。
Previously, I worked in a shoe shop, so I have some customerfacing experience. I also proved myself to be flexible and reliable, often coming in to cover shifts for colleagues who were ill. 之前，我在一家鞋店工作过，因此有一些面对顾客的经验。我还证明了自己的灵活性和可靠性，经常替生病的同事顶班。
The position you are advertising looks like a great opportunity to meet like-minded, enthusiastic people, and to learn some new skills. 你们宣传的职位看起来是一个很好的机会，可以结识志同道合的热心人士，学习一些新技能。
I can start work immediately, and my schedule is extremely flexible. I am available for interview at any time. 我可以立即开始工作，而且我的日程安排非常灵活。我随时可以接受面试。
I can be contacted at xxxxxxxxxxx x x x x x x x x x. 我的联系方式是： xxxxxxxxxxx x x x x x x x x x 。
Thank you for considering my application. 感谢您考虑我的申请。
I look forward to hearing from you. 期待您的来信。
Yours faithfully, Alice Miller 爱丽丝-米勒
Fixed Phrases 固定短语
Starting the letter 开始写信
I am writing regarding… 我写信是为了...
I am writing in response to your advertisement… 我写这封信是为了回应你们的广告......
I am writing to apply for the position of… 我写信申请......
Introducing your skillset 介绍您的技能组合
As my CV demonstrates, I possess the necessary skills and experience for the job. 正如我的简历所示，我拥有这份工作所需的技能和经验。
My skillset includes… 我的技能包括
My key skills are… 我的主要技能是
The skills I am proudest of are… 我最引以为豪的技能是
Previous employers have commented on my… 以前的雇主对我的评价是...
Stating why you are the right person for the job 说明你为什么是最合适的人选
I am particularly interested in this job because… 我对这份工作特别感兴趣，因为...
I believe I am the perfect candidate for this role because… 我相信我是这个职位的最佳人选，因为...
Showing you have relevant experience 展示你的相关经验
Currently, I am working for…and my duties include… 目前，我为......工作，我的职责包括......
Although I have no experience in…I have had experience in… 虽然我没有......但我在......方面有过经验。
I have a vast amount of experience in this area, including… 我在这方面拥有丰富的经验，包括...
In my previous position at…I had the following duties: 我之前在......担任的职位职责如下：
Availability 可用性
I am available for an interview on… 我可以在以下时间接受采访...
You can contact me between…and… 您可以在...和...之间联系我。
I can start work immediately, and my schedule is extremely flexible. 我可以立即开始工作，而且我的日程安排非常灵活。
I will be able to start work as of…(insert date) 我将能够从......（插入日期）开始工作
Attaching a CV 附上简历
I have enclosed my CV for your consideration. 随信附上我的简历，供您参考。
Closing the letter 结束信函
In the meantime, please don’t hesitate to contact me if you require any further information. 同时，如果您需要更多信息，请随时与我联系。
Thank you for considering my application. 感谢您考虑我的申请。
I look forward to further discussing my application during an interview. 我期待在面试中进一步讨论我的申请。
WRITING A LETTER OF COMPLAINT 写投诉信
Writing a letter will force the recipient to take notice, because a written letter implies an escalated level of severity on your part. 写信会迫使收信人注意到这一点，因为书面信件意味着你的严厉程度升级了。
In a letter of complaint, it is crucial that you clearly state what you want the company to do in response. Be clear and direct. 在投诉信中，您必须清楚地说明您希望公司采取的应对措施。要清楚、直接。
Just because you’re writing a complaint, you don’t have to be angry or threatening. The tone you’re looking for is polite but firm, not furious. 不要因为是写投诉，就一定要愤怒或威胁。您需要的语气是礼貌而坚定，而不是暴怒。
The following letter serves as a good example. 下面这封信就是一个很好的例子。
25 East Street 东街 25 号
Norwich 诺维奇
NR1 1BD
Ph: xxxxxxxxx\mathrm{xxxx} x \mathrm{xxxx} 电话： xxxxxxxxx\mathrm{xxxx} x \mathrm{xxxx}
E-mail: xx@xxx.com 电子邮件： xx@xxx.com
John Mconell 约翰-姆科内尔
Computer Solutions Inc. 计算机解决方案公司
22 Park Road 公园路 22 号
Norwich 诺维奇
NR3 LPD
9th September, 2020 2020 年 9 月 9 日
Dear Mr Mconell, 亲爱的 Mconell 先生
I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with the service I received from your company last month. 我谨写信表达我对贵公司上个月提供的服务的不满。
Your technicians re-scheduled their appointment three times, which was a huge inconvenience. 你们的技术人员三次重新安排预约时间，造成了极大的不便。
Also, your technicians were supposed to install an antivirus system on our network. They clearly failed to do this, because several of our computers were found to have viruses. 此外，贵公司的技术人员本应在我们的网络上安装防病毒系统。他们显然没有这样做，因为我们的几台电脑被发现带有病毒。
When I called your company to complain, no one answered the phone, so I had to employ another firm to rectify your mistakes. 当我给贵公司打电话投诉时，没有人接电话，所以我不得不雇用另一家公司来纠正你们的错误。
The service you provided was well below my expectations, so I feel entitled to a full refund for the inconvenience caused. You should consider yourself fortunate that I am not demanding you pay for the services of the second company we employed, too. 你们提供的服务远远低于我的预期，因此我认为我有权要求你们全额退款，以补偿给我造成的不便。你应该感到庆幸的是，我没有要求你也为我们雇用的第二家公司的服务付费。
Please give this matter your immediate attention. 请立即关注此事。
If you do not provide an adequate response, I will be forced to take further action. 如果您不做出适当答复，我将被迫采取进一步行动。
Yours sincerely, Mrs Naieman 诚挚的奈曼女士
Fixed Phrases 固定短语
Starting the letter 开始写信
I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with… 我写这封信是为了表达我对......
I feel I must complain to you about… 我觉得我必须向你抱怨......
I am writing to complain about… 我写信投诉
Expressing dissatisfaction 表达不满
The service was well below my expectations… 服务远低于我的预期...
As you can imagine, I am extremely disappointed. 可想而知，我非常失望。
I was horrified to find that… 我惊恐地发现...
To make matters worse,… 更糟糕的是，...
As I am sure you will agree, this is completely unacceptable. 我相信你们也会同意，这是完全不能接受的。
Stating what you expect as recourse 说明您期望的追索方式
I feel entitled to a partial/full refund for the inconvenience caused. 我认为我有权要求部分/全部退款，以补偿由此造成的不便。
I feel you have a responsibility to… 我觉得你们有责任...
I believe the very least you can do is… 我相信你至少可以...
If you do not provide an adequate response, I will be forced to take further action. 如果您不作出适当答复，我将被迫采取进一步行动。
Ending the letter 信的结尾
Please give this matter your immediate attention. 请立即关注此事。
I would be grateful if you could look into this matter. 如果您能调查此事，我将不胜感激。
I am happy to provide you with any further information you may require. 我很乐意为您提供您可能需要的任何进一步信息。
I look forward to your prompt response. 期待您的及时回复。
WRITING A LETTER OF A RESIGNATION 写辞职信
This may be the digital age, but many companies still expect you to submit your resignation in written form. 现在可能是数字时代，但许多公司仍希望您以书面形式提交辞呈。
A resignation letter ought to be formal and to the point. It should include: 辞职信应正式而切题。其中应包括
i) The date you will be leaving the post, which is usually two weeks after the date of your letter, known as “two weeks’ notice.” i) 您的离任日期，通常是在您的信件发出两周后，即 "两周通知"。
ii) If you wish, you can state your reason for leaving. Although it is certainly not mandatory. ii) 如果您愿意，可以说明您离开的原因。尽管这肯定不是强制性的。
iii) It’s a good idea to offer to help during the transitional phase (for example, training your replacement) and to thank your employer for the opportunity they have provided up to now. iii) 在过渡阶段，最好主动提供帮助（例如，培训你的接替者），并感谢雇主迄今 为你提供的机会。
In terms of tone, try to keep the letter positive. 在语气方面，尽量保持信件的积极性。
There is nothing to be gained by burning bridges. You might wish to return to the company someday, and you’ll likely need them as a reference, so keep it amicable. 殃及池鱼不会有任何好处。也许有一天你还想回到这家公司，而且你很可能需要他们作为推荐人，所以请保持友好的关系。
You can use the following letter as a template. 您可以使用以下信件作为模板。
The Big Greasy Spoon 大油锅
25 Clarence Way 25 克拉伦斯路
Glasgow 格拉斯哥
G1 7HR
2nd March, 2020 2020 年 3 月 2 日
Dear Mrs Robertson, 亲爱的罗伯逊夫人
Please accept this letter as formal notification that I will be resigning from my position as waitress at The Big Greasy Spoon. My last day of work will be 17 th March. 我将辞去在 The Big Greasy Spoon 餐厅担任的服务员职务，请接受此信作为正式通知。我的最后一天工作是 3 月 17 日。
I am extremely grateful for the opportunities you have provided me with during my time at this job. I have truly enjoyed my employment at The Big Greasy Spoon, particularly all the wonderful people I have met and the responsibilities with which you entrusted me. But after careful consideration, I feel that it is time for a new challenge. 我非常感谢你们在我工作期间为我提供的机会。我非常喜欢在大油锅餐厅的工作，尤其是我遇到的所有好朋友和你们赋予我的职责。但经过慎重考虑，我觉得是时候迎接新的挑战了。
Please let me know if there is anything I can do to help ease the transition. I am more than happy to train new team members as well as completing my normal duties. 如果有什么我可以做的，请告诉我，以帮助缓解过渡。我非常乐意在完成正常工作的同时培训新的团队成员。
I wish both you and the cafe continued success in the future, and I hope we can stay in touch. 我祝愿你和咖啡馆今后继续取得成功，希望我们能保持联系。
Yours sincerely, Lucy Sirokova 诚挚的露西-西罗科娃
Fixed phrases 固定短语
Starting the letter 开始写信
Please accept this letter as formal notification that I will be resigning from my position as…at… 我将辞去......在......的职位，请接受这封信作为正式通知。
After careful consideration, I have decided that… 经过慎重考虑，我决定...
I have truly enjoyed my time at…, but I now feel that it is time for a new challenge. 我非常享受在......工作的时光，但现在我觉得是时候迎接新的挑战了。
Resignation details 辞职详情
My last day of work will be… 我的最后一天工作将是...
Expressing gratitude 表达感激之情
I am extremely grateful for the opportunities you have provided me with during my time at this job. 我非常感谢你们在我工作期间为我提供的机会。
Offering to help 主动提供帮助
Please let me know if there is anything I can do to help ease this transition. I am more than happy to help. 如果有什么我可以做的，请告诉我，以帮助缓解这一过渡。我非常乐意提供帮助。
During my last two weeks, I am more than happy to train new team members as well as completing my normal duties. 在最后两周里，我非常乐意培训新的团队成员，同时完成我的正常工作。
I am happy to help recruit and train my replacement. 我很乐意帮助招聘和培训接替我的人。
Ending the letter 信的结尾
I wish you and the company continued success. 我祝愿你和公司不断取得成功。
I hope we can stay in touch. 希望我们能保持联系。
WRITING A THANK YOU LETTER 写感谢信
Thank you letters are more common than you might think. 感谢信比你想象的更常见。
They are effective because we live in a world where people have less and less time for each other. By taking the time to write something by hand and put it in the post, you become unforgettable. 它们之所以有效，是因为我们生活在一个人与人之间相处时间越来越少的世界。花时间亲手写下一些东西并将其放入邮筒，你就会变得令人难忘。
A thank you letter doesn’t need to be long, as the sample below demonstrates. 正如下面的样本所示，感谢信不必太长。
The Old Town Mill 老城磨坊
Dooley Street 杜利街
Exeter 埃克塞特
Devon 德文郡
EX2 47J
2nd October, 2020 2020 年 10 月 2 日
Systemica Ltd 系统有限公司
Burton Industrial Estate 伯顿工业区
Exeter 埃克塞特
EX7 89H
Dear Mr Griffin, 亲爱的格里芬先生
Thank you for speaking with me yesterday about the possibility of a future collaboration. Our meeting has certainly given me plenty to think about. 感谢您昨天与我谈及未来合作的可能性。我们的会面确实给了我很多思考。
In particular, I am grateful for your views on the future of online media. Your ideas were truly inspiring, and I will be implementing them immediately. 我尤其感谢您对网络媒体未来的看法。您的观点确实很有启发性，我将立即付诸实施。
Thank you once again for taking the time to meet with me, I really do appreciate it. 再次感谢您抽出时间与我会面，我真的非常感激。
I hope we meet again soon. 希望我们能很快再见面。
Yours sincerely, David Shirkot 戴维-希尔科特
Fixed phrases 固定短语
Starting the letter 开始写信
Thank you for speaking with me yesterday about… 感谢您昨天与我就...
Thank you so much for… 非常感谢
I am writing to express my gratitude for… 我写这封信是为了表达我对......
Expressing gratitude 表达感激之情
Many thanks for… 非常感谢
It is sincerely appreciated. 衷心感谢。
I am very grateful for… 我非常感谢
It was so kind of you to… 你真是太好了......
I really do appreciate it. 我真的很感激。
Mentioning the details 提及细节
I particularly enjoyed… 我特别喜欢
I greatly appreciate the time you took to… 我非常感激您花了这么多时间......
I was so pleased… 我很高兴...
Ending the letter 信的结尾
It was a pleasure connecting with you. 很高兴与您联系。
I sincerely hope we meet again soon. 我衷心希望我们能很快再见面。
I am sure we will cross paths again soon. 我相信，我们很快就会再次相遇。
CHAPTER 8 第 8 章
HOW TO WRITE AN
ARTICLE 如何撰写文章
Many of you may never have had to write an article before, but ESL students are often asked to write one during exams. 你们中的许多人可能从来没有写过文章，但 ESL 学生在考试中经常会被要求写一篇文章。
Even if you’re not a student, you might need to write an article at some point in your life. 即使您不是学生，您也可能在一生中的某个时刻需要撰写文章。
This chapter will also be helpful for writing blog articles or social media posts. 本章对撰写博客文章或社交媒体文章也有帮助。
DELIVER YOUR MESSAGE CLEARLY 清晰地传递信息
We live in an age of information overload, so expecting people to remember many different disjointed points is unrealistic. You’ll have done a great job if your reader remembers the main message. 我们生活在一个信息过载的时代，因此期望人们记住许多不同的、互不关联的要点是不现实的。如果读者能记住主要信息，你就已经做得很好了。
Once you know the message you want to get across, you can build your article around your overreaching argument by designing a sequence of supporting ideas. 一旦你知道了想要传达的信息，你就可以通过设计一连串的支持观点，围绕你的论点来撰写文章。
People are very easily distracted, so you need to craft a compelling and persuasive argument to hold the reader’s attention. 人们很容易分心，因此你需要精心设计一个有说服力的论点，以吸引读者的注意力。
Keep your article simple and return frequently to the point you want to make. 文章要简洁，经常回到你想表达的观点。
Many students try to squeeze too much content into one article. If you discuss too many different things, you will be unable to explore your main point in enough detail. 许多学生试图在一篇文章中挤出太多内容。如果你讨论了太多不同的事情，你就无法足够详细地探讨你的主要观点。
HOW TO STRUCTURE AN ARTICLE 如何组织文章
There are infinite ways to order an article. 订购文章的方式多种多样。
When deciding which structure best lends itself to your work, consider how your readers consume information. You want to present your ideas in a way that follows the natural flow of your audience’s curiosity. 在决定哪种结构最适合您的作品时，请考虑读者是如何消费信息的。您希望按照读者好奇心的自然流向来表达您的想法。
If you’re unsure about how to structure your article, I suggest the loop method, because it ensures a sense of unity. 如果您不确定如何安排文章的结构，我建议您采用循环法，因为这种方法可以确保文章的整体感。
In the loop method, you make your main point in the first paragraph, outline the details to support your idea in the body paragraphs, and then return to your initial point in the final paragraph. 在循环法中，你在第一段提出主要观点，在主体段落中概述支持观点的细节，然后在最后一段回到最初的观点。
So, for example, if you were asked to write an article about a recent holiday, you might plan to arrange the discussion in the following way. 因此，举例来说，如果有人要求你写一篇关于最近一次度假的文章，你可以计划按以下方式安排讨论。
Opening paragraph: Introduction: Where did you go? Why? For how long? What were your overall impressions, e.g., “it was December, so it rained a lot.” 开头段：导言：你去了哪里？为什么去？去了多久？你的总体印象如何，例如 "当时是 12 月，所以雨下得很大"。
Middle paragraphs: Supporting detail: What did you do on your holiday? How did you feel? What would you recommend doing? 中间段落：辅助细节：你在假期做了什么？感觉如何？你建议做什么？
Final paragraph: Return to a point you made in your initial paragraph and add a little extra information. 最后一段：回到你在首段中提出的观点，并添加一些额外信息。
For example: “ultimately, because of the weather, I wouldn’t recommend going to…in December, unless you like … (insert some of the items discussed in the supporting detail stage).” 例如"归根结底，由于天气原因，我不建议您在 12 月去......，除非您喜欢......（插入在辅助细节阶段讨论的一些项目）"。
ORGANISING YOUR WRITING SO IT'S EASY TO READ 整理文章，便于阅读
Some authors don’t seem to care about the person reading their work. 有些作者似乎并不关心阅读他们作品的人。
These authors repeat the same ideas over and over again, include sentences that are several lines long, and fail to delete unnecessary sentences. 这些作者反复重复相同的观点，使用长达几行的句子，并且没有删除不必要的句子。
It’s fine for your content to be complicated, but your writing must always be well-organised - otherwise, the reader will feel overwhelmed. 内容复杂没关系，但写作必须始终条理清晰，否则读者会感到不知所措。
Take the time to organise your article, or readers will give up on your article after the first paragraph because it isn’t worth the difficulty of digging through fluff to uncover the purpose. 花点时间组织文章，否则读者在读完第一段后就会放弃你的文章，因为不值得花这么多精力去挖掘文章的主旨。
YOUR HEADLINE IS IMPORTANT 标题很重要
A headline is meant to capture the reader’s attention and imagination. 标题旨在吸引读者的注意力和想象力。
This is why I get so frustrated when students give their articles headlines like, “a Saturday trip to the countryside,” or “why I like my pet cat.” 这就是为什么当学生给自己的文章起这样的标题时，我会感到非常沮丧："星期六的乡村之旅"，或者 "为什么我喜欢我的宠物猫"。
These headlines do very little to inspire us to read the article. Firstly, they are boring and secondly, they are too vague to get us interested. 这些标题很难激发我们阅读文章的兴趣。首先，它们很无聊，其次，它们过于含糊，无法引起我们的兴趣。
There is no need to sensationalise your headlines as if you’re writing for a tabloid, but your headlines do need to be intriguing. 没有必要把标题写得耸人听闻，就像为小报写作一样，但标题确实需要引人入胜。
The best way to do this is to be more specific about what the reader might expect to read about in your article by revealing a little more about your content. 最好的办法是通过透露更多内容，更具体地说明读者可能期望在文章中读到的内容。
For example, “The birthday trip from hell,” or “How my cat saved my life.” 例如，"来自地狱的生日旅行 "或 "我的猫如何救了我的命"。
SUBHEADINGS 小计
Today, subheadings are more important than ever. 如今，小标题比以往任何时候都更加重要。
Most articles are published on the internet, and readers tend to skim the content before deciding whether to read the article. 大多数文章都是在互联网上发表的，读者往往会先浏览一下内容，然后再决定是否阅读文章。
If an article is divided into sections with subheadings, readers are more likely to read the whole article because they can find topics of interest at a glance. 如果一篇文章分为几个部分，并配有小标题，读者就更有可能读完整篇文章，因为他们一眼就能找到感兴趣的话题。
Without subheadings, it becomes difficult for the reader to skim your content, so use subheadings for articles, even short ones. 如果没有小标题，读者就很难浏览你的内容，所以文章要使用小标题，即使是短小的文章。
Subheadings can also help you to organise and analyse your own work. 小标题还可以帮助你组织和分析自己的作品。
If it is difficult to find a place to add subheadings within a large block of text, it usually means one of three things. 如果在一大段文字中很难找到添加小标题的位置，通常意味着三种情况之一。
i) You are rambling, and your specific points cannot be separated into a sequential argument. i) 你在胡言乱语，而且你的具体观点无法分成一个有序的论点。
ii) You haven’t properly organised what you’ve written. ii) 你没有对所写内容进行适当的组织。
iii) You’re not saying anything interesting enough to warrant a deeper investigation of the content. iii) 你说的话不够有趣，不值得深入调查内容。
Once you have identified the areas where you can add subheadings, keep your subheadings specific to increase engagement. 确定了可以添加副标题的区域后，请将副标题具体化，以提高参与度。
THE CORRECT USE OF PARAGRAPHS 正确使用段落
Your paragraphs ought to flow smoothly from one to the next so the article is easy to follow. 你的段落之间应该衔接流畅，这样文章才容易理解。
If you’ve planned your article exceptionally well, this may happen automatically. 如果您的文章策划得非常好，这可能会自动实现。
But most writers use transitions to avoid confusion and ensure the reader can move between paragraphs without having to re-read the previous section of your text. 但大多数作者都会使用过渡句来避免混淆，并确保读者可以在段落之间移动，而不必重新阅读文章的前一部分。
I have included some good transition phrases at the end of this chapter. They will improve the flow of your articles. 我在本章末尾提供了一些很好的过渡短语。它们将使你的文章更加流畅。
STAYING ON TOPIC 继续说下去
When you plan your article, you might find that you generate many interesting points that are not directly connected to your main point. 当你计划文章时，你可能会发现自己产生了许多有趣的观点，但这些观点与你的主要观点并无直接联系。
Save those ideas for another article, because irrelevant points - however interesting they are - will confuse your reader and dilute your main message. 把这些想法留到另一篇文章中去吧，因为无关紧要的观点--无论它们多么有趣--都会让读者感到困惑，并冲淡你的主要信息。
RHYTHM 韵律
If an article is well written, readers will be able to lose themselves in the text, thanks to its unobtrusive style. 如果文章写得好，读者就能沉浸在文章中，这要归功于文章不突兀的风格。
Developing rhythm in your writing is a lifelong process, so don’t expect to write fluid articles immediately. 培养写作节奏是一个终身的过程，因此不要指望马上就能写出流畅的文章。
That being said, there is one tip you can use right away. 不过，有一个小窍门您可以马上使用。
If you read your finished article aloud to yourself, you will quickly notice the areas in the text which disrupt the rhythm. 如果您大声朗读自己完成的文章，您会很快注意到文章中破坏节奏的地方。
Often, the reason for an awkward sentence or poorly flowing paragraph is over-punctuating or putting punctuation in the wrong place. 造成句子别扭或段落不流畅的原因往往是标点符号过多或标点符号放错了位置。
To improve your use of punctuation, revisit Chapter 2. 要改进标点符号的使用，请重温第 2 章。
HOW TO USE REPORTED SPEECH 如何使用报告演说
When writing articles, you will likely need to quote people. 在撰写文章时，您可能需要引用别人的话。
Using reported speech is very simple, but many students never learn it correctly, and so they repeat the same mistake over and over. 使用报告语非常简单，但许多学生从未正确地学习过，因此他们总是重复犯同样的错误。
To correctly use reported speech, follow the rules below. 要正确使用报告语气词，请遵循以下规则。
Use a comma or colon to attribute a quote. 使用逗号或冒号为引文署名。
For example: 例如
He said: “it was a big mistake.” 他说"这是一个很大的错误"
He said, “it was a big mistake.” 他说，"这是一个很大的错误"。
. “It was a big mistake,” he said. ."他说："这是一个很大的错误。
Attribute the quote as early as possible. Don’t leave the reader wondering who is speaking until the very end of the passage. 尽可能早地为引文命名。不要让读者到段落最后才知道是谁在说话。
Use English quotation marks ("…"), not any other variation ( n...^('')n . . .{ }^{\prime \prime} ). 使用英文引号（"......"），不要使用任何其他变体（ n...^('')n . . .{ }^{\prime \prime} ）。
In general, it’s best to use the word “said” for attribution. Other words such as “remarked” and “opined” may seem more sophisticated, but they make your writing unnecessarily complicated. 一般来说，最好使用 "说 "来表示归属。其他词语，如 "评论 "和 "认为 "可能看起来更复杂，但它们会使你的写作变得不必要的复杂。
WORDS AND PHRASES TO HELP YOU TO LINK PARAGRAPHS 帮助您连接段落的单词和短语
To compare one thing to another 将一种事物与另一种事物进行比较
Similarly, 同样、
In the same way, 同样的道理、
This is also true for… 这对...
To contrast two things 对比两件事
However, 然而
A different view is… 不同的观点是...
That being said, 话虽如此
To indicate an effect 表示效果
Consequently, 因此、
Therefore, 因此
For this reason, 因此
To add more information 添加更多信息
It could also be said… 也可以说...
Additionally, 此外、
What is more, 更重要的是
To conclude 最后
To summarise, 总而言之、
In summary, 总而言之
To conclude, 总之、
In conclusion, 总之、
Ultimately, 归根结底
On the whole, 总的来说
CHAPTER 9 第 9 章
HOW TO WRITE A 如何撰写
SHORT STORY
This chapter is not aimed at people who want to become professional storytellers. It’s for people who are uncomfortable with writing stories and are suddenly confronted with this task in an English exam. 本章并非针对想要成为专业故事讲述者的人。它针对的是那些不擅长写故事，却在英语考试中突然面临这项任务的人。
That being said, the ability to write a good story is not only useful in exams. Storytelling is a valuable life skill that can be used across various disciplines. 尽管如此，写好故事的能力不仅在考试中有用。讲故事是一项宝贵的生活技能，可用于各个学科。
For example, if you’re in marketing, you may be called upon to sell the story of your product. 例如，如果你是营销人员，你可能会被要求推销产品的故事。
When applying for a job, you will need to tell the story of how you have reached this point in your career. 在求职时，您需要讲述自己是如何走到今天这一步的。
If you’re pitching for a new client, you will need to tell the story of how you have helped other clients. 如果您要争取新客户，您需要讲述您如何帮助其他客户的故事。
There aren’t many good storytellers out there, so if you grasp the basics, you will stand out. 优秀的讲故事者并不多，因此，如果你掌握了基础知识，就能脱颖而出。
Let’s look at some simple techniques you can employ to improve your story writing today. 今天就让我们来看看一些简单的技巧，让你的故事写作更上一层楼。
THE UNBREAKABLE RULES OF WRITING STILL APPLY 写作的不二法则依然适用
Don’t discard everything you know about writing in the belief that writing a story is different because it is a “creative” task. 不要因为写故事是一项 "创造性 "的工作，就认为它与众不同，而抛弃你所知道的一切写作知识。
You still need to keep your writing simple, plan what you’re going to write, and organise your work clearly. 你仍然需要保持写作的简洁性，计划好你要写的内容，并清晰地组织你的工作。
Don’t be thrown off by the word “creative.” Whenever you write anything - e-mails and letters for example - you are creating. 不要被 "创造性 "这个词所迷惑。无论何时你写任何东西，例如电子邮件和信件，你都是在创作。
All writing is an exercise in creativity, so when writing a story, “I’m just not a creative person” is an invalid excuse. 所有的写作都是对创造力的锻炼，因此在写故事时，"我不是一个有创造力的人 "是一个无效的借口。
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF STORY STRUCTURE 故事结构的基本原理
Readers are not expecting you to produce the next Harry Potter, but they do expect you to understand the basics of storytelling. 读者并不指望你能写出下一部《哈利-波特》，但他们希望你了解讲故事的基本知识。
Fortunately, as most of us have grown up listening to, reading, and watching stories, we all know how to tell them. 幸运的是，由于我们大多数人都是听着、读着和看着故事长大的，我们都知道如何讲故事。
That being said, it is worth looking at some theory so that you can be sure you are hitting the right markers. 尽管如此，还是值得研究一些理论，这样才能确保您击中了正确的目标。
Most stories adhere to Aristotle’s “three-act structure.” All this really means is that stories should have a beginning, middle, and end. You’d be surprised at how many student stories have a beginning and an end, but no middle, or lack an end. 大多数故事都遵循亚里士多德的 "三幕结构"。这实际上意味着故事应该有开头、中间和结尾。你会惊讶于有多少学生的故事有开头和结尾，却没有中间，或者缺少结尾。
The best way to avoid this mistake is by splitting your story into three parts: 避免这一错误的最佳方法是将故事分成三个部分：
What happens at the beginning of the story (set up)? 故事开头发生了什么？
What happens in the middle of the story (confrontation/ challenges)? 故事中间发生了什么（对抗/挑战）？
What happens at the end of the story (climax/ resolution)? 故事结尾发生了什么（高潮/结局）？
Ordinarily, the beginning and end sections will be much shorter than the middle part, because the middle section is where most of the action happens. 通常，开头和结尾部分会比中间部分短得多，因为中间部分是大部分动作发生的地方。
It’s also a good idea to check whether you have resolved the situation you set up at the beginning of your story. This is what creates the moment of catharsis at the end. When stories lack catharsis, the reader feels unsatisfied. 此外，检查是否已经解决了故事开头设置的情境也是一个好主意。这就是故事结尾的宣泄时刻。如果故事缺乏宣泄，读者就会感到不满足。
With this in mind, your story plan might look something like this: 考虑到这一点，你的故事计划可能会是这样的：
Introduction to Julian. He gets a phone call from his wife, she is in labour. 朱利安简介他接到妻子的电话，她要分娩了。
Julian drives to the hospital. There are problems along the way, and we learn a little more about him - he is an anxious man. The hospital is a maze. He goes into the wrong room. He thinks he has missed the birth. 朱利安开车前往医院。一路上问题不断，我们对他有了更多的了解--他是一个焦虑的人。医院就像一个迷宫。他走错了病房。他以为自己错过了分娩。
He finds the right room. He is at his wife’s side as she gives birth. During the birth, his anxiety slips away. But, when he looks at his child for the first time, the anxiety returns. 他找到了合适的房间。妻子分娩时，他就在身边。分娩过程中，他的焦虑逐渐消失。但是，当他第一次看到自己的孩子时，焦虑又回来了。
Notice the simplicity of the above plan? This is exactly what you are looking for. 注意到上述计划的简洁性了吗？这正是您正在寻找的。
It’s fine if your story looks boring, there’s only so much you can do in an hour-long exam. 如果你的故事看起来很无聊也没关系，一个小时的考试只能做这么多。
Just focus on getting the basics of plotting correct and on telling your story in an engaging way. 只需集中精力做好基本的情节安排，并以引人入胜的方式讲述故事。
You don’t need hundreds of plot twists, one or two in the middle section is sufficient. 你不需要数以百计的情节转折，在中间部分有一两个就足够了。
When young children begin to write stories, almost every line is a twist. 幼儿开始写故事时，几乎每一行都是一个转折。
For example, “Jon walked to school. He saw Anna. Her head fell off. Jon laughed. His head fell off. He saw a spaceship. He ran off. He saw a woman. She fell over. Her arm fell off.” 例如，"乔恩走去学校。他看见了安娜。她的头掉了下来。乔恩笑了。他的头掉了下来。他看见一艘飞船。他跑开了他看见一个女人她摔倒了她的胳膊掉了"
If you’re a child, it is excusable to include a ridiculous number of twists, but with adults it’s not quite so adorable. 如果你是个孩子，加入数量多得离谱的转折点还情有可原，但对成年人来说就不那么可爱了。
DEVELOPING A CENTRAL IDEA 发展中心思想
Your story may be simple, but there should still be a strong idea behind it. 你的故事可能很简单，但背后仍然应该有一个强有力的想法。
For example, imagine you have a story plan that looks like this: 例如，假设你有一个这样的故事计划：
An elderly woman falls over in the high street and can’t get up. 一位老妇人在大街上摔倒，再也爬不起来。
An angry businessman notices her. He tries to help her up, he can’t. He calls an ambulance and waits with her. At first, he is angry about the hold-up, but, as he begins to talk to the woman, he relaxes. 一个愤怒的商人注意到了她。他想把她扶起来，但做不到。他叫了一辆救护车，和她一起等待。起初，他对劫持事件感到愤怒，但当他开始与这位女士交谈时，他放松了下来。
The ambulance arrives. As the woman is pushed into the ambulance, her eyes meet the businessman’s, they both smile. 救护车来了。当女人被推进救护车时，她的目光与商人的目光相遇，两人都笑了。
Not a mind-blowing story, but if you identify the central idea during the planning stage, the piece will become more layered as you write it. 这不是一个震撼人心的故事，但如果在计划阶段就确定了中心思想，那么在写作过程中，作品就会变得更有层次感。
For example, you might decide the story is about the power of compassion. This will then dictate how you tell that story; you will focus on how the man’s compassion for the woman is not only helping her, but him too. 例如，您可以决定故事的主题是 "同情的力量"。这将决定你如何讲述这个故事；你将重点讲述男人对女人的同情不仅帮助了她，也帮助了他自己。
When you ask someone about the book they are reading, they rarely offer up a detailed account of the plot (unless you’re really unlucky). Instead, they’ll mention the central idea. 当你向别人询问正在阅读的书时，他们很少会详细介绍情节（除非你真的很不幸）。相反，他们会提到中心思想。
For example, “it’s about two angry soldiers who were on opposite sides during the war. At first they refuse to forgive each other, but as the story unfolds, they help each other to forgive themselves for what they did in battle.” 例如，"影片讲述了战争期间敌对双方的两名愤怒士兵的故事。起初他们拒绝原谅对方，但随着故事的发展，他们帮助对方原谅了自己在战场上的所作所为"。
Here the central idea is forgiveness - that’s where the meat is - not in the perfunctory meeting of two people. 这里的中心思想是宽恕--这才是核心所在--而不是两个人敷衍了事的会面。
When you’re writing your short story, make sure you give the central idea some thought, or the reader may begin to question why they’re reading your story. 在写短篇小说时，一定要对中心思想进行思考，否则读者可能会开始质疑为什么要读你的故事。
SET THE SCENE 设置场景
It is vital that you give your story a strong sense of place. It’s not enough to describe the setting as a “small village.” For the reader to envision this village, you need to offer more description. 赋予故事强烈的地方感至关重要。仅仅描述一个 "小村庄 "是不够的。要让读者想象出这个村庄的样子，你需要提供更多的描述。
What do you want your readers to see? What impression of the village do you want them to receive? How do you want the atmosphere to make them feel? 你想让读者看到什么？您希望读者对村庄留下怎样的印象？你想让他们感受到怎样的氛围？
Even if the setting is a well-known place, be wary of relying on readers to draw upon their own experiences. 即使背景是一个众所周知的地方，也要警惕依赖读者借鉴自己的经验。
London has been used as the backdrop for thousands of stories, and in each of these stories, the writer uses the city in a different way. 数以千计的故事都以伦敦为背景，在每一个故事中，作家都以不同的方式使用这座城市。
If you’re writing a crime story, the city might be presented as an anonymous place where danger lurks around every corner. If it is a romance, we’ll be given glorious green parks and sublime cityscapes. 如果您写的是犯罪故事，那么城市可能是一个默默无闻的地方，每个角落都潜藏着危险。如果是爱情故事，我们会看到绚丽的绿色公园和美丽的城市风景。
You don’t need to describe the setting in elaborate detail. You’re writing a short story, so you have only a certain amount of space, but you should definitely give your setting some thought. 您不需要详细描述背景。你写的是短篇小说，所以只有一定的篇幅，但你一定要考虑一下环境。
The same can be said for your characters. It’s not enough to just name them and move on.You need to offer a sense of who these people are - with at least a brief description of their appearance and temperament. 人物也是如此。仅仅说出他们的名字还不够，还需要让读者了解这些人是谁--至少简要描述一下他们的外貌和气质。
Focussing on details - not long words or flouncy language will help you to write an engaging story. 注重细节，而不是冗长的文字或华丽的语言，将有助于你写出引人入胜的故事。
BE CONSISTENT WITH WHAT CAN AND CANNOT HAPPEN IN YOUR STORY 在你的故事中能发生什么和不能发生什么保持一致
When you set the scene, you are simultaneously establishing the rules of what can and cannot happen in the world of your story. 在设置场景时，您同时也在为故事世界中能发生和不能发生的事情制定规则。
If you later break these rules, your story will lose credibility. 如果您后来违反了这些规则，您的故事就会失去可信度。
For example, if you set a story in modern day London it will compromise your readers trust in you as the author if you suddenly describe dinosaurs and robots wandering around. 例如，如果你将故事背景设定在现代伦敦，如果你突然描述恐龙和机器人四处游荡，就会影响读者对你作为作者的信任。
A story world where the author can randomly introduce things as he or she pleases is not interesting for a reader at all. 一个作者可以随意引入事物的故事世界，对读者来说根本毫无趣味可言。
The goal is to get the reader invested in the world of your story so that when something happens there is something real at stake. 我们的目标是让读者投入到你的故事世界中，这样当事情发生时，就会有真实的利害关系。
You can still include dinosaurs or robots in your story, but you need to tell us these exist at the start. 您仍然可以在故事中加入恐龙或机器人，但您需要在一开始就告诉我们这些东西的存在。
Give some thought to what can and can’t happen in your story world. Set up these rules at the beginning, and make sure not to break them. 考虑一下，在你的故事世界里，什么可以发生，什么不可以发生。在一开始就制定这些规则，并确保不会打破它们。
In this way you’ll write something that’s both imaginative and believable. 这样，你就能写出既有想象力又可信的作品。
BE CONSISTENT WITH YOUR CHOICE OF TENSE 在选择时态时要前后一致
Many students lose marks because they forget to do basic things right. 很多学生因为忘记做好基本的事情而丢分。
Being consistent with the use of tense is one common mistake - and it has a terrible impact on the overall impression of your piece. 时态使用不一致是一个常见错误，它会对文章的整体印象造成严重影响。
You can use either the present or the past tense to tell your story, but once you start writing, you must remain consistent. If you do switch tense, then this must be done intentionally and with good reason. 您可以使用现在时或过去时讲述故事，但一旦开始写作，就必须保持前后一致。如果要转换时态，则必须是有意为之，并且有充分的理由。
Remember, you don’t have to dazzle the reader by using every tense in the grammar book. 请记住，您不必把语法书上的所有时态都用得让读者眼花缭乱。
You just need to demonstrate a solid understanding of the tense that you do use. 您只需对所使用的时态表现出扎实的理解。
APPEAL TO THE SENSES 诉诸感官
The right choice of words can help you get under your reader’s skin. 正确的用词可以帮助你深入读者的内心。
Advertisers are experts at this; they use words and phrases that reach beyond our reasoning minds. 广告商是这方面的专家；他们使用的词汇和短语超越了我们的理性思维。
One method you can use to make sure you’re appealing to the senses is based on the theory that different kinds of learners prefer to absorb things in unique ways. 你可以使用一种方法来确保你的教学吸引学生的感官，这种方法的理论基础是，不同类型的学习者喜欢以独特的方式吸收知识。
visual learners enjoy pictures and images 视觉学习者喜欢图片和图像
kinaesthetic learners respond best to touch 动觉学习者对触觉反应最佳
verbal learners prefer words 语言学习者更喜欢单词
aural learners appreciate sound and music 听觉学习者欣赏声音和音乐
This may sound like pseudoscience, but it will certainly help you to produce more evocative writing. 这听起来像是伪科学，但它肯定会帮助你写出更传神的文章。
Once you realise that different people react to different types of triggers, you can incorporate a mixture of words that appeal to these different senses - smell, touch, visual, aural, etc. 一旦你意识到不同的人对不同类型的诱因有不同的反应，你就可以将吸引这些不同感官--嗅觉、触觉、视觉、听觉等--的词语混合在一起。
By incorporating a combination of these senses, you’re more likely to engage all of your audience. 将这些感官结合起来，你就更有可能吸引所有受众。
Look at the difference between these two sentences: 看看这两个句子的区别：
“Georgie walked along the beach. It was a hot and windy morning. There were seagulls in the sky.” "乔吉沿着海滩散步。那是一个炎热多风的早晨天空中飞翔着海鸥"
“Georgie looked hot and tired. She could feel the sweat dripping down her neck. The smell of the sea lingered in her nostrils. Seagulls squawked in the sky.” "乔吉看起来又热又累。她能感觉到汗水顺着脖子往下滴。她的鼻孔里萦绕着大海的味道。海鸥在天空中鸣叫"
Notice how appealing to the physical senses can bring a scene to life? 请注意，对身体感官的诉求是如何让场景栩栩如生的？
HOW TO MAKE YOUR WRITING MORE ENGAGING 如何使你的写作更吸引人
The obvious way to increase the appeal of your writing is to use more descriptive language. 要提高文章的吸引力，最明显的方法就是使用更多的描述性语言。
This doesn’t mean you have to fill your sentences with unnecessary words, just focus on describing what is happening as accurately as you can. 这并不意味着你必须在句子中填满多余的词语，只需集中精力尽可能准确地描述正在发生的事情。
For example, look at this sentence: 例如，请看这个句子：
“John went into the shop.” "约翰进了商店"
How could you paint more of a picture? 怎样才能描绘出更多的画面？
Perhaps: “Jon strolled into the sweet shop.” 也许吧"琼恩漫步走进甜品店"
This second sentence tells us more about the situation, and it’s only one word longer than the original. 第二句话告诉了我们更多的情况，而且只比原句长一个字。
Accurate descriptions help the reader imagine the situation, and bring your story to life. 准确的描述有助于读者想象当时的情景，使故事栩栩如生。
In general, I suggest sticking to shorter sentences because it reduces the risk of technical errors. 一般来说，我建议使用较短的句子，因为这样可以降低出现技术性错误的风险。
However, if you feel confident, you can sprinkle your paragraphs with longer sentences from time-to-time. 不过，如果你有信心，可以在段落中时不时地加入一些较长的句子。
The occasional use of a longer sentence changes the rhythm, building suspense and excitement. 偶尔使用一个较长的句子可以改变节奏，制造悬念和刺激。
Imagine you’re telling the story to a friend, and you need to keep their attention. There will be times when you slow the story down to build anticipation and other moments when you speed the story up to elicit excitement. 想象一下您正在给朋友讲故事，您需要吸引他们的注意力。有的时候，你会放慢故事的节奏，让他们产生期待；有的时候，你会加快故事的节奏，让他们感到兴奋。
Experiment with using the same technique in your writing. 在写作中尝试使用同样的技巧。
AVOID CLICHÉS AND IDIOMS 避免陈词滥调和成语
The use of idioms is neither engaging, nor original. 成语的使用既不吸引人，也不新颖。
Instead, good storywriters choose to describe people, places, and situations as clearly as they can. 相反，优秀的故事作家会选择尽可能清晰地描述人物、地点和场景。
The only appropriate time to use idioms is if a character uses them in speech. This can give your writing more authenticity because people do use such shortcuts in conversation. 使用成语的唯一适当时机是人物在说话时使用成语。这可以让您的文章更加真实，因为人们确实会在对话中使用这种快捷方式。
However, make sure you’re certain about how to use that idiom correctly and in the right context. Use an idiom in slightly the wrong way, and it will seem farcical. 但是，一定要确定如何在正确的语境中正确使用该成语。成语用得稍有不慎，就会显得滑稽可笑。
CHAPTER 10 第 10 章
HOW TO WRITE AN ESSAY 如何写作文
Many students complain that “essay writing is just writing for the sake of writing.” 许多学生抱怨 "作文只是为了写作而写作"。
Essay writing definitely has an image problem, but I disagree that it is pointless. 论文写作肯定存在形象问题，但我不同意论文写作毫无意义的说法。
In fact, get essay writing right, and it may be one of the most useful skills you learn. 事实上，正确的论文写作可能是你学到的最有用的技能之一。
Essay writing teaches you how to analyse both sides of an argument, express your opinion, and come to your own conclusion. 论文写作教你如何分析论点的正反两面，表达自己的观点，并得出自己的结论。
These skills will help you in your work and personal life, both of which require the ability to be objective. 这些技能将有助于你的工作和个人生活，而这两方面都需要客观的能力。
ESL examinations tend to focus on argumentative essays so, these will be the focus of this chapter. ESL 考试往往侧重于议论文，因此本章将重点讨论议论文。
In an argumentative essay, you’re asked to investigate a question and establish your own point of view on it. 在议论文中，你需要调查一个问题，并就此确立自己的观点。
Here are some typical essay questions: 以下是一些典型的作文题：
Education should be free for everyone. Discuss. 每个人都应接受免费教育。讨论。
Can video games be an effective learning tool? 电子游戏可以成为有效的学习工具吗？
Should the voting age be lowered to thirteen? 投票年龄是否应降至 13 岁？
Should wealthy nations be required to share their wealth with poorer nations? 是否应该要求富裕国家与贫穷国家分享财富？
Should the government encourage a certain number of highlevel jobs to be reserved for women? 政府是否应该鼓励为女性保留一定数量的高级职位？
English schoolchildren are taught how to answer essay questions from an early age. 英国中小学生从小就接受如何回答作文题的教育。
When I began to teach abroad, I expected my new students to have had the same education. 当我开始在国外任教时，我希望我的新生也能接受同样的教育。
Many students have never been shown how to write an essay, so, when faced with writing one, they just guess at how to structure the content and about what they should include. 许多学生从未被教导过如何写作文，因此在写作文时，他们只是猜测如何安排内容结构以及应该包括哪些内容。
Most of the components of essay writing remain the same regardless of the topic and, once you understand the mechanics, you will have a template from which to work every time you write. 无论题目如何，论文写作的大部分内容都是相同的，一旦了解了写作技巧，每次写作时就有了一个模板。
MANAGING YOUR TIME 管理时间
When writing an essay under exam conditions, your time management will determine how successful your paper is. 在考试条件下撰写论文时，时间管理将决定论文的成功与否。
As a general rule, I advise spending 25%25 \% of the time planning, 50%50 \% writing, and 25%25 \% checking and editing. 一般来说，我建议将 25%25 \% 的时间用于计划、 50%50 \% 写作以及 25%25 \% 检查和编辑。
By “planning,” I don’t mean chewing your pen and daydreaming about what you’re going to write. 我说的 "计划"，并不是指咬着笔做白日梦，想着要写什么。
I’m talking about active planning, the kind we discussed in Chapter 3. 我说的是主动规划，也就是我们在第 3 章中讨论过的那种。
As mentioned in that chapter, to plan effectively, we need to mindmap and outline. But when planning an essay, you can also include an additional step between these two stages. 正如该章所述，要想有效地制定计划，我们需要绘制思维导图和列出提纲。但是，在规划论文时，您还可以在这两个阶段之间增加一个步骤。
Before you transfer the items from your mindmap to your outline, split a blank page into the following sections: 在将思维导图中的项目转入大纲之前，先将空白页分成以下几个部分：
Introduction 导言
Arguments supporting the main idea 支持主旨的论据
Arguments against the main idea 反对主旨的论据
Conclusion 结论
This way, you’re building the essay structure into your outline. 这样，您就在提纲中构建了文章结构。
For example, having completed your mindmap, you might come up with the following: 例如，在完成思维导图后，您可能会得出以下结论：
Essay Title: Should the voting age be lowered to thirteen? 论文题目：投票年龄是否应降至13岁？
Introduction: 介绍：
The idea of lowering the voting age has been discussed in most countries at some time or other. 大多数国家或多或少都讨论过降低投票年龄的想法。
Currently, no country has a voting age as low as thirteen. 目前，没有一个国家的投票年龄低至 13 岁。
Supporting arguments: 支持性论据：
Children are the future, they should have a say in it. 孩子是未来，他们应该有发言权。
Children are growing up much faster these days. 如今，孩子们的成长速度越来越快。
Voting will encourage children to take an interest in politics. 投票将鼓励儿童对政治产生兴趣。
Arguments against: 反对理由
A thirteen year old lacks the knowledge required to make a political decision. 十三岁的孩子缺乏做出政治决定所需的知识。
Thirteen year olds are too impressionable; they are easily influenced by marketing and their parents. 13 岁的孩子太容易受影响，他们很容易受到市场营销和父母的影响。
Most thirteen year olds have no interest in voting. 大多数十三岁的孩子对投票毫无兴趣。
Conclusion: 结论
Sixteen should be the lowest voting age. 16 岁应该是最低投票年龄。
As you can see, if you plan correctly, you can do much of the hard work before you start writing. 正如您所看到的，如果计划得当，您可以在开始写作之前就完成大部分艰苦的工作。
ANSWER THE QUESTION 回答问题
This sounds obvious, but many students either fail to read the question properly, misinterpret it, or instantly depart from it when they begin to write. 这听起来显而易见，但许多学生要么没有正确阅读问题，要么曲解问题，要么在开始写作时立即偏离问题。
A common mistake is to discuss the topic rather than the question. 一个常见的错误是讨论主题而不是问题。
For example, let’s say the essay question is, “Should the voting age be lowered to sixteen?” 例如，假设作文题是 "投票年龄是否应降至 16 岁"？
Many students see the word “voting,” and start writing about this topic, rarely coming back to the actual question at all. 很多学生看到 "投票 "一词，就开始写这个话题，很少回到实际问题上来。
This is a huge mistake because it appears as though you haven’t understood the question and have resorted to discussing the only word you understood. 这是一个巨大的错误，因为你似乎没有理解问题，而只是在讨论你唯一理解的词。
Good planning should help maintain focus but, while you are writing, it’s also worth glancing at the question from time to time to make sure you haven’t wandered off topic. 良好的计划应有助于保持注意力集中，但在写作过程中，也应不时瞥一眼问题，以确保没有偏离主题。
ENSURE YOUR ESSAY HAS BALANCE 确保文章平衡
A good essay shows both sides of the argument and gives each side equal weight. 一篇好的文章应展示论点的正反两面，并给予每一面同等的权重。
Many students spend too much time discussing the points they agree with and neglecting the points they disagree with. 许多学生花太多时间讨论他们同意的观点，而忽略了他们不同意的观点。
The result is that the essay becomes very lopsided. 其结果是，文章变得非常片面。
If you spend more time arguing for one side than the other, you will lose the readers’ trust. 如果你花更多的时间为一方争辩，就会失去读者的信任。
They’ll realise that you have made your own mind up, and are now trying to convince them to agree with your standpoint. 他们会意识到你已经有了自己的想法，现在正试图说服他们同意你的观点。
Ultimately, it begins to feel a bit like brainwashing - and no one wants that. 归根结底，这有点像洗脑--谁也不想这样。
Even if you strongly disagree with one side of the argument, you still need to put yourself in the shoes of someone who wholeheartedly supports that position. 即使你非常不同意争论的一方，你仍然需要设身处地地为全心全意支持该立场的人着想。
KEEP YOUR WRITING FORMAL 行文流畅
For most types of writing, the line between formal and informal is blurry and, as long as you don’t stray too far one way or other, you’ll be fine. 对于大多数类型的写作来说，正式与非正式之间的界限很模糊，只要你不偏离太远，就不会有问题。
However, an essay is an academic text that is designed to be more formal, so overly informal essays stand out - and not 然而，论文是一种学术文本，其目的是为了更加正式，因此，过于不正式的论文会引人注目--而不是
in a positive way. 以积极的方式。
Essays that are too informal tend to seem immature and lacking in authority. 过于随意的文章往往显得不成熟，缺乏权威性。
I sometimes see sentences like: “I guess some people don’t give a crap about the planet, but we’ve got to start thinking about it right away.” 我有时会看到这样的句子"我猜有些人根本不在乎地球的死活" "但我们必须马上开始考虑这个问题"
Writing an essay in such an informal tone detracts from the authority of the author, and, in an exam, you will receive a lower score for iti t. 用这种不正式的语气写文章会降低作者的权威性，在考试中，你会因为 iti t 而得到较低的分数。
HOW TO STRUCTURE YOUR ESSAY 如何安排文章结构
Understanding how to structure an essay is vital if you want to achieve top marks. 如果您想获得高分，了解如何安排文章结构至关重要。
Structuring an essay is simple to learn, and once you’ve learned how to do it, you will never have to learn it again. 作文的结构很简单，一旦学会了，就再也不用学了。
Once you see how simple it is to organise an essay, you’ll understand why I become so frustrated when students fail to do it correctly. 一旦你看到组织一篇文章是如此简单，你就会明白为什么当学生不能正确组织文章时，我会如此沮丧。
This is how you should structure an essay: 这就是你应该如何组织文章的结构：
Introduction (1 paragraph): Demonstrate that you have understood the question and capture the reader’s interest. 引言（1 段）：表明您已理解问题，并吸引读者的兴趣。
Reasons to support the proposition (2-3 paragraphs): Three reasons are usually enough - unless you’re writing a much longer essay. 支持命题的理由（2-3 段）：通常三个理由就足够了--除非你要写一篇更长的文章。
Reasons to reject the proposition (2-3 paragraphs): Again, three reasons are usually sufficient. 拒绝命题的理由（2-3 段）：同样，三个理由通常就足够了。
Conclusion (1 paragraph): Restate the main points you have mentioned, which you consider the most important. 结论（1 段）：重述您提到的要点，您认为哪些要点最重要。
Your opinion (1 paragraph): Give your own point of view on the question. Make sure you’re still answering the question you set out to address at the start. 你的观点（1 段）：就问题发表自己的观点。确保你仍在回答开头提出的问题。
Once you’ve written a few essays using this structure, you’ll automatically begin to organise your work in this way. 一旦你用这种结构写过几篇文章，你就会自动开始用这种方式组织你的工作。
You’ll also be able to tell whether your essay is well written just by the shape of the paragraphing on the page. 您还可以通过页面上段落的形状来判断文章是否写得好。
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE CONCLUSION AND YOUR OWN OPINION 结论与您自己的意见之间的区别
Students often struggle to differentiate between the content of the last two steps, so they make the mistake of merging them into one discussion point. The two, however, are actually quite distinct. 学生通常很难区分最后两个步骤的内容，因此他们会错误地将这两个步骤合并为一个讨论点。然而，这两个步骤实际上是截然不同的。
In the conclusion, you reiterate the points you’ve discussed that you deem to be the most important in shaping your own opinion. 在结论部分，你要重申你所讨论过的、你认为对形成你自己的观点最重要的观点。
This is not the time to introduce new points. The opportunity for that has passed; introducing new points at this stage will cause confusion. 现在不是引入新要点的时候。机会已经过去；在现阶段引入新要点会造成混乱。
Based on the points you have made in the conclusion, give your own opinion in the final paragraph. This is your answer to the initial essay question, having considered all the factors. 根据您在结论中提出的观点，在最后一段中发表您自己的看法。这是你在考虑了所有因素后对最初作文问题的回答。
HOW TO STRUCTURE A PARAGRAPH 如何安排段落结构
As essay writing is an academic discipline, structuring paragraphs correctly is critical. 论文写作是一门学术，正确地安排段落结构至关重要。
If you understand how to structure a paragraph, this knowledge will also help you with other writing tasks. 如果您了解了段落的结构，这些知识也将有助于您完成其他写作任务。
For example, if a paragraph in an e-mail you’ve written looks confusing and disorganised, you may be able to restructure that paragraph by using the techniques you’ve learned here. 例如，如果你写的电子邮件中的某个段落看起来混乱无序，你也许可以利用在这里学到的技巧来调整该段落的结构。
It’s helpful to look at each paragraph as a mini-essay that contains three parts. 将每个段落看作是一篇包含三个部分的小论文，会很有帮助。
Topic sentence. 主题句。
The main idea of the paragraph. 段落大意。
For example, “in order to write well, you must remember two important things.” 例如，"为了写好文章，你必须记住两件重要的事情"。
2. Supporting sentences. 2.辅助句。
This section develops the topic sentence by providing additional information. 本节通过提供补充信息来发展主题句。
For example, “firstly, you must plan out what you want to say before you begin to write. Secondly, you need to edit your writing.” 例如，"首先，在开始写作之前，你必须计划好你想说的话。其次，你需要修改你的文章"。
3. Concluding sentence. 3.总结句。
Indicates that we have reached the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with the important points to remember. 表示本段已经结束，给读者留下需要记住的要点。
For example, “if you plan and edit, you will see an instant improvement in your writing.” 例如，"如果你进行计划和编辑，你就会发现自己的写作水平立即得到了提高"。
When we put all of the parts of the paragraph together, it looks like this: 当我们把该段的所有部分放在一起时，它看起来是这样的：
“In order to write well, you must remember two important things. Firstly, you must plan what you want to say before you begin to write. Secondly, you need to edit your writing when you have finished. If you plan and edit, you will see an instant improvement in your writing.” "为了写好文章，你必须记住两件重要的事情。首先，在开始写作之前，你必须计划好你想说的话。其次，写完后要进行修改。如果你做好计划并加以修改，你就会发现自己的写作水平立即得到了提高"。
If your essay is full of overly long paragraphs or paragraphs that are too short, look at what you have written again, keeping in mind the structural model you’ve just learned. 如果您的文章中出现段落过长或段落过短的情况，请再次阅读您所写的内容，并牢记您刚刚学到的结构模式。
HOW NOT TO START YOUR ESSAY 如何不以文章开头
I understand that you may be unhappy at having to write an essay, but this doesn’t mean you should tell the reader that. 我理解你可能对不得不写文章感到不满，但这并不意味着你应该告诉读者这一点。
Students often start their essays with, “my teacher has asked me to write an essay about…” 学生在作文开头往往会说："老师让我写一篇关于......的作文"。
Hardly the most inspiring start, is it? 这不是最鼓舞人心的开始吗？
People don’t want to hear from a reluctant author, they want to feel like you care. 人们不希望听到一个不情愿的作者的声音，他们希望感受到你的关心。
The opening line of an essay has three functions: 文章的开头有三个作用：
To capture the readers’ attention and draw them into the debate. 抓住读者的注意力，吸引他们参与辩论。
To demonstrate you have understood the question. 证明您已理解问题。
To introduce the topic you will discuss. 介绍你们将要讨论的主题。
One way to meet both requirements is to rephrase the essay question in a dynamic way. 满足这两项要求的方法之一是以动态的方式重新表述作文题。
For example: 例如
“At what age were you mature enough to vote? This is one of the issues I will be touching upon in this discussion about whether the voting age should be lowered to thirteen.” "你几岁可以投票？这是我在讨论是否应将投票年龄降至 13 岁时要触及的问题之一"。
PHRASES AND WORDS FOR LINKING PARAGRAPHS 连接段落的短语和词语
Most people understand the importance of using linking phrases between sentences. 大多数人都知道在句子之间使用连接短语的重要性。
For example, “one reason people play computer games is to escape. As well as this, they also like the sense of competition.” 例如，"人们玩电脑游戏的原因之一是为了逃避。除此之外，他们还喜欢竞争的感觉"。
However, it is important to use linking phrases to introduce new paragraphs, too. This will help your writing to flow and ensure better grades in writing exams. 不过，使用连接短语引入新段落也很重要。这将有助于你的写作流畅，确保在写作考试中取得更好的成绩。
Linking phrases ensure the reader no longer has to guess at the connection between two paragraphs. Transitions do this work for your reader, meaning they can concentrate on your content. 链接短语可确保读者不必再猜测两个段落之间的联系。过渡句为读者完成了这项工作，这意味着他们可以专注于您的内容。
I have listed some linking words and phrases at the end of this chapter for you to start using right away. 我在本章末尾列出了一些关联词和短语，你可以马上开始使用。
Please be wary of using the same one over and over. 请警惕重复使用同一内容。
Repetition will draw unwanted attention to that linking phrase, and you’ll lose the illusion of flow. 重复会将不必要的注意力吸引到连接短语上，从而失去流畅的错觉。
"PROS" AND "CONS" "优点 "和 "缺点"
I suggest avoiding the above two words altogether. 我建议完全避免使用上述两个词。
Firstly, they are too informal for an essay, and secondly, students often misuse them. 首先，它们对于作文来说太不正式，其次，学生经常滥用它们。
For example, look at this essay prompt: 例如，请看这篇作文的提示：
“There are too many people in the world, so adults should consider having fewer children. Discuss.” "世界上的人太多了，所以成年人应该考虑少生孩子。请讨论"。
If, when writing your essay, you only discuss the “pros” and “cons” of a person having children, you are not addressing the core topic. The question is not, “Does having children enrich a person’s life?” 如果在写作文时，你只讨论一个人有孩子的 "利 "和 "弊"，那你就没有触及核心话题。问题不是 "生孩子是否会丰富一个人的生活？
As you can see, this is a very easy trap to fall into, which is why I suggest avoiding the words “pros” and “cons”. 正如你所看到的，这是一个非常容易陷入的陷阱，这就是为什么我建议避免使用 "优点 "和 "缺点 "这两个词。
Don’t just replace “pros and cons” with “for and against.” Not only is this overly informal, but it is also confusing for the reader who must keep checking the essay question to remind themselves what “for” and “against” represent. 不要仅仅用 "赞成和反对 "来代替 "赞成和反对"。这不仅过于随意，而且会让读者感到困惑，因为他们必须不断查看作文题目，以提醒自己 "赞成 "和 "反对 "代表什么。
Instead, use some of the useful phrases at the end of this chapter. 相反，可以使用本章末尾的一些实用短语。
For example, “some might say that people should have fewer children because…” 例如，"有人可能会说，人们应该少生孩子，因为......"
Notice how this kind of phrase forces you to stay on topic? 注意到这种措辞是如何迫使你紧扣主题的吗？
DO YOUR RESEARCH 调查研究
If you are writing under exam conditions, this section does not apply. However, if you’re composing an essay for coursework, you should research the subject you are writing about. 如果您是在考试条件下写作，本节内容并不适用。但是，如果您是为课程作业撰写论文，则应研究您要写的主题。
I suggest approaching research by first going through the usual planning phases. After that, consider your arguments from both sides of the proposition and research quotes or statistics to support these points of view. 我建议在进行研究时，首先要经历常规的规划阶段。然后，从命题的正反两方面考虑你的论点，并研究支持这些观点的引文或统计数据。
The reason I suggest doing the research after the planning stage is that it means you will only be searching for the specific points you need. 我之所以建议在规划阶段之后再做研究，是因为这意味着您只需搜索您需要的具体要点。
If you dive into the research first, the likelihood of you stealing other people’s ideas rather than forming your own is much higher. 如果你先潜心研究，那么你窃取他人想法而不是形成自己想法的可能性就会大大增加。
This is a dangerous situation to be in, and you may inadvertently plagiarise. 这种情况很危险，您可能会在不经意间抄袭。
Finally, if you use a quote, at the very least, you must include a note citing where it first appeared and on what date. 最后，如果您使用了引文，至少必须在注释中注明引文首次出现的地点和日期。
Whether you put this information in footnotes or in brackets after the quotation depends on the style guide you are following. 这些信息是放在脚注中还是放在引文后的括号中，取决于您所遵循的文体指南。
There are many contradictory rules surrounding referencing, so ask your teacher if you’re unsure about which guidelines you are supposed to follow. 关于参考文献有许多相互矛盾的规定，如果您不确定应该遵循哪些准则，请询问老师。
SAVE YOUR OPINION FOR THE END 把你的意见留到最后
Often, you will form your opinion as soon as you read the essay question. 通常情况下，您一读到作文题就会形成自己的观点。
There is a strong temptation to reveal this opinion immediately, but remember, if you give your opinion in the first sentence, there is little point in anyone reading the rest of the essay. 有一种强烈的诱惑会让你立即表露这种观点，但请记住，如果你在第一句话中就表露了你的观点，那么别人阅读文章的其余部分就没有什么意义了。
You should only offer your opinion at the very end of the essay, having laid out the arguments for both sides. 只有在文章的最后，在阐述了正反两方面的论点之后，您才可以提出自己的观点。
For this reason, be wary of littering your essays with phrases such as ‘personally,’ ‘in my opinion,’ ‘I think,’ etc., because each time you use them, you are giving an opinion. 因此，在文章中不要使用 "我个人"、"在我看来"、"我认为 "等短语，因为每次使用这些短语时，你都是在发表意见。
The only place we should see such phrases is at the very end. 只有在结尾处，我们才能看到这样的短语。
On the other hand, sometimes you may not have an opinion on the subject at all. 另一方面，有时你可能根本不会对这个问题发表意见。
If this is the case, it is perfectly acceptable to admit you’re not sure which side of the argument has more merit. 如果是这样的话，承认自己不确定哪一方的观点更有道理是完全可以接受的。
In fact, this is an excellent way to finish an essay because it shows that you are able to weigh up both sides of an argument, and then, having realised both sides have merit, you are now unsure which is right. 事实上，这是完成一篇文章的绝佳方式，因为它表明你能够权衡论点的正反两方面，然后，在意识到正反两方面都有可取之处后，你现在不确定哪一方是正确的。
In practice, your final paragraph might include something like this: 实际上，你的最后一段可能包括这样的内容：
“One could make a very good argument for either side of the debate, and I remain unsure as to whether the initial statement is correct. In order to reach a more concrete conclusion, I would need to delve deeper into some of the ideas in this essay.” "人们可以为辩论的任何一方提出很好的论据，我仍然不确定最初的说法是否正确。为了得出更具体的结论，我需要更深入地研究这篇文章中的一些观点"。
Remember, the final stages of your essay should leave the reader questioning their own view on the subject and interested in finding out more. 请记住，文章的最后阶段应该让读者质疑自己对主题的看法，并有兴趣了解更多信息。
Endings such as this one should be avoided at all costs: 像这样的结局应该尽量避免：
“in conclusion, that is what I think about the question I have been told to write about.” "总之，这就是我对要我写的问题的看法"
Essay Sample 论文样本
For your reference, I’ve included a sample essay below. 以下是一篇范文，供您参考。
It is short, but ESL students will rarely need to write an essay that is longer than this for their English exams. 这篇文章很短，但 ESL 学生在英语考试中很少需要写比这篇文章更长的文章。
Essay Title: Should the voting age be lowered to thirteen? 论文题目：投票年龄是否应降至13岁？
Whether the voting age should be lowered is a recurring political question. To reach a better understanding of both sides of the argument, let us look at each in turn. 是否应该降低投票年龄是一个反复出现的政治问题。为了更好地理解正反两方面的论点，让我们逐一进行分析。
Those who believe the voting age should be lowered to thirteen argue that children are the future, and they should have a say in their own lives. In most countries, elections only take place every four years, so if the voting age is eighteen, young people might have to wait until they are twenty-two to vote. Lowering the age to thirteen would ensure this does not happen and give young people the opportunity to shape their own future. 认为投票年龄应降至 13 岁的人认为，儿童是未来，他们应该对自己的生活有发言权。在大多数国家，选举每四年才举行一次，因此如果投票年龄是 18 岁，年轻人可能要等到 22 岁才能投票。将投票年龄降至 13 岁将确保这种情况不会发生，并让年轻人有机会塑造自己的未来。
Another reason for lowering the voting age is that children are growing up much faster these days. Many parents are busy, so thirteen-year-olds do a lot of things for themselves. If they have these adult responsibilities, they should surely be allowed to vote, too. 降低投票年龄的另一个原因是，如今儿童的成长速度越来越快。许多父母都很忙，因此 13 岁的孩子会为自己做很多事情。如果他们有这些成人责任，当然也应该允许他们投票。
Thirdly, lowering the voting age will encourage children to take an interest in politics from an early age. Politics is a vital part of society, and children should not be shielded from it. 第三，降低投票年龄将鼓励儿童从小对政治产生兴趣。政治是社会的重要组成部分，不应将儿童排除在外。
On the other hand, some people maintain that the voting age should remain as it is. One reason for this is that parents might unduly influence their children, telling them who to vote for and, in effect, give the parents an extra vote. 另一方面，有些人认为投票年龄应保持不变。原因之一是父母可能会对子女施加不适当的影响，告诉他们应该投谁的票，这实际上给父母增加了一票。
Similarly, thirteen-year-olds are very vulnerable to advertising. They will be unable to distinguish the truth, and so election campaigns will use marketing tactics that act very much like brainwashing. 同样，13 岁的孩子很容易受到广告的影响。他们无法辨别真伪，因此竞选活动会使用类似洗脑的营销手段。
Finally, people who disagree with lowering the voting age believe that thirteen-year-olds do not know enough about politics to make an informed decision. Children need to be educated before they can vote, and then, when they are adults, they will have the skills and knowledge to make a balanced decision. 最后，不同意降低投票年龄的人认为，13 岁的孩子对政治了解不够，无法做出明智的决定。孩子们在投票前需要接受教育，然后，当他们成年后，他们就会拥有做出平衡决定的技能和知识。
As you can see, there are valid arguments on both sides of the debate. However, the fact that impressionable children could be unduly influenced by the views of their parents and marketing strategies is a huge concern. 正如您所看到的，辩论双方的观点都有道理。然而，易受影响的儿童可能会受到父母观点和营销策略的不当影响，这一点令人十分担忧。
For that reason, I think the voting age should not be lowered for the time being. 因此，我认为投票年龄暂时不应降低。
USEFUL PHRASES 实用短语
Introductory phrases 介绍性短语
In this essay, I will discuss… 在这篇文章中，我将讨论...
That is one of the issues I will be discussing in this essay. 这就是我将在本文中讨论的问题之一。
Let us look at some of the arguments from both sides of the debate. 让我们看看辩论双方的一些论点。
Transitioning between for and against 在赞成与反对之间过渡
At the other end of the spectrum, some believe that… 另一方面，有些人认为...
On the other hand, there are those who believe that… 另一方面，也有人认为...
However, other people have a different view entirely. 然而，其他人却有完全不同的看法。
We have looked at some arguments that support the proposition, so now let us discuss the viewpoints of those who reject it. 我们已经了解了一些支持这一命题的论据，现在让我们来讨论一下那些反对这一命题的人的观点。
Others might say that… 其他人可能会说
Others might argue that… 其他人可能会说...
Linking words and phrases 关联词和短语
Some people might argue that… 有些人可能会说...
Some might say that… 有人可能会说
For that reason, 正因为如此
That being said, 话虽如此
Firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally, 首先，其次，第三，最后、
Similarly, 同样、
Furthermore, 此外
In addition to this, 除此之外、
However, 然而
Also, 还有
Concluding sentences 结束语
There are valid arguments on both sides of the debate. 辩论双方的观点都有道理。
It is a very complicated issue, and there are no easy answers. 这是一个非常复杂的问题，没有简单的答案。
Giving your opinion 发表意见
In my opinion, 我认为
Personally, I think… 我个人认为
My own point of view is… 我自己的观点是
Having considered both sides of the argument, I believe… 在考虑了正反两方面的论点之后，我认为...
CONCLUSION 结 论
In this book, I have covered the areas that foreign learners of English find most problematic when writing in English. 在本书中，我介绍了外国英语学习者在用英语写作时发现最棘手的问题。
If you follow the rules I have mentioned your writing will improve dramatically. 如果你能遵守我提到的规则，你的写作水平将得到显著提高。
I have attempted to include chapters on all of the different types of writing tasks you will face. However, if you need to complete a writing task I have neglected to mention, I will do my best to help you with it. You can find my contact details on my website, www.tomczaban.com. 我试图将你将面临的所有不同类型的写作任务都包含在章节中。但是，如果你需要完成我忽略的写作任务，我会尽力帮助你完成。您可以在我的网站 www.tomczaban.com 上找到我的联系方式。
My goal has been to present you with the necessary tools to improve your writing in a simple and straightforward way. 我的目标是向你提供必要的工具，以简单明了的方式提高你的写作水平。
Even so, there is still a chance you may get tangled in the rules and suggestions that govern the English language. 即便如此，您仍有可能被英语语言的规则和建议所困扰。
If this happens, take a step back and adjust your perspective. 如果出现这种情况，请退后一步，调整自己的视角。
You may be hearing a lot of these concepts for the first time, so don’t expect to absorb everything immediately. 您可能是第一次听到这些概念，因此不要指望马上就能吸收所有内容。
Implement what you can remember in your upcoming writing tasks, and continue to use this book as a reference. 在接下来的写作任务中落实你能记住的内容，并继续使用本书作为参考。
Learning to write well in English is like learning anything. At first the new principles are completely alien to you. Then you understand the principles but forget to implement them. Next you begin to implement them consciously. And finally the principles become second nature to you. 学习写好英语就像学习任何东西一样。一开始，新的原则对你来说完全陌生。然后，你理解了这些原则，却忘记了去执行它们。接下来，你开始有意识地执行它们。最后，这些原则就成了你的第二天性。
Wanting to improve is excellent, but it’s important to be kind to yourself, too. Remember that expressing yourself clearly is a far more sensible target than “to never make any mistakes again.” 想要进步固然很好，但善待自己也很重要。请记住，清晰地表达自己是比 "永远不再犯错 "更明智的目标。
Be wary of comparing your writing to the work of others. Instead, compare the writing that you produce today to the 警惕将自己的写作与他人的作品相比较。相反，应将自己今天的写作与
writing you produced in the past. 你过去创作的作品。
Even professional writers will tell you their writing continues to evolve with practice. As long as you’re noticing an improvement in the clarity of your communication, give yourself a pat on the back. 即使是专业作家也会告诉你，他们的写作在实践中不断发展。只要你发现自己的交流清晰度有所提高，就应该为自己鼓掌。
Beware of setting your standards so high that you lose heart and give up. Be realistic about your current writing level and celebrate your victories. 谨防把标准定得太高，以至于失去信心而放弃。对自己目前的写作水平要有现实的认识，并庆祝自己的胜利。
Finally, avoid the temptation of buying many more books in an attempt to improve your writing. Often this is just a way to avoid practicing what you’ve already learned. 最后，要避免为了提高写作水平而购买更多书籍的诱惑。通常，这只是一种逃避练习已学知识的方式。
Remember, people have learned skills without the use of study aids, but no one has ever learned anything without practice. 请记住，人们可以在不使用学习辅助工具的情况下学到技能，但没有人可以在不练习的情况下学到任何东西。
About The Author 关于作者
Tom Czaban (BA, MA) is a teacher, editor, and writer. Having taught English writing courses for the past ten years, he is now accepting foreign students of English for online writing coaching. He also teaches writing workshops to English language learners (based on the methods in this book). To find out more, you can contact him via his website (www.tomczaban.com) Tom Czaban（文学学士、硕士）是一名教师、编辑和作家。在过去的十年里，他一直教授英语写作课程，现在接受外国英语学生的在线写作指导。他还为英语学习者开设写作讲习班（以本书中的方法为基础）。如需了解更多信息，您可以通过他的网站 ( www.tomczaban.com) 与他联系。
1.
Printed in Great Britain by Amazon 亚马逊在英国印刷
ISBN 9798684820076 国际标准书号 9798684820076
1 Irvine Welsh is a novelist and playwright who is known for writing with a thick Scottish accent. It can be difficult to understand what his characters are saying due to the strong dialect. 1 艾尔文-威尔士（Irvine Welsh）是一位小说家和剧作家，以浓重的苏格兰口音著称。由于方言浓重，很难理解他笔下的人物在说什么。
4 The American author, Jack Kerouac, was known for his tree-flowing and spontaneous writing style 4 美国作家杰克-凯鲁亚克（Jack Kerouac）以其行云流水、随心所欲的写作风格而著称
5 You will learn more about topic statements in chapter 10. 5 您将在第 10 章中了解更多有关主题语句的内容。
6 When yot ante the attran it the beginning of the sentence, you can 6 在句子的开头使用 "attran "时，您可以
