Highly innovative products may offer consumers greater benefits than incrementally new products, yet they have a higher failure rate. The current research addresses the challenge faced by new products that are extremely different from existing offerings by drawing on theory regarding the evaluation of schema incongruity. The authors posit that consumers’ acceptance of extremely incongruent products will increase when firms use strategies that facilitate cognitive flexibility and thus the likelihood that consumers will be able to make sense of incongruent new products. The authors examine the influence of three manipulations of cognitive flexibility - positive affect, a future (vs. past) launch description, and a cognitive flexibility prime-on evaluations of new products. The results from four experiments show that these factors facilitate participants’ ability to make sense of extremely incongruent new products and that incongruity resolution leads to more positive evaluations. The results also indicate that understanding the benefits provided by extremely new products, rather than affect arising from resolution, leads to higher evaluations of these products.
与渐进式新产品相比，高度创新的产品可能为消费者带来更大的好处，但它们的失败率更高。目前的研究通过借鉴关于图式不协调性评估的理论，解决了与现有产品截然不同的新产品所面临的挑战。作者假设，当公司使用促进认知灵活性的策略时，消费者对极其不一致的产品的接受度将会增加，从而增加消费者能够理解不一致的新产品的可能性。作者研究了认知灵活性的三种操作的影响——积极影响、未来（与过去相比）发布描述和认知灵活性对新产品的初步评估。四项实验的结果表明，这些因素有助于参与者理解极其不一致的新产品，并且不一致的分辨率会导致更积极的评价。结果还表明，了解全新产品提供的好处，而不是解决所产生的影响，会对这些产品产生更高的评价。

Keywords: new products, incongruity, cognitive flexibility, innovation
关键词：新产品、不协调性、认知灵活性、创新

While product innovation can be important for business strategy and growth, new products have notoriously low rates of success; failure estimates range from $40\mathrm{\%}$$40\mathrm{\%}$40%40 \% to $90\mathrm{\%}$$90\mathrm{\%}$90%90 \% (Gourville 2006). Notably, the more discrepant an innovation is from expectations, the more likely it is to fail. For example, product flops such as Crystal Pepsi, Colgate Kitchen Entrees, and Premier smokeless cigarettes were highly incongruent with consumer product category expectations. Recent research has substantiated a relationship between greater new product incongruity (“psychological newness”) and lower acceptance, finding that consumers are four times less likely to choose an extremely incongruent
虽然产品创新对业务战略和增长很重要，但新产品的成功率是出了名的低;失败估计范围从 $40\mathrm{\%}$$40\mathrm{\%}$40%40 \% 到 $90\mathrm{\%}$$90\mathrm{\%}$90%90 \% （Gourville 2006）。值得注意的是，创新与预期的差距越大，失败的可能性就越大。例如，Crystal Pepsi、Colgate Kitchen Entrees 和 Premier 无烟香烟等产品失败与消费品品类的预期高度不一致。最近的研究证实了较高的新产品不协调性（“心理新奇性”）与较低的接受度之间的关系，发现消费者选择极度不一致的产品的可能性要低四倍

than an incrementally new product (Alexander, Lynch, and Wang 2008). The relationship between extremity of incongruity and new product failure has prompted calls for more research into how to increase acceptance of highly novel products (e.g., Wind and Mahajan 1997).
而不是一个逐步更新的新产品（Alexander、Lynch 和 Wang 2008）。极端不协调与新产品失败之间的关系促使人们呼吁对如何提高对高度新颖产品的接受度进行更多研究（例如，Wind 和 Mahajan 1997）。

The goal of this research is to gain an understanding of how to enhance consumers’ evaluations of extremely incongruent new products. One way companies innovate is by developing novel attributes that provide new benefits to existing product categories. This can create products that conflict with consumers’ category expectations. When new products are extremely incongruent with consumers’ expectations, it is difficult for consumers to use existing category knowledge to understand the benefit that the new product provides (Hoeffler 2003; Moreau, Markman, and Lehmann 2001). Rogers (1995) proposes that of the five new product aspects that influence adoption, the relative benefit offered by a new product compared with that of existing products is particularly influential. Because difficulty in understanding the benefit provided by an extremely incongruent product is problematic for consumer acceptance of the product, this research focuses on how to increase consumers’ ability to
本研究的目的是了解如何提高消费者对极其不一致的新产品的评价。公司创新的一种方式是开发新颖的属性，为现有商品类别提供新的好处。这可能会产生与消费者的品类期望相冲突的商品。当新产品与消费者的期望极度不一致时，消费者很难使用现有的品类知识来理解新产品提供的好处（Hoeffler 2003;Moreau、Markman 和 Lehmann 2001 年）。Rogers （1995） 提出，在影响采用率的五个新产品方面中，与现有产品相比，新产品提供的相对收益特别有影响力。由于难以理解极其不一致的产品所提供的好处对于消费者对产品的接受度是个问题，因此本研究的重点是如何提高消费者的能力
understand the benefit provided by an extremely incongruent new product so that these products may generate more positive evaluations.
了解极其不一致的新产品提供的好处，以便这些产品可以产生更积极的评价。

We contribute to existing literature by identifying ways to increase consumers’ evaluations of extremely incongruent new products. We provide a definition of incongruity and delineate the difference between moderate and extreme incongruity. Importantly, we propose that the processing enabled by cognitive flexibility increases consumers’ ability to resolve extreme incongruity, leading to more positive evaluations of extremely incongruent new products. Using three different manipulations of cognitive flexibility in four studies, we provide convergent evidence that cognitive flexibility moderates the relationship between incongruity and evaluations. We also show that consumers’ ability to resolve the incongruity of the new product mediates the effect of cognitive flexibility on evaluations.
我们通过寻找提高消费者对极其不一致的新产品的评价的方法，为现有文献做出贡献。我们提供了不协调的定义，并描述了中度和极度不一致之间的区别。重要的是，我们提出由认知灵活性实现的加工提高了消费者解决极端不一致的能力，从而导致对极其不一致的新产品的更积极评价。在四项研究中使用了三种不同的认知灵活性操作，我们提供了一致的证据，表明认知灵活性调节了不一致与评估之间的关系。我们还表明，消费者解决新产品不协调性的能力介导了认知灵活性对评估的影响。

Mandler (1982) presents an influential framework for understanding the relationship between incongruity and evaluation, proposing that the level of congruity between a new item and an existing category schema influences processing, and thus evaluation, of the new item. Congruent items conform to expectations and are not arousing, resulting in mildly positive, familiarity-based evaluations (e.g., Tesser 1978). Moderate incongruity is theorized to evoke arousal as the consumer elaborates in an attempt to resolve the incongruity. Moderately incongruent new items are theorized to share associations and connections with existing schema, allowing the consumer to resolve the incongruity, which is proposed to lead to more favorable evaluations. Extremely incongruent options are theorized to be difficult to resolve because existing schema knowledge does not apply, and this lack of resolution then leads to relatively negative evaluations.
Mandler （1982） 提出了一个有影响力的框架来理解不协调和评估之间的关系，提出新项目和现有类别模式之间的一致性水平会影响新项目的处理，从而影响新项目的评估。一致的项目符合预期并且不会引起兴趣，从而导致轻度积极的、基于熟悉度的评估（例如，Tesser 1978）。理论上，适度的不协调会引起消费者的兴奋，因为消费者会详细阐述以解决这种不协调。理论上，适度不一致的新项目与现有模式共享关联和连接，允许消费者解决不一致，从而获得更有利的评价。理论上，极不一致的选项很难解决，因为现有的架构知识不适用，而这种缺乏解决方案会导致相对负面的评估。

Research on preference for moderate incongruity demonstrates that new products that are extremely incongruent with consumers’ expectations tend to receive lower evaluations than those that are more congruent (e.g., Campbell and Goodstein 2001; Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989; Peracchio and Tybout 1996). Research on brand extensions similarly finds that extensions that depart more radically from consumers’ notions of the parent brand (e.g., BMW camera, Frito-Lay cereal) are evaluated less favorably than extensions that are less incongruent (e.g., BMW lawnmower, Frito-Lay crackers) (see Aaker and Keller 1990; Maoz and Tybout 2002; Park, Milberg, and Lawson 1991).
对适度不协调偏好的研究表明，与消费者期望极度不一致的新产品往往比那些更一致的新产品得到较低的评价（例如，Campbell 和 Goodstein 2001 年;Meyers-Levy 和 Tybout 1989;Peracchio 和 Tybout 1996）。对品牌延伸的研究同样发现，与消费者对母品牌的概念（例如，宝马相机、菲多利麦片）更为不同的延伸（例如，宝马割草机、菲多利饼干）的评价不如不一致的延伸（参见 Aaker 和 Keller，1990 年;Maoz 和 Tybout 2002 年;Park、Milberg 和 Lawson 1991 年）。

A key concept in research showing more negative evaluations of extremely incongruent products is that the lower evaluations result from the inability to resolve the incongruity. Consumers evaluate extremely incongruent products unfavorably because they are unable to resolve the departure from expectations and are more likely to evaluate moderately incongruent options positively when they are able to resolve the incongruity (e.g., Meyers-Levy and Tybout 1989; Peracchio and Tybout 1996). Extending these ideas, we propose that, just as resolution leads to more positive evaluations of moderately incongruent new products, facilitating incongruity resolution can increase evaluations of extremely incongruent new products. Specifically, we hypothesize that enhancing cognitive flexibility will lead to
研究中显示对极度不一致的产品的负面评价较多的一个关键概念是，较低的评价是由于无法解决不一致问题造成的。消费者对极度不一致的产品评价是负面的，因为他们无法解决偏离预期的问题，并且当他们能够解决不一致问题时，他们更有可能积极评价中度不一致的选择（例如，Meyers-Levy 和 Tybout 1989;Peracchio 和 Tybout 1996）。扩展这些想法，我们提出，正如分辨率导致对适度不一致的新产品的更积极评价一样，促进不一致的分辨率可以增加对极度不一致的新产品的评价。具体来说，我们假设增强认知灵活性将导致
higher evaluations of extremely incongruent products by boosting consumers’ ability to resolve extreme incongruity. To develop this idea, we first provide a more detailed explanation of our notion of incongruity.
通过提高消费者解决极度不一致的能力，对极度不一致的商品进行更高的评价。为了发展这个想法，我们首先对我们的不协调概念提供更详细的解释。

Two aspects of product positioning are “what is it?” (i.e., the frame of reference) and “what of it?” (i.e., the points of difference) (Keller, Sternthal, and Tybout 2002). Both frame of reference and points of difference can be sources of incongruity. When a consumer has difficulty identifying the category frame of reference to answer the “what is it” question, it is difficult for the consumer to understand the benefit the new product provides, thus leading to low acceptance. Research on “really new products” that cannot be easily classified into existing categories (e.g., Gregan-Paxton et al. 2002) contributes important insight into ways to enhance consumer categorization and acceptance of such new products. For example, research shows that when a new product is difficult to categorize, consumer evaluations can be improved by facilitating consumers’ categorization of the product by increasing analogical reasoning (Gregan-Paxton et al. 2002; Moreau, Markman, and Lehmann 2001; Roehm and Sternthal 2001) and providing opportunities for mental simulation (Hoeffler 2003; Zhao, Hoeffler, and Dahl 2009).
产品定位的两个方面是“它是什么？（即参考框架）和“它呢？（即差异点）（Keller、Sternthal 和 Tybout 2002）。参考框架和差异点都可能是不一致的根源。当消费者难以识别品类参考框架来回答 “它是什么 ”的问题时，消费者就很难理解新产品提供的好处，从而导致接受度低。对无法轻易归类为现有类别的“真正新产品”的研究（例如，Gregan-Paxton 等人，2002 年）为提高消费者对此类新产品的分类和接受度的方法提供了重要的见解。例如，研究表明，当新产品难以分类时，可以通过增加类比推理来促进消费者对产品的分类，从而改善消费者评价（Gregan-Paxton 等人，2002 年;Moreau、Markman 和 Lehmann 2001 年;Roehm 和 Sternthal 2001 年）并提供心理模拟的机会（Hoeffler 2003 年;Zhao、Hoeffler 和 Dahl 2009）。

Little research, however, has focused on the second aspect of new product positioning and the consumer’s inability to answer the “what of it” question. While providing a point of difference is critical to new product success and adding new attributes is a development strategy, consumers might find it difficult to understand the benefit delivered by an attribute that is extremely incongruent from their product category expectations. Lack of understanding of relative benefit can lead to the low evaluations of extremely incongruent products. A contribution of the current research is the insight we provide into new product incongruity that arises from the novelty of a differentiating attribute and how to increase acceptance of such incongruent new products.
然而，很少有研究关注新产品定位的第二个方面以及消费者无法回答“它是什么”的问题。虽然提供差异点对于新产品的成功至关重要，添加新属性也是一种发展策略，但消费者可能会发现很难理解与其商品类别期望极不符的属性所带来的好处。缺乏对相对效益的理解会导致对极其不一致的产品的低评价。当前研究的一个贡献是我们对新产品不协调性的洞察力，这种不协调是由差异化属性的新颖性引起的，以及如何提高对这种不一致的新产品的接受度。

While product incongruity is consistently defined as a function of the degree of match between a product and the activated product category (e.g., Mandler 1982), the majority of research does not provide a priori definitions of the difference between moderate and extreme incongruity. Noting this, Meyers-Levy and Tybout (1989) define moderate versus extreme incongruity in terms of levels within the product category hierarchy; moderate incongruity can be resolved at the next level within the hierarchy, while resolution of extreme incongruity necessitates moving through multiple levels. Building on this, we propose that resolution can also occur by making associative links that fall outside the category hierarchical structure. We define the level of incongruity in terms of the type of associations the consumer must make to resolve the incongruity to understand a benefit of the new product. Congruent new products provide an attribute that is related directly to preexisting category knowledge; the consumer can understand the new product with existing associations directly related to the product category. For example, vitamin-fortified orange juice is congruent with consumers’ schema for orange juice because of existing associations between the product category and the attribute (vitamins; see Figure 1). Moderately incongruent
虽然产品不协调一直被定义为产品与激活的产品类别之间的匹配程度的函数（例如，Mandler 1982），但大多数研究并未提供中度和极度不协调之间差异的先验定义。注意到这一点，Meyers-Levy 和 Tybout （1989） 根据产品类别层次结构中的级别定义了中等与极度不协调;中等不协调可以在层次结构中的下一个级别解决，而极度不协调的解决需要通过多个级别。在此基础上，我们建议也可以通过建立属于类别层次结构之外的关联链接来进行解析。我们根据消费者必须做出的关联类型来定义不一致的程度，以解决不一致以了解新产品的好处。一致新商品提供与先前存在的类别知识直接相关的属性;消费者可以通过与产品类别直接相关的现有关联来了解新产品。例如，由于产品类别和属性（维生素;见图 1）之间存在关联，维生素强化橙汁与消费者对橙汁的模式一致。中度不一致

Figure 1  图 1
DEFINITION OF PRODUCT INCONGRUITY
产品不一致的定义

C: Extremely Incongruent: Vitamin-Fortified Vodka
C：极度不一致：维生素强化伏特加

products provide an attribute that is not part of product category knowledge but can be resolved when a preexisting shared association is activated between the category and the attribute. For example, vitamin-fortified coffee is moderately incongruent because although vitamins are not an associa-
产品提供的属性不属于产品类别知识，但当在类别和属性之间激活预先存在的共享关联时，可以解析该属性。例如，维生素强化咖啡是适度不一致的，因为虽然维生素不是关联 -
tion for coffee, a “good start to the day” is a preexisting association that coffee and vitamins share; activating this shared association can resolve the incongruity. Extremely incongruent new products include an attribute that neither is part of the preexisting category associations nor holds any
对于咖啡来说，“美好的一天的开始”是咖啡和维生素之间预先存在的联系;激活此共享关联可以解决不一致问题。极其不一致的新产品包括一个属性，该属性既不属于先前存在的类别关联，也不包含任何属性