Choice of Law in Marriage (C6)
婚姻中的法律适用（C6）

Step 1: Characterisation  第一步：性质界定

• 例句: To advise on whether the marriage between Tom and Maria will be recognised as valid by a Hong Kong court, it is necessary to analyze the marriage against the two distinct requirements of conflict of laws rules: formal validity and essential validity. For the marriage to be recognised, it must be valid in respect of both.
  例句：要判断汤姆与玛丽亚的婚姻是否会被香港法院认可为有效，必须根据冲突法规则的两个不同要求进行分析：形式有效性和实质有效性。婚姻要被认可，必须在这两方面均有效。
• Formal Validity: This refers to how the wedding ceremony is conducted. It is governed by the lex loci celebrationis (the law of the place where the marriage was celebrated).
  形式效力：指婚礼仪式的进行方式。其适用法律为 lex loci celebrationis（婚礼举行地法）。

• 根据香港法律，叔叔和侄女属于禁止结婚的血亲范围（prohibited degrees of consanguinity），他们的婚姻是无效的

• 即使他们在允许这种婚姻的国家举行仪式（满足了形式有效性），但由于他们的结婚资格（实质有效性）完全由其共同的居籍地法——香港法——决定，该婚姻在香港不会被承认
• 但是根据香港法律，表兄妹/堂兄妹 (first cousins) 之间的婚姻是允许的，并不在《婚姻条例》的近亲禁婚范围之内。

• “父母同意 (Parental Consent)”这类问题通常被定性为形式有效性 (Formal Validity) 的一部分

• 形式有效性： 仪式本身符合内华达州法律。关于Maria需要法院同意的问题，这属于“同意的形式”，同样由缔结地法——内华达州法律决定。既然内华达州法律只要求父母书面同意且该要求已满足，那么婚姻在形式上是完全有效的，Ruritanian关于法院同意的要求在此被忽略

• 例句: Formal validity concerns the ceremony of the marriage—the how, where, and by whom the marriage is celebrated. The governing rule for formal validity is the law of the place where the marriage was celebrated (lex loci celebrationis). In this case, the marriage took place in Las Vegas, so Nevada law applies.
  例句：形式效力涉及婚姻仪式——婚姻如何、在哪里以及由谁主持。形式效力的适用规则是婚礼举行地的法律（lex loci celebrationis）。本案中，婚礼在拉斯维加斯举行，因此适用内华达州法律。

A key issue here is Maria's age and the need for consent. While Ruritanian law requires court consent, the question of parental or official consent is characterised in conflict of laws as a matter of form, not capacity. Therefore, it is governed by the lex loci celebrationis.
此处的关键问题是玛丽亚的年龄及其同意的必要性。尽管鲁里塔尼亚法律要求法院同意，但在冲突法中，父母或官方同意的问题被归类为形式问题，而非能力问题。因此，适用 lex loci celebrationis。

• Essential Validity (Capacity): This refers to who can marry (age, kinship, marital status, etc.). It is primarily governed by the Dual Domicile Test → Proceed to Step 2.
  实质效力（能力）：指谁可以结婚（年龄、亲属关系、婚姻状况等）。主要适用双重住所测试 → 进入步骤 2。

• 例句: Essential validity concerns the legal capacity of the parties to marry one another—the who. This includes matters such as age and consanguinity (kinship). The general rule governing essential validity is the Dual Domicile Test. This test requires that the marriage must be essentially valid under the law of each party's pre-nuptial domicile.
  例句：本质有效性涉及当事人结婚的法律能力——即“谁”。这包括年龄和血亲关系（亲属关系）等事项。关于本质有效性的一般规则是“双重住所测试”。该测试要求婚姻必须在双方婚前住所地的法律下本质上有效。

Step 2: Apply the "Dual Domicile Rule"
步骤 2：适用“双重住所规则”

• Core Test: The marriage must be valid under the laws of each party's pre-nuptial domicile → Proceed to Step 3.
  核心测试：婚姻必须符合双方婚前住所地的法律 → 进入步骤 3。

• 例句: The issue of capacity here is whether Tom and Maria, as first cousins, can legally marry. We must apply the DD test to each party:
  例句：这里的能力问题是汤姆和玛丽亚作为表兄妹是否可以合法结婚。我们必须对每一方适用双重住所测试：

• (a) Tom's Capacity (Law of Hong Kong): Tom is domiciled in Hong Kong. Under Hong Kong law, marriage between first cousins is permitted. From the perspective of his domiciliary law, Tom has the capacity to marry Maria.
  (a) 汤姆的婚姻能力（香港法律）：汤姆的住所地为香港。根据香港法律，表兄妹之间的婚姻是允许的。从其住所地法的角度来看，汤姆有能力与玛丽亚结婚。
• (b) Maria's Capacity (Law of Ruritania): Maria is domiciled in Ruritania. The facts state that under Ruritanian law, marriage between first cousins is "strictly prohibited and considered void." Therefore, under her own domiciliary law, Maria lacks the capacity to marry Tom.
  (b) 玛丽亚的婚姻能力（鲁里塔尼亚法律）：玛丽亚的住所地为鲁里塔尼亚。事实陈述中指出，根据鲁里塔尼亚法律，表兄妹之间的婚姻“被严格禁止且视为无效”。因此，根据其住所地法，玛丽亚无能力与汤姆结婚。
• Since the marriage is void according to the law of one of the parties' pre-nuptial domiciles (Maria's), the marriage fails the Dual Domicile Test.
  由于根据一方婚前住所地法（玛丽亚的）该婚姻无效，该婚姻未通过双住所地测试。

• Exceptions and Public Policy:
  例外情况及公共政策：

• Sottomayor (No.2) Exception: If the marriage is celebrated in Hong Kong and at least one party is domiciled in Hong Kong, only Hong Kong law is applied to determine essential validity. This exception is inapplicable if the marriage did not take place in Hong Kong.
  Sottomayor（第 2 号）例外：如果婚姻在香港举行，且至少一方在香港有住所，则仅适用香港法律来确定婚姻的本质有效性。若婚姻未在香港举行，则该例外不适用。

• 例句: It is necessary to consider if any exception applies. The main exception to the DD test is the Sottomayor (No. 2) rule. This exception applies only where (i) the marriage is celebrated in Hong Kong, and (ii) at least one party is domiciled in Hong Kong.
  例句：有必要考虑是否适用任何例外。对双住所测试的主要例外是 Sottomayor（第 2 号）规则。该例外仅适用于（i）婚姻在香港举行，且（ii）至少一方在香港有住所的情况。
• 反例: In this case, the marriage was celebrated in Las Vegas, not Hong Kong. Therefore, the Sottomayor (No. 2) exception is inapplicable.
  反例：本案中，婚姻在拉斯维加斯举行，而非香港。因此，Sottomayor（第 2 号）例外不适用。

• Public Policy: A Hong Kong court may, on public policy grounds, refuse to recognize a foreign marriage that is otherwise valid.
  公共政策：香港法院可基于公共政策理由，拒绝承认其他方面有效的外国婚姻。

• 涉及多边婚姻，并且双方意图在香港生活。香港的公共政策是严格的一夫一妻制。一个旨在香港建立的多边婚姻关系，会因违反本地强烈的公共政策而不被承认

Step 3: Determine the Domicile of the Relevant Parties: Domicile (C2)
步骤三：确定相关当事人的住所地：住所地（C2）

• Role: Domicile is key to determining an individual's personal law, which affects the choice of law in areas like marriage and succession.
  角色：住所地是确定个人适用法律的关键，影响婚姻和继承等领域的法律选择。
• Old Law vs. New Law: The effective date of the Domicile Ordinance 2008, March 1, 2009, is the critical dividing line. Issues of domicile before this date are governed by the old law, while issues on or after this date are governed by the new law.
  旧法与新法：住所地条例 2008 年版的生效日期为 2009 年 3 月 1 日，这是关键的分界线。该日期之前的住所地问题适用旧法，该日期及之后的住所地问题适用新法。
• Old Law:  旧法：

• Domicile of Origin: Acquired at birth, very difficult to displace, with a high burden of proof on the party alleging it has been abandoned.
  原始住所：出生时获得，非常难以改变，主张已放弃的一方负有较高的举证责任。
• Domicile of Choice: Requires both "residence" and the "intention to remain permanently."
  选择住所：要求同时具备“居住”与“永久居留意图”。
• Revival Rule: The domicile of origin automatically revives upon the abandonment of a domicile of choice.
  恢复规则：选择住所被放弃时，原始住所自动恢复。

• New Law (Domicile Ordinance):
  新法（住所条例）：

• Abolished: The concepts of domicile of origin, domicile of dependency, and the revival rule have been abolished.
  已废止：原籍、依赖原籍及复活规则的概念已被废止。
• Child's Domicile: Centered on the principle of "closest connection."
  子女的住所：以“最密切联系”原则为核心。
• Adult's Domicile: Requires "presence" in a place and the "intention to make a home there indefinitely."
  成年人的住所：要求在某地“实际居住”并有“无限期将该地作为居所的意图”。

• Answer Framework  答复框架

• Identify the Issue and Applicable Law: First, determine the year in which the key event (e.g., the marriage) took place.
  确定问题和适用法律：首先，确定关键事件（例如婚姻）发生的年份。

• If it occurred on or after March 1, 2009, the Domicile Ordinance 2008 must be applied.
  如果发生在 2009 年 3 月 1 日或之后，则必须适用《2008 年住所条例》。
• 例句: As this key event occurred after March 1, 2009, the matter is governed exclusively by the Domicile Ordinance 2008 (Cap. 599) ("the Ordinance").
  例句：由于该关键事件发生在 2009 年 3 月 1 日之后，案件完全适用《2008 年住所条例》（第 599 章）（“该条例”）。

• The old common law rules, including the tenacity of the domicile of origin and the revival rule, are not applicable.
  旧的普通法规则，包括原住所的持续性和复活规则，不再适用。

• Analyse Domicile Chronologically: Domicile continues until a new one is acquired.
  按时间顺序分析住所：住所持续有效，直到获得新的住所。

• 例句: The law of domicile operates on the principle of continuity; a person retains their existing domicile until a new one is acquired. Therefore, Arthur's domicile must be traced chronologically from his birth until the relevant date of his marriage.
  例句：住所法基于连续性的原则；一个人保留其现有住所，直到获得新的住所。因此，亚瑟的住所必须从其出生起按时间顺序追溯至其结婚的相关日期。

• Apply Specific Rules of the Domicile Ordinance:
  适用《住所条例》的具体规则：

• Domicile as a Child (s.4 DO):
  作为儿童的住所（《住所条例》第 4 条）：

• 例句: The primary test for a child's domicile under s.4(1) of the Ordinance is the country or territory with which the child is "for the time being most closely connected."
  例句：《条例》第 4(1)条规定，确定儿童住所的主要标准是儿童“当前最密切联系”的国家或地区。

• 例句: From 2015 until he turned 18 in 2023, Arthur's life was centered in Singapore for a continuous period of eight years. His home, his education, and presumably his social life were all based there. This long and settled period of residence provides strong evidence that, on the balance of probabilities, Arthur himself had become most closely connected with Singapore. This connection would likely be sufficient to rebut any presumption that he continued to share his parents' Hong Kong domicile.
  例句：从 2015 年到 2023 年他满 18 岁，亚瑟的生活连续八年以新加坡为中心。他的家、教育以及推测的社交生活均基于此地。这段长期且稳定的居住期强有力地证明，基于概率平衡，亚瑟本人已与新加坡建立了最密切的联系。这种联系很可能足以推翻他继续与父母香港住所共享的任何推定。

• s.4(2) (parents share the same domicile)
  第 4(2)条（父母拥有相同住所）

• 例句: At the time of Arthur's birth in 2005, his parents were both domiciled in Hong Kong and he lived with them there. Under s.4(2) of the Ordinance, where a child's parents are domiciled in the same territory and the child has his home with them, it is presumed, unless the contrary is proved, that the child is most closely connected with that territory. Accordingly, Arthur's initial domicile was Hong Kong.
  例句：在 2005 年亚瑟出生时，他的父母均以香港为住所，且他与父母同住于香港。根据《条例》第 4(2)条，若儿童的父母住所相同且儿童与父母同住，除非有相反证据，否则推定该儿童与该地区最密切联系。因此，亚瑟的最初住所为香港。

• s.4(3) (parents have different domiciles)
  第 4 条第 3 款（父母具有不同的住所）

• Determine the child's domicile by considering facts such as residence, schooling, and the center of family life.
  通过考虑居住地、就学情况和家庭生活中心等事实来确定子女的住所。

• Domicile as an Adult (s.5 DO):
  成年人的住所（第 5 条《住所条例》）：

• 例句: Upon turning 18, Arthur became an adult capable of acquiring his own domicile of choice. Pursuant to s.9 of the Ordinance, he would have retained his then-existing domicile until he acquired a new one.
  例句：亚瑟年满 18 岁后，成为能够自行选择住所的成年人。根据该条例第 9 条，他将在获得新住所之前保留其当时的住所。
• 例句: The test for an adult to acquire a new domicile is set out in s.5(2) of the Ordinance, which requires two concurrent elements: (a) presence in the new country; and (b) the intention to make a home there for an indefinite period.
  例句：成年人取得新住所地的标准载于《条例》第 5(2)条，要求同时具备两个要素：（a）在新国家的实际居住；以及（b）有意在该地长期定居。

• (a) Presence: Arthur was physically present in Sweden while attending university. This limb of the test is satisfied.
  （a）实际居住：亚瑟在瑞典上大学期间实际居住在该地。此项测试要素已满足。
• (b) Intention: The critical element is Arthur's intention. He stated that he "might even stay here after I graduate if I find a good job." This statement reveals an intention that is both conditional ("if I find a good job") and speculative ("might even stay"). It is not a present and settled intention to make a home in Sweden for an indefinite period. Rather, it is an intention to possibly form such an intention in the future, contingent upon an uncertain event. The law requires a present intention to make a home, not a future or conditional one.
  （b）意图：关键要素是亚瑟的意图。他表示“如果毕业后找到好工作，可能会留在这里。”该陈述显示的意图既是有条件的（“如果我找到好工作”），又是推测性的（“可能会留”）。这并非当前且确定的意图，即在瑞典长期定居。相反，这是一个可能在未来形成此类意图的意向，取决于一个不确定的事件。法律要求的是当前有意长期定居，而非未来或有条件的意图。
• 反例: While the parents were physically present in Singapore, their stated intention was to stay "for the foreseeable future, at least until Arthur finishes his schooling." This stated purpose, linked to a specific and foreseeable contingency (the completion of schooling), strongly suggests that their intention was not "indefinite" in the sense required by the law.
  反例：虽然父母实际居住在新加坡，但他们声明的意图是“在可预见的未来，至少直到亚瑟完成学业为止。”这一明确的目的，与一个具体且可预见的情况（完成学业）相关，强烈表明他们的意图并非法律所要求的“无限期”。

• Carefully analyze all evidence related to "intention" in the problem question.
  仔细分析与问题中“意图”相关的所有证据。

• Merely "loving" a place, "working" there, or having family ties (like grandparents) is generally insufficient to constitute an intention to reside "indefinitely."
  仅仅“喜爱”某地、“在那里工作”或拥有家庭关系（如祖父母）通常不足以构成“无限期”居住的意图。

• Conclusion: As Arthur did not acquire a new domicile of choice in Sweden, his last-held domicile continued by operation of s.9 of the Ordinance. Based on the analysis of his closest connection during his formative years, this was the domicile of Singapore. Therefore, at the time of his marriage to Beatrice in May 2024, Arthur's domicile was Singapore. (例句)
  结论：由于亚瑟未在瑞典取得新的选择住所，根据《住所条例》第 9 条，其最后持有的住所继续有效。基于对其成长期间最密切联系的分析，该住所为新加坡住所。因此，在 2024 年 5 月他与比阿特丽斯结婚时，亚瑟的住所为新加坡住所。（例句）

Step 4: Integrate and Conclude
步骤 4：整合与结论

• Combine the laws of the parties' domiciles with the issue in dispute to determine if the "Dual Domicile Rule" is satisfied.
  结合当事人住所地的法律与争议问题，确定是否满足“双方住所规则”。
• 例句: For a marriage to be recognised as valid in Hong Kong, it must satisfy the requirements of both formal and essential validity.
  例句：在香港，婚姻要被认可为有效，必须同时满足形式有效性和实质有效性的要求。

• While Tom and Maria's marriage is formally valid because it complied with the laws of Nevada where it was celebrated, it is essentially invalid because it fails the Dual Domicile Test. Maria lacked the capacity to marry her first cousin, Tom, under her Ruritanian domiciliary law.
  尽管汤姆和玛丽亚的婚姻在形式上有效，因为其符合内华达州的法律规定，但在实质上无效，因为未通过双方住所测试。根据玛丽亚的鲁里塔尼亚住所地法律，她无权与她的表兄汤姆结婚。
• Therefore, Tom and Maria should be advised that their marriage will not be recognised as valid by a Hong Kong court.
  因此，应告知汤姆和玛丽亚，他们的婚姻不会被香港法院承认为有效。

Same-Sex Marriage  同性婚姻

• A person domiciled in Hong Kong does not have the capacity to enter into a same-sex marriage under Hong Kong law.
  根据香港法律，居住在香港的人无权缔结同性婚姻。
• Therefore, a foreign same-sex marriage involving a Hong Kong domiciliary will fail the "Dual Domicile Test" and will not be recognized as a valid marriage in Hong Kong.
  因此，涉及香港居住者的外国同性婚姻将不符合“双重住所测试”，并且不会被香港承认为有效婚姻。
• However, in the Ng Hon Lam Edgar, the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal, to protect equal rights, creatively "bypassed" the dual domicile test in the context of inheritance rights, recognizing the validity of a foreign legal same-sex marriage for that purpose.
  然而，在伍汉林案中，香港终审法院为保护平等权利，创新性地在继承权的背景下“绕过”了双重住所测试，承认了外国法律下同性婚姻的有效性。
• Meanwhile, in the Sham Tsz Kit, the Court of Final Appeal ordered the government to establish an alternative legal framework (such as civil unions) within two years to recognize same-sex partnerships.
  与此同时，在岑子杰案中，终审法院命令政府在两年内建立替代法律框架（如民事结合）以承认同性伴侣关系。

Enforcement of Judgments  判决的执行

Identify the Enforcement Regime
确定执行制度

• Is the foreign judgment from a country with no specific reciprocal arrangement with Hong Kong? → Apply Common Law Rules.
  外国判决是否来自与香港无具体互惠安排的国家？→ 适用普通法规则。

• 例句: As France is not a designated country under the Foreign Judgments (Reciprocal Enforcement) Ordinance, the enforcement application must be brought under the common law rules.
  例句：由于法国不是《外国判决（互惠执行）条例》指定的国家，执行申请必须依据普通法规则提出。

• Is the foreign judgment from Mainland China? → Apply the specialized statutory Ordinances.
  外国判决是否来自中国内地？→ 适用专门的法定条例。

Common Law Rules (C11 & C12)
普通法规则（C11 及 C12）

• Step 1: Check the three threshold requirements
  步骤 1：检查三个门槛要求

• 例句: For a foreign judgment to be enforced at common law, the judgment creditor (M. Dubois) must satisfy three threshold requirements:
  例句：要在普通法下执行外国判决，判决债权人（M. Dubois）必须满足三个门槛要求：
• 1. The foreign court must have had competent jurisdiction in the eyes of Hong Kong law
  1. 外国法院在香港法律看来必须具有管辖权

• The standard is Hong Kong's conflict of laws rules, not the foreign law.
  适用标准是香港的冲突法规则，而非外国法律。
• Only two bases are recognized: Presence (actual presence for individuals or carrying on business for companies) and Submission (by prior agreement in a contract or by conduct during the proceedings).
  仅认可两种依据：存在（个人的实际存在或公司的经营活动）和服从（通过合同中的事先协议或诉讼过程中的行为）。

• 选择法律条款 (choice of law clause) 不等于服从管辖 (submission to jurisdiction)
  选择法律条款（choice of law clause）不等于服从管辖（submission to jurisdiction）
• 香港普通法不承认“网络存在 (internet presence)”作为建立管辖权的“身处”基础

• 例句: Under Hong Kong’s conflict of laws rules, a foreign court has competent jurisdiction on only two bases: (1) if the defendant was  present in the foreign jurisdiction when proceedings were initiated, or (2) if the defendant submitted to the foreign court's jurisdiction.
  例句：根据香港的法律冲突规则，外国法院仅在两种情况下具有管辖权：（1）被告在诉讼开始时身处该外国司法管辖区，或（2）被告服从该外国法院的管辖权。

• (1) Presence  （1）存在

• 反例: The facts state that Prestige has "no office, assets, or employees in France." Therefore, as a company, it was not carrying on business in France and was not present there. This ground for jurisdiction is not met.
  反例：事实陈述中指出 Prestige“在法国没有办公室、资产或雇员”。因此，作为一家公司，其并未在法国开展业务，也未在法国设立常驻机构。此项管辖权依据不成立。

• (2) Submission  （二）提交

• The key question is whether Prestige submitted to the jurisdiction of the Paris court by filing a defence on the merits.
  关键问题是 Prestige 是否通过提交实质性抗辩而服从了巴黎法院的管辖权。
• The general rule is that a defendant who voluntarily appears and argues the case on its merits is deemed to have submitted to the jurisdiction. However, an appearance made solely to protest the court's jurisdiction does not constitute submission.
  一般规则是，被告自愿出庭并就案件实质进行辩论，即视为服从管辖权。然而，仅为抗议法院管辖权而出庭的行为，不构成服从。
• 例外: The present case falls into a well-recognized exception. A Hong Kong court will look at whether the defendant had a genuine choice. If the foreign court's procedural rules provide the defendant with  "no real option" but to plead to the merits at the same time as challenging the jurisdiction, this is not considered a voluntary submission.
  例外：本案属于一个公认的例外情况。香港法院将考察被告是否有真正的选择权。如果外国法院的程序规则要求被告在同时质疑管辖权的情况下对实体问题进行辩护，且被告“没有真正的选择”，这不被视为自愿提交。
• Here, Prestige's lawyers were required by French civil procedure to file a single document containing both the jurisdictional challenge and the substantive defence. They were not given the choice to protest jurisdiction first. This compulsion by local procedural rules means Prestige's participation on the merits was not voluntary. A Hong Kong court would likely find that Prestige did not abandon its jurisdictional protest and was merely complying with local rules to protect its position.
  在此，Prestige 的律师根据法国民事程序被要求提交一份包含管辖权异议和实体抗辩的单一文件。他们没有先提出管辖权抗议的选择权。当地程序规则的这种强制性意味着 Prestige 对实体问题的参与并非自愿。香港法院很可能认定 Prestige 并未放弃其管辖权抗议，而只是遵守当地规则以保护其立场。
• Therefore, it is highly probable that a Hong Kong court would conclude that Prestige did not voluntarily submit to the jurisdiction of the Paris court.
  因此，香港法院极有可能认定 Prestige 并未自愿接受巴黎法院的管辖权。

• 2. The judgment must be final and conclusive
  2. 判决必须是最终且具有决定性的

• The judgment must be final in the court that rendered it and cannot be altered by that court at will. Default judgments (缺席判决) are considered final.
  判决必须是在作出判决的法院中最终的，且该法院不能随意更改判决。缺席判决被视为最终判决。
• A judgment is still considered final even if it is under appeal, but the Hong Kong court has the discretion to grant a stay of execution.
  即使判决正在上诉中，该判决仍被视为最终判决，但香港法院有酌情权决定是否准许执行中止。
• There are doubts whether Mainland judgments meet this test at common law.
  对于内地判决是否符合普通法的此项标准存在疑问。

• 3. The judgment must be for a fixed sum of money, and not be a tax or penalty
  3. 判决必须是确定金额的金钱判决，且不得为税款或罚款。

• Hong Kong courts do not enforce foreign penal, tax, or other public laws.
  香港法院不执行外国的刑事、税务或其他公共法律。
• However, the court will examine the substance. If the judgment is essentially for the compensation of a victim (including reasonable punitive damages) and not a fine payable to the state, it can be enforced.
  然而，法院会审查实质内容。如果判决本质上是对受害者的赔偿（包括合理的惩罚性赔偿），而非应支付给国家的罚款，则可以执行。

• Step 2: Can the defendant raise any valid defences?
  第二步：被告能否提出任何有效抗辩？

• Fraud: This can be a defence if the judgment was obtained by the fraud of the successful party. However, Hong Kong courts now use a more flexible "abuse of process" doctrine to balance finality with the need to prevent fraud.
  欺诈：如果判决是通过胜诉方的欺诈手段获得的，可以作为抗辩理由。然而，香港法院现采用更灵活的“程序滥用”原则，以平衡判决的终局性与防止欺诈的需要。

• Even if the fraud issue has been tried in a foreign court, the defendant may still raise it again in Hong Kong (Abouloff Rule)
  即使欺诈问题已在外国法院审理，被告仍可在香港再次提出（Abouloff 规则）

• Breach of Natural Justice: Such as lack of proper notice or a reasonable opportunity to be heard.
  违反自然公正：例如缺乏适当通知或合理的听证机会。
• Contrary to Public Policy: Seldom applied. The bar is extremely high. Enforcing the judgment must be "manifestly incompatible with the fundamental concepts of morality and justice in Hong Kong" and "shock the conscience of the court."
  违反公共政策：很少适用。标准极高。执行判决必须“明显与香港的基本道德和正义观念不符”且“令法院良心震惊”。

Enforcement of Mainland Judgments (C11 & C12)
内地判决的执行（第 11 章及第 12 章）

• 例句: The judgment contains both a monetary award and an order for specific performance. The analysis depends critically on which statutory regime governs the enforcement: the old Mainland Judgments (Reciprocal Enforcement) Ordinance (Cap. 597) ("MJREO") or the new Mainland Judgments in Civil and Commercial Matters (Reciprocal Enforcement) Ordinance (Cap. 645) ("REJ").
  判决包含金钱赔偿和特定履行的命令。分析的关键在于适用哪一法定制度：旧的《内地判决（互惠执行）条例》（第 597 章）（“MJREO”）还是新的《内地民商事判决（互惠执行）条例》（第 645 章）（“REJ”）。

• The central preliminary question is which ordinance applies. The revision notes clarify that the legislative scheme creates a clear distinction based on the signing date of any underlying Exclusive Jurisdiction Clause (EJC).
  核心的初步问题是适用哪一条例。修订说明明确指出，立法方案根据任何基础专属管辖条款（EJC）的签署日期作出明确区分。
• Characterisation of the Clause: The contract, signed on December 15, 2023, contains a clause stating that disputes "shall be submitted...to the courts in Shanghai." The use of the mandatory word "shall" indicates that this is an EJC in favour of the Mainland courts, especially considering the liberal approach to interpreting such clauses endorsed by Hong Kong courts.
  条款的性质认定：合同于 2023 年 12 月 15 日签署，包含一条规定争议“应提交……上海法院”的条款。使用强制性词语“应”表明这是一个有利于内地法院的专属管辖条款，尤其考虑到香港法院对该类条款采取的宽松解释态度。

• Step 1: Determine which Ordinance applies: New or Old?
  第一步：确定适用哪一条例：新条例还是旧条例？

• The date the underlying Exclusive Jurisdiction Clause (EJC) was signed.
  基础排他性管辖条款（EJC）签署日期。
• Old Law (Cap. 597): Applies if the EJC was signed between August 1, 2008, and January 28, 2024.
  旧法（第 597 章）：适用于 2008 年 8 月 1 日至 2024 年 1 月 28 日期间签署的 EJC。
• New Law (Cap. 645 - REJ): Applies to all judgments made on or after January 29, 2024, that do not fall within the scope of the old law.
  新法（第 645 章 - REJ）：适用于 2024 年 1 月 29 日或之后作出的所有判决，且不属于旧法适用范围的判决。
• 例句: The new REJ applies to judgments from January 29, 2024, unless the case is covered by the old MJREO. The MJREO applies to cases where the underlying contract contains an EJC Mainland made between August 1, 2008, and January 28, 2024. Since the EJC in this contract was signed in December 2023, it falls squarely within the timeframe governed by the MJREO. Therefore, despite the judgment being issued in 2025, the enforcement application is governed exclusively by the old Ordinance, Cap. 597 (the MJREO).
  例句：新 REJ 适用于 2024 年 1 月 29 日之后的判决，除非案件属于旧 MJREO 的适用范围。MJREO 适用于基础合同中包含的 EJC，该 EJC 于 2008 年 8 月 1 日至 2024 年 1 月 28 日期间在内地签署。由于本合同中的 EJC 签署于 2023 年 12 月，完全符合 MJREO 管辖的时间范围。因此，尽管判决于 2025 年作出，执行申请仍完全受旧条例第 597 章（MJREO）管辖。

• Step 2: Apply the Rules of the Relevant Ordinance
  步骤 2：适用相关条例的规则

• If the Old Law (Cap. 597) applies:
  如果适用旧法（第 597 章）：

• It only covers money judgments from commercial contracts where there is an EJC Mainland. It cannot be used to enforce an order to transfer shares.
  该法仅适用于含有大陆专属管辖条款（EJC）的商业合同中的金钱判决。不能用于执行股份转让的命令。

• Check if its three strict requirements are met: (1) a money judgment from a (2) commercial contract, with (3) a written Exclusive Jurisdiction Clause (EJC).
  检查其三个严格要求是否满足：（1）金钱判决，（2）商业合同，（3）书面专属管辖条款（EJC）。
• Note the courts' strict interpretation of "fixed sum," "judgment debt," and "EJC."
  注意法院对“固定金额”、“判决债务”及“EJC”的严格解释。

• 在使用旧法 Cap. 597 (MJREO) 时，香港法院会非常严格地、按照字面意思去解释条例中的核心词语，不会轻易放宽标准。如果一个判决或合同条款不完全、精确地符合这些定义，法院就会裁定它不满足条例的要求
• "Fixed sum" (确定金额):

• 案例: 在 HUZHOU SHENGHUA 案中 ，内地判决要求担保人对主债务人“无力偿还的金额”承担一半责任。
• 严格解释: 香港法院认为，这个金额在判决作出时是一个未知数，它取决于未来对主债务人执行财产后还能剩下多少欠款。因为它依赖于一个未来不确定的变量，所以它不是一个“确定金额”，因此不能根据Cap. 597执行。

• "Judgment debt" (判决债务):  “判决债务”（judgment debt）：

• 案例: 在 CHINA MINSHENG TRUST 案中 ，作为执行依据的是一份内地公证处出具的、具有强制执行效力的债权文书。
• 严格解释: 尽管这份文书在内地可以强制执行，但香港法院指出，条例要求这个债务必须是由一个合资格的“法院 (court)”作出的“判决 (judgment)”所产生的 。由于这份文件来自公证处而非法院，因此它不构成“判决债务”，不能根据Cap. 597执行。

• "EJC" (专属管辖协议):

• 案例: 在 BEIJING RENJI 案中 ，EJC只在主贷款合同中，而不在作为判决基础的担保协议中。
• 严格解释: 法院认为，要执行基于担保协议的判决，那么担保协议本身就必须包含一个清晰的EJC 。不能通过引用主合同的条款来“植入”一个EJC。
• 案例: 在 INDUSTRIAL and COMMERCIAL BANK of CHINA (ASIA) 案中 ，法院认定不对称管辖权条款 (Asymmetric Jurisdiction Clause) 不符合EJC的定义，因为它对于银行那一方来说不是“专属”的。

• 虽然总体上是严格解释，但在“什么构成EJC”这个问题上，法院有时也会采取一种务实的、甚至可以说是“自由/宽松的 (liberal)”态度。例如在 Export-Import Bank of China v Taifeng Textile Group 案中，法院会探究条款的实质意图，认为像 “应 (shall)” 这样的强制性词语足以构成EJC，而不要求必须出现“exclusive”这个词

• It has a 2-year time limit.
  其时效为两年。
• It provides a statutory definition of finality, overcoming the common law uncertainty. Must check if the judgment meets one of the criteria in s.6.
  它提供了终局性的法定定义，克服了普通法的不确定性。必须检查判决是否符合第 6 条中的任一标准。

• 这里的 "finality"（终局性）是Cap. 597为了解决一个特定的法律难题而设定的一个法定概念，它的理解方式与普通法下的理论探讨完全不同
• 在普通法下，一个判决要是“终局的”，意味着作出判决的法院不能自己随意更改它 。由于中国内地存在“审判监督程序”，香港法院在普通法层面一直对内地判决是否真正“终局”存有疑问
• 为了绕开这个复杂的普通法辩论，Cap. 597的 s.6 采取了一个非常直接的立法技巧：它不再去讨论“什么是终局性”的法理，而是直接提供了一份清单。
• “Finality”在s.6下的含义就是：一个内地判决，只要它符合s.6清单上列出的任何一种情况，那么它在香港执行程序中就被“视为 (deemed to be)”是终局和有定论的 。你不需要再进行任何额外的法理分析。
• s.6的清单主要包括 ：

• (a) 由最高人民法院作出的判决
• (b) 由指定的第一审法院作出，并且根据内地法律不允许上诉，或者上诉时限已过且无人上诉的判决
• (c) 由指定的中级或以上法院作出的第二审判决（即终审判决）
• (d) 由比原审法院级别更高的法院在再审程序中作出的判决

• 例句: The scope of the MJREO is narrow. It only permits the registration and enforcement of money judgments arising from commercial contracts that contain an EJC Mainland.  The judgment from the Shanghai court must be assessed against this limited scope.
  例句：MJREO 的适用范围较窄。它仅允许登记和执行源自包含中国内地专属管辖条款（EJC）的商业合同的金钱判决。上海法院的判决必须根据这一有限范围进行评估。

• This part of the judgment is an order to pay a sum of money arising from a commercial agreement with an EJC. It therefore falls within the scope of the MJREO. Provided all procedural requirements are met (e.g., the application is within the two-year time limit and the judgment is "final" under the definitions in s.6 of the MJREO ), this monetary award can be enforced in Hong Kong.
  判决的这一部分是基于含有 EJC 的商业协议所产生的支付款项命令。因此，它属于 MJREO 的适用范围。只要满足所有程序要求（例如，申请在两年时效内，且判决根据 MJREO 第 6 条的定义为“终局”），该金钱裁决即可在香港执行。

• If the New Law (Cap. 645 - REJ) applies:
  如果适用新法（第 645 章 - REJ）：

• Wider Scope: It enforces both money and non-money judgments (e.g., Specific Performance, Injunctions). It applies to all Primary People's Courts.
  适用范围更广：它既执行金钱判决，也执行非金钱判决（例如，特定履行、禁令）。适用于所有基层人民法院。
• Jurisdictional Test: There is no need for an EJC. It only requires a
  管辖权测试：无需欧洲司法协助令（EJC）。只需满足一个条件
  "Mainland connection" under one of the s.23 jurisdictional gateways, such as:
  “内地联系”根据第 23 条的某一管辖权入口，例如：

• Defendant's residence or place of business is in the Mainland.
  被告的住所或营业地点位于内地。
• Place of performance of the contract was in the Mainland.
  合同履行地在内地。
• The place where the tortious act was committed was the Mainland.
  侵权行为发生地为内地。
• The defendant submitted to the Mainland court's jurisdiction.
  被告接受内地法院的管辖。

• If a party resident in Hong Kong submits via a Mainland JC, there must be an additional actual connection between the dispute and the Mainland (e.g., contract signed there).
  如香港居民通过内地司法协助中心提交，争议与内地之间必须存在额外的实际联系（例如合同在内地签订）。

• "Mainland JC" 就是 "Mainland Jurisdiction Clause" (内地司法管辖权条款) 的缩写。它指的就是一份合同中，约定将争议交由中国内地法院管辖的条款。
• 基本规则: 在新法REJ下，不再需要EJC。只要案件与内地有“足够联系 (sufficient connection)”，判决就可以被执行。其中一种建立“足够联系”的方式就是一方当事人“服从 (submission)”了内地法院的管辖 。而签订一份“Mainland JC”，就是一种典型的“服从”
• 额外要求：

• s.23中的一个特殊规定：如果一个争议的所有当事方都是香港居民，那么仅仅在合同中有一条“Mainland JC”是不够的
• 在这种“纯香港人”的案件中，为了防止当事人仅仅为了利用REJ的便利而“人为地”选择内地法院，法律要求必须存在额外的、实际的连接因素，来证明这个争议确实和内地有真实联系 。

• “额外实际连接因素”的例子:

• 例如：合同是在内地签署的、合同是在内地履行的、或者合同的标的物位于内地

• 在分析新法REJ时，如果题目中的案件双方都是香港居民，你必须检查除了这条Mainland JC之外，是否还存在其他真实的连接因素（如履行地、签约地等）。如果不存在，那么即使有Mainland JC，也无法满足s.23的管辖权要求，判决的登记可能会被撤销

• Prevention of Parallel Proceedings: The "first-in-time" rule must be applied. If Hong Kong proceedings were initiated before the Mainland proceedings, the registration of the Mainland judgment must be set aside.
  防止重复诉讼：必须适用“先到先审”原则。如香港诉讼先于内地诉讼启动，内地判决的登记应予撤销。