THINKING THROUGH
AN INTRODUCTION TO
CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY
思考当代哲学导论

Thinking It Through  深思熟虑

OXFORD 奥克斯

CONTENTS  目 录

CHAPTER 2: KNOWLEDGE 39
第 2 章 知识知识 39

CHAPTER 4: SCIENCE 127
第 4 章：科学 127

CHAPTER 5: MORALITY 177
第 5 章：道德 177

CHAPTER 6: POLITICS 221
第 6 章：政治 221

CHAPTER 8: METAPHYSICS 299
第 8 章：形而上学 299

CHAPTER 9: PHILOSOPHY 339
第 9 章：哲学 339

PREFACE 前言

INTRODUCTION 引言

A Few Preliminaries 一些前言

CHAPTER 1 第 1 章

Mind 思想

1.1 Introduction 1.1 导言

1.2 Descartes: The beginnings of modern philosophy of mind
1.2 笛卡尔：现代心灵哲学的开端

1.3 The private-language argument
1.3 私语参数

G: Call it "green" only if it's green.
G：只有绿色的才叫 "绿色"。

1.4 Computers as models of the mind
1.4 作为思维模型的计算机

1.5 Why should there be a functionalist theory?
1.5 为什么要有功能主义理论？

1.6 Functionalism: A first problem
1.6 功能主义：第一个问题

1.7 A simple-minded functionalist theory of pain
1.7 思想简单的功能主义疼痛理论

1.8 Ramsey's solution to the first problem
1.8 拉姆齐对第一个问题的解答

1.9 Functionalism: A second problem
1.9 功能主义：第二个问题

1.10 again 1.10 again

1.11 Consciousness 1.11 意识

And to Dennett one might say:
对于登尼特，人们可能会说

1.12 The puzzle of the physical
1.12 物理之谜

1.13 Conclusion 1.13 结论

CHAPTER 2 第 2 章

Knowledge 知识

2.1 Introduction 2.1 导言

2.2 Plato: Knowledge as justified true belief
2.2 柏拉图知识是合理的真实信念

2.3 Descartes' way: Justification requires certainty
2.3 笛卡尔的方法：正义需要确定性

2.4 Locke's way: Justification can be less than certain
2.4 洛克的方式：正义可以不那么确定

The obvious thing to do is to weaken the justification condition, to require not indefeasible evidence but just good evidence. As Moore pointed out, we normally take it that we know that we have hands, even though we do not have indefeasible evidence that we have them. The evidence that we have hands-which is the evidence of our senses-is strong evidence, even if it isn't strong enough to satisfy Descartes.

2.5 The foundations of knowledge
2.5 知识的基础

2.6 Ways around skepticism I: Verificationism
2.6 绕过怀疑论的方法 I．验证主义

2.7 Ways around skepticism II: Causal theories of knowledge
2.7 摆脱怀疑论的途径之二：知识的因果理论

2.8 Causal theories contrasted with traditional accounts of justification
2.8 因果理论与传统的理由说明的对比

2.9 Epistemology naturalized
2.9 认识论归化

2.10 Conclusion 2.10 结论

CHAPTER 3 第 3 章

Language 语言

3.1 Introduction 3.1 导言

3.2 The linguistic turn
3.2 语言学转向

3.3 The beetle in the box
3.3 盒子里的甲虫

3.4 Frege's "sense" and "reference"
3.4 弗雷格的 "意义 "和 "参照"

3.5 Predicates and open sentences
3.5 谓语和开放式句子

: - and Mary, who are friends of Peter's, sat in the garden and ate strawberries
彼得的朋友玛丽坐在花园里吃草莓。

3.6 Problems of intensionality
3.6 内在性问题

I believe that_—is Venus
我相信那_-是金星

3.7 Truth conditions and possible worlds
3.7 真实条件和可能世界

S: 2 and 2 is 4
S：2 和 2 是 4

3.8 Analytic-synthetic and necessary-contingent
3.8 分析-合成和必要条件

The Morning Star might not have been called "the Morning Star"
晨星可能不叫 "晨星"

F: The Morning Star is the Evening Star
F: 晨星就是晚星

3.9 Natural language and logical form
3.9 自然语言和逻辑形式

and , who are of 's, sat in the garden and ate strawberries.
的 和 坐在花园里吃草莓。

: Peter and Mary, who are friends of John's, sat in the garden and ate strawberries
彼得和马利亚是约翰的朋友，他们坐在花园里吃草莓。

3.10 Using logic: Truth preservation, probability, and the lottery paradox
3.10 使用逻辑：保真、概率和彩票悖论

3.11 Logical truth and logical properties
3.11 逻辑真理和逻辑性质

3.12 Conventions of language
3.12 语言习惯

3.13 The paradox of analysis
3.13 分析的悖论

K: Somebody knows something if they know it
K：有人知道什么，如果他们知道的话

3.14 Conclusion 3.14 结论

CHAPTER 4 第 4 章

Science 科学

4.1 Introduction 4.1 导言

4.2 Description and prescription
4.2 说明和处方

4.3 An example: Gregor Mendel's genetic theory
4.3 一个例子格雷戈尔-孟德尔的遗传理论

1. Certain aspects of the phenotype of an organism are determined by its genes. (These are the genetically determined characteristics).
   生物体表型的某些方面由其基因决定。(这些是由基因决定的特征）。
2. These genes may come in various types, called alleles, which differ in the consequences that their presence has for the genetically determined characteristics.
   这些基因可能有各种类型，称为等位基因，它们的存在对基因决定的特征所产生的后果各不相同。
3. Each of these genetically determined characteristics may exist in different forms-different colors of petals, for example, or textures of stem.
   每种基因决定的特征都可能以不同的形式存在--例如不同颜色的花瓣或不同质地的茎。
4. Genetically determined characteristics are produced by pairs of alleles of the gene that corresponds to them.
   由基因决定的特征是由相应基因的一对等位基因产生的。
5. Every organism gets two alleles of each gene, one from each parent.
   每个生物体的每个基因都有两个等位基因，父母各一个。
6. If an organism gets identical alleles from each of its parents, it is homozygous for that allele; otherwise it is heterozygous.
   如果一个生物从其父母那里获得的等位基因完全相同，它就是该等位基因的同种生物；否则，它就是异种生物。
7. If an organism is heterozygous for an allele , it has the genetically determined phenotypic characteristic corresponding to , which we call the phenotype.
   如果一个生物是等位基因 的杂合子，它就具有与 相对应的遗传决定的表型特征，我们称之为 表型。
8. An allele, , must exist in one of three relations to any other allele, . A can either
   等位基因 与其他等位基因 必须存在三种关系之一。A 可以是

9. If is dominant with respect to , then an organism that is heterozygous and has the genotype will have the phenotype.
   如果 相对于 是显性的，那么具有 基因型的杂合子生物将具有 表型。
10. If is recessive with respect to , then an organism that is heterozygous and has the genotype will have the phenotype.
    如果 相对于 是隐性的，那么具有 基因型的杂合子生物将具有 表型。
11. If interacts with , then an organism that is heterozygous and has the genotype will have neither the nor the phenotype, but some other phenotype (not necessarily intermediate between and ) that is determined by and together.
    如果 与 相互作用，那么基因型为 的杂合子生物既不会有 也不会有 表型，而会有 和 共同决定的其他表型（不一定介于 和 之间）。

12. Segregation: Each gamete bears only one of the two alleles of the adult organism.
    分离：每个配子只携带成体两个等位基因中的一个。
13. Assortment: When two different genes separate to form gametes and join together again to form the new genotype, they do so independently.
    配子：当两个不同的基因分离形成配子并再次结合形成新的基因型时，它们是独立进行的。

4.4 Theory and observation
4.4 理论与观察

4.5 The received view of theories
4.5 接受的理论观点

8. An allele, , must exist in one of three relations to any other allele, B. A can either
   等位基因 必须与其他等位基因 B 存在三种关系之一。A 可以是

9. If is dominant with respect to , then an organism that is heterozygous and has the genotype will have the phenotype.
   如果 相对于 是显性的，那么具有 基因型的杂合子生物将具有 表型。

10. If is recessive with respect to , then an organism that is heterozygous and has the genotype will have the phenotype.
    如果 相对于 是隐性的，那么具有 基因型的杂合子生物将具有 表型。
11. If interacts with , then an organism that is heterozygous and has the genotype will have neither the nor the phenotype, but some other phenotype that is determined by and together.
    如果 与 相互作用，那么基因型为 的杂合子生物既不会有 也不会有 表型，而会有由 和 共同决定的其他表型。

4.6 The deductive-nomological model of explanation
4.6 演绎--名词解释模式

4.7 Theory reduction and instrumentalism
4.7 理论还原与工具主义

4.8 Theory-ladenness 4.8 理论倾向性

4.9 Justifying theories I: The problem of induction
4.9 论证理论 I：归纳问题

"Baconian.") "巴科尼"）。

4.10 Goodman's new riddle of induction
4.10 古德曼的新归纳之谜

4.11 Justifying theories II: Popper and falsification
4.11 证明理论的合理性之二：波普尔与证伪

4.12 Justifying theories III: Inference to the best explanation
4.12 证明理论的合理性 III：推论出最佳解释

4.13 Laws and causation
4.13 法律与因果关系

4.14 Conclusion 4.14 结论

CHAPTER 5 第 5 章

Morality 道德

5.1 Introduction 5.1 导言

5.2 Facts and values
5.2 事实与价值观

5.3 Realism and emotivism
5.3 现实主义与情感主义

5.4 Intuitionism 5.4 直觉主义

5.5 Emotivism again 5.5 再次情感激励

5.6 Kant's universalizability principle
5.6 康德的普遍性原则

5.7 Dealing with relativism
5.7 处理相对主义问题

5.8 Prescriptivism and supervenience
5.8 规定论与超验论

M: In circumstance C, I and everyone else ought (or ought not) to do A.
男：在 C 情况下，我和其他人都应该（或不应该）做 A。

5.9 Problems of utilitarianism I: Defining "utility"
5.9 功利主义的问题 I：定义 "效用

U: Sarah would get twice as much utility as James from eating this bar of chocolate.
U：莎拉吃这块巧克力的效用是詹姆斯的两倍。

5.10 Problems of utilitarianism II: Consequentialism versus absolutism
5.10 功利主义的问题二：后果主义与绝对主义

5.11 Rights 5.11 权利

: Killing innocent people is wrong.
：杀害无辜的人是错误的。

5.12 Self and others
5.12 自我与他人

5.13 Conclusion 5.13 结论

CHAPTER 6 第 6 章

Politics 政治

6.1 Introduction 6.1 导言

6.2 Hobbes: Escaping the state of nature
6.2 霍布斯摆脱自然状态

1. You should seek peace wherever it is possible; but if you cannot achieve peace, you should defend yourself by all means at your disposal.
   只要有可能，你就应该寻求和平；但如果无法实现和平，你就应该用尽一切手段保护自己。
2. You should give up the right to defend yourself to the extent that it is necessary to achieve peace, provided other people accept the same limitations.
   在实现和平所必需的范围内，你应该放弃自卫的权利，前提是其他人也接受同样的限制。
3. You should keep your promises.
   你应该信守诺言。
4. You should not give other people who keep their promises reason to regret doing so.
   你不应该给其他信守承诺的人后悔的理由。

6.3 Problems for Hobbes
6.3 霍布斯的问题

6.4 Game theory I: Two-person zero-sum games
6.4 博弈论 I：两人零和博弈

6.5 Game theory II: The prisoners' dilemma
6.5 博弈论 II：囚徒困境

6.6 The limits of prudence
6.6 谨慎的限度

6.7 Rawls' theory of justice
6.7 罗尔斯的正义理论

6.8 The difference principle and inequality surpluses
6.8 差额原则和不平等盈余

6.9 Criticizing Rawls I: The structure of his argument
6.9 对罗尔斯的批评 I：罗尔斯论证的结构

6.10 Criticizing Rawls II: Why maximin?
6.10 批判罗尔斯之二：为什么要最大化？

6.11 Criticizing Rawls III: The status of the two principles
6.11 对罗尔斯的批判 III：两项原则的地位

6.12 Reflective equilibrium
6.12 反射平衡

6.13 Are the two principles right?
6.13 这两个原则是否正确？

6.14 Nozick: Beginning with rights
6.14 诺齐克从权利开始

6.15 The entitlement theory
6.15 权利理论

1. A person who acquires property in accordance with the principle of justice in acquisition is entitled to that holding.
   根据收购公正原则收购财产的人有权持有该财产。
2. A person who acquires property in accordance with the principle of justice in transfer, from someone else entitled to the holding, is entitled to the holding.
   根据转让公正原则，从有权持有财产的其他人处获得财产的人有权持有该财产。
3. A person who acquires property in accordance with the principle of rectification of holdings is entitled to that property.
   根据财产更正原则获得财产的人有权获得该财产。
4. No one is entitled to property except by (repeated) applications of 1,2 , and 3 .
   除非（重复）应用 1、2 和 3，否则任何人都无权获得财产。

6.16 Ethics and politics
6.16 道德与政治

6.17 Conclusion 6.17 结论

CHAPTER 7 第 7 章

Law

7.1 Introduction 7.1 导言

7.2 Defining "law" I: Positivism and natural law
7.2 "法律 "的定义 I：实证主义与自然法

7.3 Defining "law" II: Legal systems and the variety of laws
7.3 "法律 "的定义 II：法律体系和法律的多样性

7.4 Hart: The elements of a legal system
7.4 哈特：法律体系的要素

7.5 Punishment: The problem
7.5 惩罚：问题

7.6 Justifying punishment: Deterrence
7.6 惩罚的正当性：威慑

7.7 Retributivism: Kant's objections
7.7 报应论康德的反对意见

7.8 Combining deterrence and retribution
7.8 威慑与惩罚相结合

7.9 Deterrence theory again
7.9 再次威慑理论

7.10 Why do definitions matter?
7.10 为什么定义很重要？

7.11 Conclusion 7.11 结论

CHAPTER 8 第 8 章

Metaphysics 形而上学

8.1 Introduction 8.1 导言

8.2 An example: the existence of numbers
8.2 一个例子：数的存在

8.3 "God" as a proper name
8.3 作为专有名词的 "上帝"

1. You can file information about two different people in the same file.
   您可以在同一个文件中归档两个不同人的信息。
2. You can file information about the same person in different files.
   您可以在不同的文件中归档同一个人的信息。
3. You can mistakenly open a file when there isn't a person at all.
   您可能会在根本没有人的情况下错误地打开文件。

8.4 The necessary being
8.4 必要条件

Q.E.D.

8.5 Hume: No a priori proofs of matters of fact
8.5 休谟事实问题没有先验证明

8.6 Kant: "Existence" is not a predicate
8.6 康德"存在 "不是谓词

8.7 A posteriori arguments
8.7 事后论证

8.8 The argument from design
8.8 设计论证

2. The necessity of a creative intelligence
   创造性智慧的必要性

8.9 The harmony of nature
8.9 自然的和谐

8.10 The necessity of a creative intelligence
8.10 创造性智慧的必要性

8.11 Hume's argument from design: The argument from experience
8.11 休谟的设计论证：经验论证

1. The world contains many things that exhibit a mutual adaptation of parts.
   世界上有许多事物，它们的各个部分相互适应。
2. Some of these things - machines, for example-we know a posteriori to be made by intelligent designers. Call these the "known artifacts."
   其中有些东西--比如机器--我们事后知道是由智能设计者制造的。我们称之为 "已知人工制品"。
3. Others of them-eyes, for example—we do not know not to be made by intelligent designers. Call these the "possible artifacts."
   还有一些--比如眼睛--我们不知道是不是由智能设计者制造的。我们称这些为 "可能的人工制品"。

4. There is a strong empirical correlation between exhibiting a mutual adaptation of parts and being an artifact.
   根据经验，各部分之间的相互适应与人工制品之间存在很强的相关性。

8.12 The problem of evil and inference to the best explanation
8.12 邪恶问题与最佳解释的推论

: For all , if is , then is ,
：对于所有 ，如果 是 ，那么 就是 、

8.13 Conclusion 8.13 结论

CHAPTER 9 第 9 章

Philosophy 哲学

9.1 Introduction 9.1 导言

9.2 Traditional thought 9.2 传统思想

9.3 Arguing with the Azande
9.3 与阿赞德人争论

9.4 The significance of literacy
9.4 扫盲的意义

9.5 Cognitive relativism
9.5 认知相对主义

9.6 The argument against strong relativism
9.6 反对强相对主义的论点

9.7 The argument for weak relativism
9.7 弱相对主义的论点

9.8 Philosophy and religion
9.8 哲学与宗教

9.9 Philosophy and science
9.9 哲学与科学

9.10 An example: Free will and determinism
9.10 一个例子：自由意志与决定论

9.11 Compatibilism and moral responsibility
9.11 相容论与道德责任

9.12 The special character of philosophy
9.12 哲学的特殊性

9.13 Conclusion 9.13 结论

NOTES 注释

Blackwell Companions 布莱克威尔同伴

Introduction 导言

Chapter 1: Mind 第 1 章：心灵

Chapter 2: Knowledge 第 2 章：知识

Chapter 3: Language 第 3 章：语言

Chapter 4: Science 第 4 章：科学

Chapter 6: Politics 第 6 章：政治

Chapter 7: Law 第 7 章：法律

Chapter 8: Metaphysics 第 8 章：形而上学

Chapter 9: Philosophy 第 9 章：哲学

INDEX 索引

Forms, 303 表格，303

Genes, 131 基因，131

Logic, 106 逻辑，106

Sense 感觉

---

1. Then, examining attentively what I was, and seeing that I could pretend that I had no body and that there was no world and no place where I was; but that I could not pretend in the same way that I did not exist; and that, to the contrary, just because I was thinking to doubt the truth of other things, it followed quite obviously and quite certainly that I did exist; whereas if I had just ceased to think, although everything else that I had ever imagined had been true, I
   然后，我仔细观察了自己，发现自己可以假装没有身体，也没有自己所在的世界和地方；但我不能以同样的方式假装自己不存在；恰恰相反，正因为我在思考，怀疑其他事情的真实性，所以很明显、很肯定地，我确实存在；而如果我停止思考，尽管我曾经想象过的其他事情都是真实的，但我
2. SOCRATES: But if true belief and knowledge were the same thing, then the jury would never make correct judgments without knowledge; and, as things are, it seems that the two [knowledge and true belief] are different.
   索克拉特但是，如果真正的信念和知识是一回事，那么陪审团就永远不会在没有知识的情况下做出正确的判断；而现在的情况是，这两者[知识和真正的信念]似乎是不同的。
   THEAETETUS: Yes, Socrates, there's something I once heard someone saying, which I'd forgotten, but it's coming back to me now. He said that true
   是的，苏格拉底，我曾听人说过一句话，我已经忘了，但现在又想起来了。他说，真正的
3. I will suppose therefore that there is not a true God, who is the sovereign source of truth, but a certain evil spirit, who is no less devious and deceitful than he is powerful, and that he has set about with all his ingenuity to deceive me. I will imagine that the sky, the earth, and the colors, shapes, sounds, and
   因此，我要假定，世上并不存在一个真正的上帝，他是真理的至高源泉，而是一个邪恶的精灵，他的狡猾和欺骗不亚于他的力量，他用他所有的聪明才智来欺骗我。我会想象天空、大地，还有颜色、形状、声音和其他一切。
4. All Ideas come from Sensation or Reflection. Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas: how comes it to be furnished? Whence comes it by that vast store which the busy and boundless fancy of man has painted on it with an almost endless variety? Whence has it all the materials of reason and knowledge? To this I answer, in one word, experience. In that all our knowledge is founded; and from that it ultimately derives itself.
   一切观念都来自感觉或反射。那么，让我们把心灵假定为一张白纸，没有任何文字，没有任何思想：它是如何构成的呢？它从何而来，是人类忙碌而无边无际的想象力在其上描绘出的几乎无穷无尽的巨大储藏吗？理性和知识的所有材料从何而来？对此，我的回答只有一个字：经验。我们所有的知识都是建立在经验之上的，而知识最终也是来源于经验。
5. He that in the ordinary affairs of life, would admit of nothing but direct plain demonstration, would be sure of nothing in this world, but of perishing quickly.
   在平常的生活中，除了直接明了的证明，他什么都不承认，那么在这个世界上，他什么都不能保证，只能很快灭亡。
6. V: For every declarative sentence, there must be some sort of evidence that would provide grounds either for believing or for disbelieving it.
   五：对于每一个陈述句，都必须有某种证据，为相信或不相信它提供依据。
7. Suppose we are told that, unknown to Henry, the district he has just entered is full of papier-mâché facsimiles of barns. These facsimiles look just like barns, but are really just facades, without back walls or interiors, quite incapable of being used as barns. They are so cleverly constructed travelers invariably mistake them for barns. Having just entered the district, Henry has not encountered any facsimiles; the object he sees is a genuine barn. But if the object on that site were a facsimile, Henry would mistake it for a barn. Given this new information, we would be strongly inclined to withdraw the claim that Henry knows the object is a barn.
   假设我们被告知，亨利并不知道，他刚刚进入的地区到处都是纸糊的谷仓摹本。这些赝品看起来就像谷仓，但实际上只是外墙，没有后墙或内部结构，根本无法用作谷仓。它们的构造非常巧妙，旅行者总会误以为是谷仓。亨利刚刚进入这个地区，没有遇到任何仿制品，他看到的是一个真正的谷仓。但如果那个地方的东西是赝品，亨利就会误以为是谷仓。鉴于这一新信息，我们强烈倾向于撤回亨利知道该物体是谷仓的说法。
8. How unconstant and fading men's thoughts are, and how much the recovery of them depends upon chance, there is none but knows by infallible experience in himself. For no man is able to remember . . colors without sensible and present patterns, nor number without the names of numbers disposed in order and learned by heart. . . From which it follows that, for the acquiring of philosophy, some sensible moniments are necessary, by which our past thoughts may not only be reduced, but registered every one in its own order. These moniments I call MARKS.
   人的思想是多么不稳定，多么容易消逝，它们的恢复在多大程度上取决于偶然性，没有人知道，只有他自己的经验才是无懈可击的。因为没有感性和现成的图案，就没有人能记住......颜色，没有按顺序排列并熟记于心的数字名称，就没有人能记住数字。. ..由此可见，为了掌握哲学，一些感性的符号是必要的，通过这些符号，我们过去的思想不仅可以被还原，而且可以按照自己的顺序一一记录下来。这些符号我称之为标记。
9. the nature of a name consists principally in this, that it is a mark taken for memory's sake; but it serves by accident to signify and make known to others what we remember ourselves.
   名字的性质主要在于：它是为了记忆而留下的记号；但它却意外地起到了向他人表明和宣传我们自己所记得的东西的作用。
10. Now someone tells me that he knows what pain is only from his own case!Suppose everyone had a box with something in it: we call it a "beetle." No one can look into anyone else's box, and everyone says he knows what a beetle is only by looking at his beetle.-Here it would be quite possible for everyone to have something different in his box. One might even imagine such a thing constantly changing.-But suppose the word "beetle" had a use in these people's language?-If so, it would not be used as the name of a thing. The thing in the box has no place in the language-game at all; not even as a something: for the box might even be empty-_No, one can "divide through" by the thing in the box; it cancels out, whatever it is.
    现在有人告诉我，他只从自己的案例中知道什么是痛苦！假设每个人都有一个盒子，里面装着某种东西：我们称之为 "甲虫"。没有人可以看别人的盒子，每个人都说他只通过看自己的甲虫就知道甲虫是什么。但假设 "甲虫 "这个词在这些人的语言中还有用呢？盒子里的东西在语言游戏中根本没有用武之地；甚至不能作为一个东西：因为盒子甚至可能是空的--_不，人们可以用盒子里的东西 "划分"；不管它是什么，它都会抵消。
    That is to say: if we construe the grammar of the expression of sensation on the model of "object and designation" the object drops out of consideration as irrelevant.
    这就是说：如果我们按照 "对象与指称 "的模式来解释感觉表达的语法，那么对象就会被视为无关紧要而被排除在外。
11. One should distinguish between the reference and the sense of a sign, on the one hand, and the associated idea, on the other. If the reference of a sign is an
    我们应该区分符号的参照和意义与相关的观念。如果一个符号的所指是一个
12. We now ask after the sense and reference of a whole assertoric sentence. Such a sentence contains a thought. Is this thought now to be regarded as its sense or its reference? Let us suppose for the moment that the sentence has a reference! Now replace a word in that sentence with another word with the same
    我们现在要探究的是整个断言式句子的意义和所指。这样的句子包含一个思想。这个思想现在应该被视为它的意义还是它的所指呢？我们暂且假定这个句子有所指！现在把句子中的一个词换成另一个词，同样的
13. EXPLANANDUM: We crossed a pink pea with a (homozygous) red one and the cross produced red and pink offspring.
    解释：我们用一粒粉红色豌豆与一粒（同基因）红色豌豆杂交，杂交后代产生了红色和粉红色。
14. There is, in principle, a continuous series beginning with looking through a vacuum and containing these as members: looking through a windowpane, looking through glasses, looking through binoculars, looking through a lowpower microscope, looking through a high-power microscope, etc., in the order given. The important consequence is that, so far, we are left without criteria that would enable us to draw a non-arbitrary line between "observation" and "theory."
    原则上说，有一个连续的系列，从 "透过真空看 "开始，依次包括："透过窗玻璃看"、"透过眼镜看"、"透过双筒望远镜看"、"透过低倍显微镜看"、"透过高倍显微镜看 "等。重要的后果是，到目前为止，我们还没有能够在 "观察 "和 "理论 "之间划出一条非任意界线的标准。
15. : Killing innocent people is wrong (or I ought not go about killing innocent people)
    ：杀死无辜的人是错误的（或者说我不应该去杀死无辜的人）。
16. : Every action that is a killing of an innocent person is wrong
    每一个杀害无辜者的行为都是错误的
17. But are all P things really good?
    但是，所有的 P 都真的好吗？
18. T: Tom ought to be kinder to his dog
    T：汤姆应该对他的狗好一点
19. Though there be found one man sometimes manifestly stronger in body, or of quicker mind than another; yet, when all is reckoned together, the difference between man, and man, is not so considerable, as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any benefit, to which another may not pretend, as well as he.
    虽然有时会发现一个人的身体明显比另一个人强壮，思维也比另一个人敏捷；但是，如果把所有的人都算在一起，人与人之间的差别并没有那么大，以至于一个人可以据此为自己主张任何好处，而另一个人却可以和他一样，不自称有任何好处。
20. The only way to erect such a Common Power . . is, to confer all their power and strength upon one Man, or upon one Assembly of men, that may reduce their Wills, by plurality of voices, unto one Will.
    建立这种共同权力的唯一方法......就是将他们的所有权力和力量赋予一个人，或一个人的大会，让他们通过多种声音将自己的意愿转化为一个意愿。
21. A Common-wealth is said to be Instituted, when a Multitude of men do Agree, and Covenant, every one, with every one, that to whatsoever Man, or Assembly of Men, shall be given by the major part, the Right to Present the Person of them all, . . every one, as well he that Voted for it, as he that Voted against it, shall Authorize all the Actions and Judgements, of that Man, or Assembly of men, in the same manner, as if they were his own, to the end, to live peaceably amongst themselves, and be protected against other men.
    当许多人达成协议，每个人与每个人立约，多数人给予任何一个人或任何一个人的大会以代表他们所有人的权利，......就可以说建立了一个共同体。......每一个人，无论是投赞成票的人，还是投反对票的人，都将以同样的方式，授权该人或该大会的一切行动和判断，就像他们自己的行动和判断一样，以便在他们之间和平相处，并受到保护，不受其他人的侵害。
22. After the fifty regular workers are paid their each, and the [tanners and the sales staff] are paid each, there will be a pot of left over, which can be spread around among the fifty regular workers, raising their wages to each. That is an inequality surplus-it is the surplus income remaining after all the occupants of the roles of an unequally rewarded practice have been paid enough to draw them into the several roles.
    在 50 名正式工人每人获得 ，[制革工人和销售人员]每人获得 之后，会有 的剩余，可以在 50 名正式工人之间分配，将他们每人的工资提高到 。 ，这就是不平等盈余--它是在报酬不平等的实践中，所有角色的任职者都获得了足够的报酬，以吸引他们担任不同角色后剩余的收入。
23. "Look, better endowed: you gain by cooperating with us. If you want our cooperation you'll have to accept reasonable terms. We suggest these terms: We'll cooperate with you only if we get as much as possible. That is, the terms of our cooperation should give us that maximal share such that, if it was tried to give us more, we'd end up with less."
    "听着，条件较好的人：与我们合作，你们会得到好处。如果你们想得到我们的合作，就必须接受合理的条件。我们建议这些条件：只有当我们获得尽可能多的利益时，我们才会与你们合作。也就是说，我们的合作条件应该给我们最大的份额，如果试图给我们更多，我们最终得到的会更少。
24. Laws are rules, backed by the threat of force, promulgated by a legitimate government to regulate the behavior of people subject to its authority, and which belong to a system containing both primary rules and secondary rules of recognition, change, adjudication, and enforcement.
    法律是以武力威胁为后盾的规则，由合法政府颁布，以规范受其权威约束的人们的行为，属于一个包含主要规则和次要规则的体系，包括承认、变更、裁决和执行。
25. General prevention ought to be the chief aim of punishment and is its real justification. If we could consider an offense which has been committed as an isolated fact, the like of which would never recur, punishment would be useless. It would only be adding one evil to another. But when we consider that an unpunished crime leaves the path of crime open, not only to the same delinquent but also to all those who may have the same motives for entering upon
    普遍预防应该是惩罚的主要目的，也是惩罚的真正理由。如果我们可以把已经犯下的罪行看作是一个孤立的事实，类似的罪行永远不会再次发生，那么惩罚就毫无用处。它只会是恶上加恶。但是，如果我们考虑到，不受惩罚的犯罪不仅会给同一个犯罪者，而且会给所有可能出于同样动机走上犯罪道路的人，留下犯罪的隐患。
26. It is impossible that contrary and dissonant things can harmonize in one order always or usually except by someone's governance, by which each and all are made to tend to a certain end. But in the world we see things of diverse natures harmonize in one order, not rarely and by chance, but always or for the most part. Therefore it is necessary that there be someone by whose providence the world is governed, and him we call God.
    相反的、不和谐的事物不可能总是或通常以一种顺序和谐相处，除非有人通过治理，使每个人和所有的人都趋向于某种目的。但在这个世界上，我们看到各种不同性质的事物和谐地统一在一个秩序中，这并不是很少见的偶然现象，而是始终或大部分情况下都是如此。因此，必须有一个人，由他来管理这个世界，我们称他为上帝。
27. 1. The harmony of nature
       自然的和谐
    Many things in the universe work together in harmony.
    宇宙中的许多事物都是和谐共存的。
28. was aware that the stark opposites to the goods are likewise present in nature, not only order and beauty, but also disorder and the ugly, and more evils than goods, more vile things than noble; therefore he introduced both love and strife, each to account for one of the two opposites.
    他意识到，自然界中同样存在与美好事物截然相反的事物，不仅有秩序和美，也有混乱和丑陋，而且邪恶多于美好，卑鄙多于高尚。
29. Is he willing to prevent evil, but not able? then is he impotent. Is he able, but not willing? then is he malevolent. Is he both able and willing? whence then is evil?
    如果他愿意阻止邪恶，但没有能力，那么他就是无能的。他有能力但不愿意，那么他就是邪恶的。难道他既有能力又有意愿？
30. Language, 86, 124-25. See also Meaning;
    语言，86，124-25。另见 "意义"；
    Sentences; Speech 句子；演讲