JVER v28n1 - What Do We Know About the Effects of School-to-Work? A Case Study of Michigan
JVER v28n1 - 我们对学校到工作的影响了解多少？密歇根州的案例研究
第 28 卷，第 1 期
What Do We Know About the Effects of School-to-Work? A Case Study of Michigan
我们对学校到工作的影响了解多少？密歇根州的案例研究David Neumark
Public Policy Institute of California
Michigan State University
National Bureau of Economic Research
大卫·诺伊马克 加州公共政策研究所 密歇根州立大学 美国国家经济研究局Ann Allen
Michigan State University
安·艾伦 密歇根州立大学Abstract 抽象
As states continue to develop school-to-work programs following the federal Schoolto-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA), a critical question regards the causal effects of school-to-work programs in achieving their goals. Rather than relying on published studies that would appear only with long lags, and which would be unlikely to focus on particular local programs that might nonetheless be effective, this paper adopts a case study approach to assembling evidence on the effectiveness of school-to-work in a particular state (Michigan) that has been at the forefront of school-to-work efforts. We set out to obtain all available evidence and information of the effectiveness of school-to-work in Michigan, based on a review of available studies often at a very local level, as well as interviews with academic and career educators and state representatives involved in school-to-work. This evidence and information is analyzed from the perspective of whether it establishes beneficial causal effects of school-to-work on student outcomes. Our case study establishes that Michigan has developed a comprehensive career preparation system that reaches many students. Nonetheless, a critical analysis of the evaluation efforts to date indicates a serious shortfall in these efforts, and an absence of solid evidence regarding causal effects of school-to-work in the handful of evaluations that have been carried out.
随着各州继续按照联邦《学校到工作机会法案》（STWOA） 制定学校到工作计划，一个关键问题是关于学校到工作计划在实现其目标方面的因果影响。本文不依赖于已发表的研究，这些研究只会出现很长的滞后性，并且不太可能关注可能仍然有效的特定地方计划，而是采用案例研究方法来收集有关特定州（密歇根州）学校到工作的有效性的证据，该州一直处于学校到工作工作的最前沿。我们着手获取密歇根州 school-to-work 有效性的所有可用证据和信息，基于对通常位于非常地方层面的可用研究的审查，以及对参与 school-to-work 的学术和职业教育工作者以及州代表的采访。这些证据和信息是从它是否建立学校到工作对学生成绩的有益因果影响的角度进行分析的。我们的案例研究确定，密歇根州已经开发了一个全面的职业准备系统，可以覆盖许多学生。尽管如此，对迄今为止评估工作的批判性分析表明，这些努力存在严重不足，并且在已经进行的少数评估中缺乏关于学校到工作的因果影响的确凿证据。The 1994 Federal School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA) provided more than $1.5 billion to support increased career preparation activities in the country's public schools. Congress passed the STWOA in response to research by scholars and educators suggesting that schools were inadequately preparing students for an increasingly complex world of work, both in terms of teaching skills and behaviors inschool that would be valued in the labor market, and providing the information necessary to assist students in making a successful transition from school into a productive and remunerative career. The overall perception of the problem was wellcharacterized in a report by the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment describing the existing system as producing youths who were " … unmotivated in school and spend years bouncing from one low-paying job to another" ( 1995 , p. 3). The goals of the STWOA were therefore to help young people develop the skills needed in the workforce and make better connections to careers through school-to-work transition systems. Spurred in part by the STWOA, many states have implemented extensive school-to-work systems, generally entailing close cooperation with schools in the implementation of curriculum changes, and partnerships with private business and government bodies.
1994 年的联邦学校到工作机会法案 （STWOA） 提供了超过 15 亿美元，以支持该国公立学校增加职业准备活动。国会通过了 STWOA，以回应学者和教育工作者的研究表明，学校没有为学生为日益复杂的工作世界做好充分准备，无论是在学校的教学技能和行为方面，这些技能和行为在劳动力市场上受到重视，还是在提供帮助学生成功从学校过渡到富有成效和有报酬的职业方面。美国技术评估办公室 （U.S. Office of Technology Assessment） 的一份报告很好地描述了对这个问题的总体看法，该报告将现有系统描述为培养出“......在学校没有动力，花了数年时间从一份低薪工作跳到另一份工作”（ 1995 年 ，第 3 页）。因此，STWOA 的目标是帮助年轻人发展劳动力所需的技能，并通过学校到工作的过渡系统更好地与职业建立联系。在一定程度上受到 STWOA 的刺激，许多州实施了广泛的学校到工作系统，通常需要在实施课程改革方面与学校密切合作，并与私营企业和政府机构建立伙伴关系。A natural and indeed compelling question to ask at this juncture is whether school-to-work programs have been effective in achieving their goals. In particular, the critical question is whether school-to-work programs have had causal effects on participants that point to success in achieving the goals of the STWOA. This question has come to the fore in some recent work. In particular, Mathematica Research, Inc., completed a national school-to-work study in 1999 ( Hershey, Silverberg, & Haimson, 1999 ). However, the Mathematica study does not assess the causal relationship between school-to-work and student outcomes, but rather provides a national picture of school-to-work initiatives. And a recent survey of published academic research on school-to-work across the U.S., by the Institution on Education and the Economy, generally supports the claim that little progress has been made in estimating the causal effects of school-to-work programs ( Hughes, Hamilton, & Ivry, 2001 ).
在这个关头，一个自然而然且确实令人信服的问题是，学校到工作计划是否有效地实现了他们的目标。特别是，关键问题是学校到工作计划是否对参与者产生了因果影响，从而表明成功实现了 STWOA 的目标。这个问题在最近的一些工作中已经浮出水面。特别是，Mathematica Research， Inc. 在 1999 年完成了一项全国性的学校到工作研究 （ Hershey， Silverberg， & Haimson， 1999 ).然而，Mathematica 研究并未评估 School-to-Work 和学生成绩之间的因果关系，而是提供了 School-to-Work 倡议的全国图景。教育与经济研究所 （Institution on Education and the Economy） 最近对美国已发表的关于学校到工作的学术研究进行的一项调查普遍支持这样的说法，即在估计学校到工作计划的因果影响方面几乎没有取得进展。 Hughes， Hamilton， & Ivry， 2001 ).This paper takes a different approach to assembling evidence on the effectiveness of school-to-work. In particular, because state and local governmental units are at the forefront of school-to-work efforts, and because much of the "action" with respect to school-to-work is new, the most up-to-date evidence on the effects of school-to-work is unlikely to have yet appeared in academic journals-if indeed it will ever do so-and is perhaps most likely to still be in the hands of practitioners rather than researchers. The strategy chosen, therefore, was to undertake a case study of one state that has been at the forefront of school-to-work efforts. Specifically, the study focuses on Michigan, which was one of the first eight states to receive federal money from the STWOA in 1994. STWOA funding was set to end in 1999, but Michigan applied for a grant extension that continued through September 2001. The current incarnation of school-to-work in Michigan is the Career Preparation System, the goals of which parallel those of the STWOA.
本文采用不同的方法来收集关于学校到工作的有效性的证据。特别是，由于州和地方政府单位处于“从学校到工作”努力的最前沿，并且由于与“从学校到工作”有关的大部分“行动”都是新的，因此关于“从学校到工作”影响的最新证据不太可能出现在学术期刊上——如果它真的会这样做的话——并且很可能仍然掌握在从业者手中，而不是研究人员手中。因此，选择的策略是对一个一直处于学校到工作努力前沿的州进行案例研究。具体来说，该研究侧重于密歇根州，该州是 1994 年首批从 STWOA 获得联邦资金的八个州之一。STWOA 资助原定于 1999 年结束，但密歇根州申请延长拨款，持续到 2001 年 9 月。密歇根州目前上学到工作是职业准备系统，其目标与 STWOA 的目标相似。We set out to obtain all available evidence and information regarding the effectiveness of school-to-work in Michigan, to determine what can be established at this juncture concerning the impact of Michigan's school-to-work efforts on youth education and employment and early career decisions of youths. This evidence and information was gathered from a review of available studies and data, often from the local governmental level, and from interviews with academic and career educators and government representatives involved in school-to-work. In particular, we interviewed representatives of the state's Educational Advisory Groups, including Intermediate School District superintendents and staff, and state school-to-work administrators. After summarizing the development of school-to-work in Michigan, and describing the current institutional structure, we present an exhaustive summary and, most importantly, a critical analysis of the available evidence on the effectiveness of Michigan's school-to-work programs, from the perspective of whether it establishes beneficial causal effects of school-to-work on students.
我们着手获取有关密歇根州学校到工作有效性的所有可用证据和信息，以确定此时可以确定密歇根州从学校到工作的努力对青年教育和就业以及青年早期职业决策的影响。这些证据和信息是通过对现有研究和数据的审查收集的，通常来自地方政府层面，以及对参与学校到工作的学术和职业教育工作者以及政府代表的采访。特别是，我们采访了该州教育咨询小组的代表，包括中学学区负责人和工作人员，以及州学校到工作的管理人员。在总结了密歇根州学校到工作的发展并描述了当前的制度结构之后，我们提出了详尽的总结，最重要的是，从它是否建立了学校到工作计划对学生的有益因果影响的角度，对密歇根州学校到工作计划有效性的现有证据进行了批判性分析。Our case study of school-to-work in Michigan does establish that the STWOA has pushed Michigan forward toward the development of a comprehensive career preparation system, creating an impressive structure for the implementation of school-to-work, and one that is apparently reaching many students. Furthermore, state and local districts are starting to recognize and perhaps act on the need for ongoing assessment of program outcomes-that is, assessment of the extent to which school-to-work transitions are improved relative to what would have occurred in the absence of this system. Nonetheless, our current state of knowledge regarding the causal effects of school-to-work in Michigan is extremely limited, as we found only a smattering of studies estimating such effects, and virtually none employing standard social scientific methods of program evaluation. At this point, therefore, the combined evidence from this case study and the national surveys cited above does not provide a strong empirical case for concluding that school-to-work programs achieve their intended goals. Furthermore, given the absence of such an empirical case, we would argue that investment in research that endeavors to establish causal effects of school-to-work would play a highly constructive role in shaping the further development of school-to-work systems.
我们对密歇根州 school-to-work 的案例研究确实表明，STWOA 推动密歇根州朝着全面的职业准备系统的发展方向发展，为实施 school-to-work 创造了一个令人印象深刻的结构，并且显然正在覆盖许多学生。此外，州和地方学区开始认识到并可能采取行动，需要对计划结果进行持续评估，即评估相对于没有该系统的情况下发生的情况，学校到工作的过渡在多大程度上得到了改善。尽管如此，我们目前对密歇根州学校到工作因果影响的了解状况极其有限，因为我们只发现了少数估计此类影响的研究，几乎没有采用标准的社会科学方法进行项目评估。因此，在这一点上，来自本案例研究和上述全国调查的综合证据并不能提供强有力的实证理由来得出“从学校到工作”计划实现其预期目标的结论。此外，鉴于缺乏这样的实证案例，我们认为，对努力确定学校到工作因果关系的研究进行投资，将在塑造学校到工作系统的进一步发展方面发挥高度建设性的作用。While the potential gains from our research strategy have already been noted, it also has an important limitation. Specifically, it is limited to a single state, although one that developed an extensive school-to-work system under the STWOA. As a consequence, the conclusion that this particular state has little evidence on the causal effects of its school-to-work programs does not generalize to other states. We believe that studies using a similar strategy to assess the evidence on the effectiveness of school-to-work in other states would be valuable, although it would be useful to use other sources to try to identify states in which more rigorous evaluations are purported to have been used or in which more suitable data have been collected, in order to narrow the set of states meriting such close scrutiny.
虽然我们已经注意到了我们研究策略的潜在收益，但它也有一个重要的局限性。具体来说，它仅限于一个州，尽管该州在 STWOA 下开发了广泛的学校到工作系统。因此，这个特定州几乎没有证据证明其学校到工作计划的因果影响的结论并不能推广到其他州。我们认为，使用类似策略来评估其他州的学校工作有效性证据的研究将是有价值的，尽管使用其他来源来尝试确定据称使用了更严格评估或收集了更合适数据的州将是有用的。 为了缩小值得如此密切审查的州的范围。The Federal School-to-Work Opportunities Act and School-to-Work in Michigan
密歇根州的联邦学校到工作机会法案和学校到工作
The Federal School-to-Work Opportunities Act
联邦学校到工作机会法案
The 1994 Federal School-to-Work Opportunities Act (STWOA) provided more than $1.5 billion in grants to states and local partnerships to support increased career preparation activities in the country's public schools ( Hershey et al., 1999 ). According to a report by the U.S. Office of Technology Assessment (1995) , Congress passed the STWOA in response to research by scholars and educators that highlighted three areas of concern for public education. These were: (1) a lack of connection between school and work that led many youths to be unmotivated in school and to experience subsequent difficulty moving out of low-wage jobs; (2) youths completing school with insufficient skills needed for the labor market; and (3) increasing labor market demands for complex thinking, close teamwork, and the ability to learn on the job. The STWOA aimed to help young people develop the skills needed in the workforce and make better connections to careers through school-to-work transition systems, which fostered partnerships among schools, employers, and others (Office of Technology Assessment, 1995). Specifically, the STWOA set out to increase: (1) school-based initiatives such as career links to academic curriculum, and career awareness activities; (2) work-based activities such as job shadowing, internships, and apprenticeships; and (3) connecting activities, such as the development of partnerships with employers and post-secondary institutions. A more detailed summary of the STWOA is provided in Figure 1.
Figure 1. 图 1.
1994 年《联邦学校到工作机会法案》（STWOA） 向各州和地方合作伙伴提供了超过 15 亿美元的赠款，以支持该国公立学校增加职业准备活动。 Hershey 等人，1999 年 ).根据 美国技术评估办公室 （1995） ，国会通过了 STWOA，以回应学者和教育工作者的研究，这些研究强调了公共教育关注的三个领域。这些因素是：（1） 学校和工作之间缺乏联系，导致许多年轻人在学校没有动力，并在随后摆脱低薪工作时遇到困难;（2） 青年完成学业时缺乏劳动力市场所需的技能;（3） 劳动力市场对复杂思维、紧密团队合作和在职学习能力的需求不断增加。STWOA 旨在帮助年轻人发展劳动力所需的技能，并通过学校到工作的过渡系统与职业建立更好的联系，该系统促进了学校、雇主和其他人之间的伙伴关系（技术评估办公室，1995 年）。具体来说，STWOA 着手增加：（1） 以学校为基础的举措，例如与学术课程的职业联系和职业意识活动;（2） 基于工作的活动，例如工作见习、实习和学徒制;（3） 连接活动，例如与雇主和高等教育机构建立合作伙伴关系。图 1 提供了 STWOA 的更详细摘要。
Summary of the School-to-Work Opportunities Act
《学校到工作机会法案》摘要
State and local school-to-work transition systems are to be planned and developed by partnerships of school staff, business leaders, labor representatives, and other interested parties. Governors are given considerable discretion in structuring and administering the partnerships for the state systems. At the local level, the lead entities may be schools, colleges, nonprofit organizations, and chambers of commerce.
州和地方的学校到工作的过渡系统将由学校工作人员、商业领袖、劳工代表和其他相关方的伙伴关系来规划和开发。州长在构建和管理各州系统的伙伴关系方面被赋予了相当大的自由裁量权。在地方一级，牵头实体可能是学校、学院、非营利组织和商会。STWOA encourages development of school-to-work transition systems that coordinate career orientation, academic and occupational education, high school and postsecondary schooling, work-based learning, and skill credentialing. The legislation specifically divides these elements into the following three components:
STWOA 鼓励开发从学校到工作的过渡系统，以协调职业定位、学术和职业教育、高中和高等教育、基于工作的学习和技能认证。该立法将这些要素具体分为以下三个部分：Source: Office of Technology Assessment (1995) .
- School-based Learning 校本学习
- Academic instruction in high school that meets the state standards for all students and the applicable standards of the National Education Goals.
符合所有学生的州标准和国家教育目标适用标准的高中学术教学。- Career exploration and counseling, beginning no later than 7 th grade for interested students.
职业探索和咨询，不迟于 7 点开始 th grade 的 Grade。- Initial selection by interested students of a career major beginning no later than the 11 th grade.
有兴趣的学生对不迟于 11 日开始的职业专业进行初步选择 th 年级。- Instruction that integrates academic and occupational learning.
将学术学习和职业学习相结合的教学。- Arrangements to coordinate high school and postsecondary education and training.
安排协调高中和高等教育和培训。- Regularly scheduled evaluations of students' personal goals, progress, and needed learning opportunities.
定期评估学生的个人目标、进步和所需的学习机会。- Work-based Learning 基于工作的学习
- Job training and work experiences aimed at developing pre-employment skills and employment skills at progressively higher levels, and leading to the award of skill certificates.
职业培训和工作经验旨在逐步提高就业前技能和就业技能，并导致技能证书的颁发。- Broad instruction in all aspects of industry to the extent practical.
在实际范围内对行业的各个方面进行广泛的指导。- Workplace mentoring. 工作场所指导。
- Connecting Activities 连接活动
- Activities to encourage employers to participate and to aid them in doing so.
鼓励雇主参与并帮助他们参与的活动。- Assistance in the integration of school-based and work-based learning, and of academic and occupational instruction.
协助整合基于学校的学习和基于工作的学习，以及学术和职业教学。- Matching of students with the work-based learning opportunities offered by employers.
将学生与雇主提供的基于工作的学习机会相匹配。- Liaison among the students, schools, employers, and parents.
学生、学校、雇主和家长之间的联络。- Assistance for graduates in finding appropriate jobs, getting additional job training, or pursuing further education.
帮助毕业生找到合适的工作、获得额外的职业培训或继续深造。- Monitoring of participants' progress after they complete the program.
在参与者完成计划后监控他们的进度。- Linkage of these youth development activities with employer and industry strategies for upgrading the skills of incumbent workers.
将这些青年发展活动与雇主和行业战略联系起来，以提升在职工人的技能。
源： 技术评估办公室 （1995） .
School-to-Work in Michigan
密歇根州的学校到工作
Michigan was one of the first eight states to receive federal money from the STWOA in 1994. STWOA funding was set to end in 1999, but Michigan applied for a grant extension that continued through September 2001. From 1994 to 2001, Michigan received more than $50 million of federal STWOA funds to develop and support local and state-wide school-to-work initiatives ( Levin, 1999 ).
密歇根州是 1994 年首批从 STWOA 获得联邦资金的八个州之一。STWOA 资助原定于 1999 年结束，但密歇根州申请延长拨款，持续到 2001 年 9 月。从 1994 年到 2001 年，密歇根州收到了超过 $5000 万的联邦 STWOA 资金，用于开发和支持地方和全州范围内的学校到工作计划 （ 莱文，1999 年 ).Figure 2 provides a time-line for the development of school-to-work in Michigan. Before the STWOA, Michigan schools were providing career and technical education through such programs as cooperative education and vocational education. But it was the state's tech prep initiative, supported through the Carl Perkins Amendments of 1990 ( Bailey, 1995 ; Urquiola et al., 1997 ), which attempted to move career and technical education from isolated programs to a school-reform initiative-improving educational outcomes for students through more relevant, contextual learning, and stronger connections to employers and careers (Jacobs & Teahen, 1998).
Figure 2 图 2
图 2 提供了密歇根州上学教育发展的时间表。在 STWOA 之前，密歇根州的学校通过合作教育和职业教育等项目提供职业和技术教育。但这是该州的技术准备计划，通过 1990 年的卡尔帕金斯修正案 （ Bailey， 1995 年 ; Urquiola 等人，1997 年 ），该倡议试图将职业和技术教育从孤立的项目转变为学校改革倡议——通过更相关的、情境化的学习，以及与雇主和职业的更紧密联系来改善学生的教育成果（Jacobs & Teahen，1998 年）。
Time-line of Development of School-to-Work in Michigan
密歇根州 School-to-Work 发展时间表
Coop/Vocational Perkins Amendment STWOA Career Education System Tech Prep Reform Preparation 1960s____________ 1990______________ 1994_________ 1997________ 2004 a
a A report by the Michigan Department of Career Development (2000) indicates a commitment by nearly 90 percent of state school districts to develop career pathway programs and establish Education Development Plans for secondary students.
一个 由 密歇根州职业发展部 （2000） 表示近 90% 的州立学区承诺为中学生制定职业道路计划并制定教育发展计划。
Cooperative and Vocational Education and Tech Prep
合作和职业教育以及技术准备
Tech prep, as a federal program, aimed to encourage the development of programs from high school to college in specific occupational areas ( Bailey, 1995 ). In a report on Michigan's tech prep initiatives, Jacobs and Teahen (1998) quoted the 1988 Executive Summary of the Tech Prep Task Force to define "tech prep initiatives" as associate degree programs made up of partnerships among school districts, community colleges, and employers to prepare youths and adults for entry into technical career fields ( Tech Prep Task Force, 1988 , p. 1).
Jacobs and Teahen found that tech prep set the stage for career preparation as educational reform. They pointed to four contributions tech prep made to educational reform in Michigan including: (1) encouraging the development of courses that connected critical thinking skills to workplace skills; (2) the creation of tech prep consortia, made up of secondary and postsecondary educators and business and industry representatives, which became a vehicle through which business and labor representatives could more directly affect secondary and postsecondary education; (3) bringing together representatives of secondary and postsecondary institutions for meaningful dialogue; and (4) developing new personnel roles in the education system, including work as liaisons between schools and employers. Jacobs and Teahen cited reports from the Michigan Department of Education indicating that tech prep programs in Michigan were engaging 50 percent of all 12 th graders in the state, and local consortia were developing activities and programs that reached not only high school, community college, and business representatives, but K-12 educators and administrators as well. Tech prep, then, began to make some inroads in changing the educational system to attempt to better connect students to careers.
技术准备作为一项联邦计划，旨在鼓励从高中到大学在特定职业领域 （ Bailey， 1995 年 ).在一份关于密歇根州技术准备计划的报告中， 雅各布斯和蒂恩 （1998） 引用 1988 年技术准备工作组的执行摘要，将“技术准备计划”定义为由学区、社区学院和雇主之间的合作伙伴关系组成的副学士学位课程，旨在为青年和成人进入技术职业领域做好准备 （ 技术准备工作组，1988 年 ，第 1 页）。
Jacobs 和 Teahen 发现，技术准备为教育改革的职业准备奠定了基础。他们指出了技术准备对密歇根州教育改革做出的四项贡献，包括：（1） 鼓励开发将批判性思维技能与工作场所技能联系起来的课程;（2） 由中学和高等教育工作者以及商业和行业代表组成的技术准备联盟的创建，成为企业和劳工代表可以更直接地影响中学和高等教育的工具;（3） 将中学和高等教育机构的代表聚集在一起，进行有意义的对话;（4） 在教育系统中发展新的人员角色，包括担任学校和雇主之间的联络人。Jacobs 和 Teahen 引用了密歇根州教育部的报告，该报告表明，密歇根州的技术预备课程吸引了所有 12 人中的 50% 的人 th 该州的评分员和当地联盟正在制定活动和计划，这些活动和计划不仅覆盖了高中、社区大学和企业代表，还覆盖了 K-12 教育工作者和管理人员。然后，技术准备开始在改变教育系统方面取得一些进展，以试图更好地将学生与职业联系起来。
Yet one of the issues tech prep coordinators faced was gaining parental support. Jacobs and Teahen (1998) contended there was a sense among vocational educators that parents believe all children should go to college, thereby perpetuating the belief that tech prep is not college preparatory curriculum. Stemming from this, presumably, their study found little evidence of parental support for tech prep initiatives. (In partial contrast, a 1995 survey of community response to the schoolto- work initiative in Michigan ( EPIC-MRA, 1995 ) indicated broad-based community support for a school-to-work system in the state.) In particular, Jacobs and Teahen found that parents and students were represented on 58 percent and 50 percent of consortia boards, respectively. However, activities involving parents were found to be mostly marketing programs intended to convince parents of the value of tech prep initiatives, and the authors found no state or local parent organizations that played a significant role in the tech prep initiative. This led them to conclude that tech prep could not be institutionalized without parental support. In addition, state and national studies of tech prep indicate that little data exist exploring how the initiatives affect student outcomes ( Jacobs & Teahen, 1998 ; Urquiola, et al., 1997 ).
然而，技术准备协调员面临的问题之一是获得家长的支持。 雅各布斯和蒂恩 （1998） 争辩说，职业教育工作者有一种感觉，即父母认为所有孩子都应该上大学，从而使技术预科不是大学预科课程的信念永久存在。据推测，正是由于这一点，他们的研究几乎没有发现父母支持技术准备计划的证据。（与此形成部分对比的是，1995 年对密歇根州社区对 schoolto- work 倡议的反应调查 （ EPIC-MRA，1995 年 ）表明该州对学校到工作系统的广泛社区支持。特别是，Jacobs 和 Teahen 发现，家长和学生分别在 58% 和 50% 的联盟董事会中占比。然而，涉及家长的活动被发现主要是旨在让家长相信技术准备计划的价值的营销计划，并且作者发现没有州或地方家长组织在技术准备计划中发挥重要作用。这使他们得出结论，没有父母的支持，技术准备就无法制度化。此外，各州和国家对技术准备的研究表明，几乎没有数据来探索这些举措如何影响学生成绩。 Jacobs & Teahen， 1998 ; Urquiola 等人，1997 年 ).One of the challenges to tech prep noted by Jacobs and Teahen was that the STWOA came on the scene as the tech prep initiatives were getting underway, causing some confusion about the goals and roles of the two systems. However, they found that the majority of the state's tech prep directors aligned the tech prep programs with the STWOA-even though school-to-work was funded and governed from a different state agency than tech prep-resulting in more than 80 percent of the state's tech prep programs receiving funding from the STWOA ( Jacobs & Teahen, 1998 ). (While the tech prep initiative was initially administered out of the Michigan Department of Education, the STWOA was administered by the Michigan Works! agencies and overseen by workforce development boards-decision-making boards with a majority of citizens from the private sector (i.e., employers) that are responsible for the state's workforce development programs.) In many cases, the people involved in the tech prep consortia were the same people leading the STWOA initiatives. Yet the STWOA was seen to have broader implications than tech prep programs ( Urquiola et al., 1997 ; Bailey, 1995 ), in part because it encompassed career development that went beyond the two-year college.
Jacobs 和 Teahen 指出，技术准备面临的挑战之一是，STWOA 是在技术准备计划进行时出现的，这导致对这两个系统的目标和角色产生了一些混淆。然而，他们发现该州的大多数技术准备主管都将技术准备计划与 STWOA 保持一致——即使学校到工作是由与技术准备不同的州机构资助和管理的——导致该州超过 80% 的技术准备计划从 STWOA （ Jacobs & Teahen， 1998 ).（虽然技术准备计划最初由密歇根州教育部管理，但 STWOA 由 Michigan Works！机构管理，并由劳动力发展委员会监督，该委员会是大多数来自私营部门（即雇主）的公民，负责该州的劳动力发展计划。在许多情况下，参与技术准备联盟的人与领导 STWOA 计划的人是同一个人。然而，STWOA 被认为比技术准备计划具有更广泛的影响（ Urquiola 等人，1997 年 ; Bailey， 1995 年 ），部分原因是它涵盖了超越两年制大学的职业发展。
The STWOA in Michigan 密歇根州的 STWOA
The STWOA called for schools to establish links with two-year and four-year postsecondary institutions to better help students prepare for careers and the postsecondary education that leads to those careers. The 1994 school-to-work initiatives in Michigan focused on building a K-12 system that better supported students' preparation for careers through the three types of activities articulated by the federal initiative: school-based learning; work-based learning; and connecting activities ( Bailey, 1995 ; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995 ; Urquiola et al., 1997 ). According to the state's original vision for a school-to-work system, schoolbased learning included career awareness, career exploration and counseling, challenging academic standards, skill standards, a coherent multi-year sequence of instruction, and regularly-scheduled evaluations of progress. Work-based learning included a planned program of job training and experiences relevant to a student's career and leading to the award of a skill certificate, paid work experience, workplace mentoring, and instruction in general workplace competencies. Connecting activities included school courses that taught knowledge and skills used at work, helped parents become knowledgeable about school and work, and matched students with employers' work-based learning opportunities (personal communication with J. Mahoney, coordinator of tech prep and career education for the state in the Office of Career and Technical Preparation, Michigan Department of Career Development, October 2001 ).
STWOA 呼吁学校与两年制和四年制高等教育机构建立联系，以更好地帮助学生为职业生涯和通往这些职业的高等教育做好准备。1994 年密歇根州的 School-to-Work 计划侧重于建立一个 K-12 系统，通过联邦计划阐明的三种活动更好地支持学生为职业生涯做准备：基于学校的学习;基于工作的学习;和连接活动 （ Bailey， 1995 年 ; 技术评估办公室，1995 年 ; Urquiola 等人，1997 年 ).根据该州对学校到工作系统的最初愿景，基于学校的学习包括职业意识、职业探索和咨询、具有挑战性的学术标准、技能标准、连贯的多年教学序列以及定期安排的进展评估。基于工作的学习包括一个计划好的职业培训和与学生职业相关的经验计划，并导致获得技能证书、带薪工作经验、工作场所指导和一般工作场所能力的指导。连接活动包括教授工作中使用的知识和技能的学校课程，帮助父母了解学校和工作，并将学生与雇主基于工作的学习机会相匹配（与职业和技术准备办公室的州技术准备和职业教育协调员 J. Mahoney 的个人交流， 密歇根州职业发展部，2001 年 10 月 ).Like tech prep, school-to-work in Michigan struggled to find broad-based support. J. Mahoney (personal communication, October 2001), reported that one struggle was communicating the mission of the initiative to parents and to some educators who feared that school-to-work was an occupational program and did not promote or support college-bound programs, high academic achievement, or professional careers. In addition, funds for school-to-work in Michigan were funneled through the local Workforce Development Boards-former Private Industry Councils reorganized by the state in 1996 to oversee the planning and delivery of service for the state's workforce development programs ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2000 ). The state's 25 Workforce Development Boards were made up primarily of business and community representatives, and educators were accountable to those boards for the use of school-to-work funds. In areas of the state where school and business relationships were strong (such as Macomb and Kalamazoo counties), these initiatives had more support. In other areas, according to J. Williams, Director of the Michigan Department of Career Development's Office of Career and Technical Preparation (personal communication, October 2001), educators and employers struggled to find common ground, and educators saw the initiative as a work-based program.
与技术准备一样，密歇根州的 School-to-Work 也难以找到广泛的支持。J. Mahoney（个人通信，2001 年 10 月）报告说，一个困难是将倡议的使命传达给家长和一些教育工作者，他们担心从学校到工作是一项职业计划，不促进或支持大学计划、高学术成就或职业生涯。此外，密歇根州上学工作的资金通过当地的劳动力发展委员会（前私营工业委员会）进行汇集，该委员会于 1996 年由该州重组，以监督该州劳动力发展计划的规划和提供服务。 密歇根州职业发展部，2000 年 ).该州的 25 个劳动力发展委员会主要由企业和社区代表组成，教育工作者对这些委员会使用学校到工作资金负责。在该州学校和企业关系密切的地区（例如 Macomb 和 Kalamazoo 县），这些举措得到了更多支持。根据密歇根州职业发展部职业和技术准备办公室主任 J. Williams 的说法（个人通信，2001 年 10 月），在其他领域，教育工作者和雇主努力寻找共同点，而教育工作者将该计划视为一项基于工作的计划。Another challenge in implementing systemic reform initiatives in Michigan was related to the state's decentralized system of local control ( Jacobs & Teahen, 1998 ). Implementing systemic reforms in a system of local control is more likely to result in variable than standard practice ( Elmore, 1980 ). On the other hand, it was the variability of practices, or the various best practices seen throughout the state, which helped the state determine the structure for its current Career Preparation System (discussed in the next section). (See McLaughlin (1987) for elaboration of this general point.) In particular, at conferences hosted by the state each year around school-to-work, there were a multitude of sessions where people shared their best practices. J. Mahoney (personal communication, October 2001) asserted that this allowed the state to learn about the "smorgasbord" of activities and take the best of them to design guidelines for all districts to follow.
在密歇根州实施系统性改革计划的另一个挑战与该州的分散式地方控制系统 （ Jacobs & Teahen， 1998 ).在地方控制系统中实施系统性改革比标准做法更有可能产生可变性 （ 埃尔莫尔，1980 年 ).另一方面，正是实践的可变性，或者说全州看到的各种最佳实践，帮助该州确定了其当前职业准备系统的结构（将在下一节中讨论）。（参见 麦克劳克林 （1987） 以详细说明这个一般观点。特别是，在每年由州政府主办的围绕学校到工作的会议上，人们会举办许多会议来分享他们的最佳实践。J. Mahoney（个人通信，2001 年 10 月）断言，这使该州能够了解活动的“大杂烩”，并利用其中最好的活动来设计所有地区都可以遵循的指导方针。
The Career Preparation System
职业准备系统
In 1997, Governor John Engler articulated the design of a state-wide Career Preparation System, and the legislature supported the system with a revision to the School Public Aid Act, which currently supports the system with $24 million a year ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2000 ). The Career Preparation System incorporated the aims of the school-to-work initiative, but broadened the scope of activities, participants, and goals. Similar to the STWOA, the Career Preparation System aims to "…ensure that each graduate will receive a quality education to prepare for higher education and their first job in today's competitive market" ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2001 , p. 1), and that "…[a]ll students completing the Michigan education system will have the necessary academic, technical, and work behavior skills for success in a career of their choice and lifelong learning" ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2001 , p. 3). Figure 3 provides a schematic description or "map" of Michigan's Career Preparation System ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2001 ). The diagram represents the flow of resources and processes that serve customers of the Career Preparation System, resulting in student achievement in academics, workplace readiness, career competency, college and career placement, and employer satisfaction.
Figure 3. 图 3.
1997 年，州长约翰·恩格勒 （John Engler） 阐明了全州职业准备系统的设计，立法机构通过修订《学校公共援助法》来支持该系统，该法案目前每年为该系统提供 2400 万美元的支持。 密歇根州职业发展部，2000 年 ).职业准备系统纳入了 School-to-Work 计划的目标，但扩大了活动、参与者和目标的范围。与 STWOA 类似，职业准备系统旨在“......确保每个毕业生都能接受优质教育，为接受高等教育和在当今竞争激烈的市场中的第一份工作做好准备”（ 密歇根州职业发展部，2001 年 ，第 1 页），以及“......所有完成密歇根州教育系统的学生都将具备必要的学术、技术和工作行为技能，以便在他们选择的职业和终身学习中取得成功”（ 密歇根州职业发展部，2001 年 ，第 3 页）。图 3 提供了密歇根州职业准备系统 （ 密歇根州职业发展部，2001 年 ).该图表示为 Career Preparation System 客户提供服务的资源和流程流，从而使学生在学业、职场准备、职业能力、大学和职业安置以及雇主满意度方面取得成就。
Michigan's Career Preparation System Diagram
密歇根州的职业准备系统图
Michigan's Career Preparation System calls for schools to provide curriculum that emphasizes application of academics, opportunities to provide all students with career exploration and guidance, and general employability and technology skills. The system also calls for the majority of high school programs to coordinate with postsecondary programs at community colleges and four-year institutions across the state. The voluntary system sets out guidelines for schools to follow in order to have access to state Career Preparation funds. There are three goals embedded in the Michigan Career Preparation System. They are: (1) to ensure that career preparation is fully integrated into the Michigan education system; (2) to ensure that all students, with their parents, are prepared to make informed choices about their careers; and (3) to ensure that all students have the types and levels of skills, knowledge, and performance valued and required in their education and career choices.
密歇根州的职业准备系统要求学校提供强调学术应用的课程、为所有学生提供职业探索和指导的机会以及一般就业能力和技术技能。该系统还要求大多数高中课程与全州社区学院和四年制机构的高等教育课程进行协调。自愿系统为学校制定了获得州职业准备基金所遵循的指导方针。密歇根职业准备系统嵌入了三个目标。它们是：（1） 确保职业准备完全融入密歇根州的教育系统;（2） 确保所有学生和他们的父母都准备好对他们的职业做出明智的选择;（3） 确保所有学生在教育和职业选择中都拥有重视和要求的技能、知识和表现的类型和水平。Turning to Figure 3, the Career Preparation System is composed of seven "components" and 17 "activity" categories. The seven components or broad focus areas of the system are academic preparation, career development, workplace readiness, professional and technical education, work-based learning, accountability, and school improvement. On the Career Preparation System map (Figure 3), the state places the components and their accompanying activities under the category of "processes." The map also defines customers of the system-including learners, parents, and business and industry-and customer needs.
转向图 3，职业准备系统由 7 个“组成部分”和 17 个“活动”类别组成。该系统的七个组成部分或广泛的重点领域是学术准备、职业发展、工作场所准备、专业和技术教育、基于工作的学习、问责制和学校改进。在 Career Preparation System 地图（图 3）中，该州将组件及其伴随活动归入“流程”类别。该地图还定义了系统的客户（包括学习者、家长以及企业和行业）以及客户需求。Other aspects of the Career Preparation System that appear on the map are the resources that flow into the processes, results of the processes, and indicators of results. Listed as resources of the Career Preparation System are: collaboration with employers, community groups, educational institutions, parents, and government offices; financial resources from local, state, federal, and private sources; physical resources including facilities, equipment, and materials; systems for the delivery of services including school districts, career centers, trade academies, colleges and universities, private schools, dual enrollment, and distance learning; and data and information resources such as labor market data, standards, assessment data, placement data, curriculum materials, and educational research. Intended results of the system, as indicated in the map, are academic achievement, workplace readiness, career competency, college/career placement, and employer satisfaction. Indicators of results include academic endorsements, certificates, licensures, and college degrees.
地图上显示的职业准备系统的其他方面是流入流程的资源、流程的结果和结果的指标。职业准备系统列出的资源包括：与雇主、社区团体、教育机构、家长和政府办公室的合作;来自地方、州、联邦和私人来源的财政资源;有形资源，包括设施、设备和材料;提供服务的系统，包括学区、职业中心、贸易学院、学院和大学、私立学校、双录取和远程学习;以及数据和信息资源，例如劳动力市场数据、标准、评估数据、安置数据、课程材料和教育研究。如图所示，该系统的预期结果是学术成就、工作场所准备情况、职业能力、大学/职业安置和雇主满意度。结果指标包括学术认可、证书、执照和大学学位。Two of the major elements in the state's Career Preparation System that developed from elements of the school-to-work initiative are Career Pathway Programs and Education Development Plans for secondary students. The Career Preparation System defines Career Pathways as "…broad groupings of careers that share similar characteristics and whose employment requirements call for many common interests, strengths, and competencies" ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2001 , p. 5). Each Career Pathway curriculum area covers state academic standards, but does so within the context of career areas, in an effort to increase the relevance of the material to individual student interests. The state has defined six career pathways in the Career Preparation System. They include: Arts and Communication; Business Management, Marketing, and Technology; Engineering/Manufacturing and Industrial Technology; Health Sciences; Human Services; and Natural Resources and Agriculture. The Career Preparation System also calls for Education Development Plans (EDPs) for every secondary student in the district. These plans must include: personal information; career pathway goals; educational/training goals; career assessment results; plan of action; and parent/family consultation and endorsement for students under the age of 18.
该州职业准备系统中的两个主要要素是从学校到工作倡议的要素发展而来的，即职业途径计划和中学生教育发展计划。职业准备系统将职业路径定义为“......具有相似特征的广泛职业群体，其就业要求需要许多共同的兴趣、优势和能力”（ 密歇根州职业发展部，2001 年 ，第 5 页）。每个职业道路课程领域都涵盖州学术标准，但在职业领域的背景下这样做，以提高材料与学生个人兴趣的相关性。该州在职业准备系统中定义了六种职业道路。他们包括：艺术与传播;商业管理、营销和技术;工程/制造和工业技术;健康科学;公共服务;以及自然资源和农业。职业准备系统还要求为该地区的每位中学生制定教育发展计划 （EDP）。这些计划必须包括：个人信息;职业道路目标;教育/培训目标;职业评估结果;行动计划;以及为 18 岁以下的学生提供家长/家庭咨询和认可。As the development of the Career Preparation System was underway, there was an effort by the state to address the concerns of educators who saw past and current school-to-work efforts as work-based. In 1998, the state redesigned its system of Workforce Development Boards to include Education Advisory Groups (EAGs). Education Advisory Groups are advisory committees made up of academic and career technical educators from intermediate and local school districts as well as representatives from business and industry. Money for career preparation activities is now funneled through the state's 25 EAGs, which require a plan from school districts as to how money will be used and how the local efforts will support the regional vision for career preparation. In addition, the EAGs designate public educational agencies to serve as the fiscal agency for their particular region, and these agencies provide planning/coordination/oversight for Career Preparation funds that flow into the region ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2001 , p. 18). Figure 4 details the flow of funds in the Career Preparation System.
Figure 4. 图 4.
随着职业准备系统的开发，该州努力解决教育工作者的担忧，他们认为过去和现在的学校到工作的努力是基于工作的。1998 年，该州重新设计了其劳动力发展委员会系统，以包括教育咨询小组 （EAG）。教育咨询小组是由来自中学和地方学区的学术和职业技术教育者以及来自商业和行业的代表组成的咨询委员会。用于职业准备活动的资金现在通过该州的 25 个 EAG 进行，这需要学区制定计划，说明如何使用资金以及当地努力将如何支持职业准备的区域愿景。此外，EAG 指定公共教育机构作为其特定地区的财政机构，这些机构为流入该地区的职业准备资金提供规划/协调/监督 （ 密歇根州职业发展部，2001 年 ，第 18 页）。图 4 详细说明了职业准备系统中的资金流向。
Funding Stream to Support Career Preparation Activities
支持职业准备活动的资金流
Allocations for Michigan's Career Preparation System
密歇根州职业准备系统的分配
Michigan Legislature 密歇根州立法机构
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Michigan Department of Career Development
密歇根州职业发展部
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Workforce Development Boards
劳动力发展委员会
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Education Advisory Groups
教育咨询小组
(25 in the state)
（该州 25 个）
(Educators, local and intermediate school district superintendents, business leaders)
（教育工作者、地方和中学学区负责人、商界领袖）
⇓
Intermediate School Districts and/or Individual School Districts
中学学区和/或个别学区
Another shift the state made to offset the reticence regarding work-based programs, and hence to increase participation in state career preparation efforts, was to change the name of the program from "school-to-work" to "career preparation." State and local career preparation representatives interviewed reported that the state changed the terminology because "school-to-work" was perceived by too many parents, educators, and community members to mean vocational or technical education.
该州为抵消对基于工作的计划的沉默，从而增加对州职业准备工作的参与而做出的另一个转变是将该计划的名称从“学校到工作”更改为“职业准备”。受访的州和地方职业准备代表报告说，该州更改了术语，因为太多的家长、教育工作者和社区成员认为“从学校到工作”是指职业或技术教育。Interviews with representatives from all 25 of the state's EAGs and with several representatives from the Michigan Office of Career and Technical Preparation, including the coordinator of career and technical preparation, were used to learn more about the implementation of the Career Preparation System (and to learn about the scope of evaluation activities that have taken place to measure the impact of school-to-work activities on youth employment, discussed below). In talking with EAG representatives, it became evident that some EAGs require more accountability than others. In Muskegon and Oceana counties, for example, districts must provide a signed contract that specifies how quality criteria will be met and measured. The contract is a performance-based model in which districts are paid according to the number of students served, the number of work-based learning placements achieved, the number of teachers participating in teacher-in-industry training, or other activities outlined in the contract by the EAG. According to the area's EAG chair and Muskegon Area Intermediate School District Superintendent, it is the system of accountability that is helping to spread the Career Preparation System throughout the school districts (personal communication, M. Bozym, November 2001).
对来自该州所有 25 个 EAG 的代表和密歇根州职业和技术准备办公室的几位代表（包括职业和技术准备协调员）的访谈用于了解有关职业准备系统实施的更多信息（并了解为衡量学校到工作活动对青年就业的影响而进行的评估活动的范围， 下面讨论）。在与 EAG 代表交谈时，很明显，一些 EAG 比其他 EAG 需要更多的问责制。例如，在马斯基根县和奥西阿纳县，学区必须提供一份已签署的合同，说明如何满足和衡量质量标准。该合同是一种基于绩效的模式，其中学区根据服务的学生人数、实现的基于工作的学习安置数量、参加行业教师培训的教师人数或 EAG 合同中概述的其他活动支付费用。根据该地区的 EAG 主席和马斯基根地区中级学区负责人的说法，正是问责制有助于在整个学区传播职业准备系统（个人通信，M. Bozym，2001 年 11 月）。In terms of participation, the state's efforts to build a Career Preparation System are succeeding, based on figures reported in the 1999-2000 Michigan Department of Career Development Progress report ( Michigan Department of Career Development, 2000 ). In 1998-99, 90 percent of Michigan school districts participated in voluntary Career Preparation programs. In addition, more than 60 of the state's high schools during the 2000-2001 school year were in the process of implementing Career Pathway programs. Finally, according to the district educational plans reported to the State of Michigan, 88 percent of the state's school districts have committed to implementing Education Development Plans for each secondary student and developing a Career Pathways curriculum by 2004 (personal communication, J. Williams, Michigan Department of Career Development, October 2001 ).
在参与方面，根据 1999-2000 年密歇根州职业发展进展部报告（ 密歇根州职业发展部，2000 年 ).在 1998-99 年，密歇根州 90% 的学区参加了自愿的职业准备计划。此外，在 2000-2001 学年，该州有 60 多所高中正在实施职业途径计划。最后，根据向密歇根州报告的学区教育计划，该州 88% 的学区已承诺到 2004 年为每个中学生实施教育发展计划并开发职业道路课程（个人通信，J. Williams， 密歇根州职业发展部，2001 年 10 月 ).Evaluating School-to-Work in Michigan
评估密歇根州的 School-to-WorkThis section turns to the central goal of our research, which was to assemble and assess all available information that could be used in evaluating whether school-towork as implemented in Michigan is achieving the goal of helping students better prepare for success in the labor market. We used our phone interviews of representatives of the state's 25 EAGs, and discussions with the Director and several other representatives from the Michigan Office of Career and Technical Preparation, to identify and then gather any available measures or existing studies regarding how effective these activities are for youths in Michigan.
本节转向我们研究的中心目标，即收集和评估所有可用于评估密歇根州实施的 school-towork 是否实现了帮助学生更好地为在劳动力市场上取得成功做准备的目标。我们利用对该州 25 个 EAG 代表的电话采访，以及与密歇根州职业和技术准备办公室主任和其他几位代表的讨论，确定并收集有关这些活动对密歇根州青少年的有效性的任何可用措施或现有研究。The interviews were conducted mostly in the fall of 2001, with some follow-ups in the spring of 2002. There was not a formal interview protocol, because we were not so much interested in qualitative or quantitative data obtained directly from the interviewees, but rather in information they could provide on evaluation efforts in the geographic areas they covered, or statewide. That is, the interviews were used to identify any evaluation efforts or studies that had been done or were under way, but to a large extent the core information we present and the critical analysis we offer is based on the evaluation efforts or studies themselves, rather than the direct content of the interviews. Nonetheless, we took great care to explain to the interviewees the kinds of information or studies for which we were searching, and often had to have numerous conversations to clarify the nature of our inquiry and to follow up on leads they had provided concerning evaluation studies. We did, though, also use the interviews to flesh out our understanding of school-to-work institutions and of evaluation efforts in Michigan, in cases where printed sources were inadequate.
访谈主要在 2001 年秋季进行，并在 2002 年春季进行了一些后续调查。没有正式的访谈协议，因为我们对直接从受访者那里获得的定性或定量数据不太感兴趣，而是对他们可以提供的有关他们所覆盖的地理区域或全州范围内的评估工作的信息感兴趣。也就是说，访谈用于确定任何已经完成或正在进行的评估工作或研究，但在很大程度上，我们提供的核心信息和我们提供的批判性分析是基于评估工作或研究本身，而不是访谈的直接内容。尽管如此，我们还是非常小心地向受访者解释我们正在搜索的信息或研究的类型，并且经常不得不进行多次对话，以澄清我们调查的性质，并跟进他们提供的有关评估研究的线索。不过，在印刷资料不足的情况下，我们也利用这些访谈来充实我们对密歇根州的学校到工作机构和评估工作的理解。Like the tech prep initiative ( Jacobs & Teahen, 1998 ), little data have been gathered in the state to show how school-to-work initiatives in general, or the state's Career Preparation System in particular, are affecting students' decisions about careers or their career outcomes. However, we did find some information from the state's annual follow-up survey of career and technical education students, and from five other studies of school-to-work at the local level.
与技术准备计划 （ Jacobs & Teahen， 1998 ），该州几乎没有收集到数据来显示一般的学校到工作倡议，特别是该州的职业准备系统，如何影响学生关于职业的决定或他们的职业结果。然而，我们确实从该州对职业和技术教育学生的年度随访调查以及地方层面的其他五项关于学校到工作的研究中找到了一些信息。To effectively determine whether the state's Career Preparation System (or earlier school-to-work programs) produce better prepared students who are making better career decisions and experiencing better career outcomes, evaluation studies should compare outcomes for students who have participated in these activities-the treatment group-with outcomes for comparable students who have not participated in these activities-the control group. The control group is essential to eliminate spurious inferences of positive (or negative) effects attributable to other variables associated with both school-to-work participation and outcomes. For example, if youth labor markets are improving at the same time that school-to-work is expanding, we have to be careful about attributing greater labor market success to school-to-work. Such an inference would only be valid if students participating in school-to-work fared relatively better than other (comparable) students. (See Porter (1997) for a discussion of this point with regard to education research, Neumark and Joyce (2001) for the particular context of school-to-work, and Heckman, Lalonde, & Smith (1999) for a thorough discussion of evaluation studies.) Ideally, students should be placed in control and treatment groups based on random assignment, although as Heckman et al. (1999) point out, this is not necessarily a panacea, and is often not practical. In practice, statistical methods of adjusting for differences between non-randomly selected treatment and control groups are likely to be necessary.
为了有效地确定该州的职业准备系统（或早期的学校到工作计划）是否培养出准备更充分的学生，他们正在做出更好的职业决定并体验到更好的职业结果，评估研究应比较参加这些活动的学生的结果——治疗组——与未参加这些活动的可比学生的结果——对照组。对照组对于消除归因于与学校到工作参与和结果相关的其他变量的积极（或消极）影响的虚假推断至关重要。例如，如果青年劳动力市场在改善的同时，学校到工作也在扩大，那么我们必须谨慎地将劳动力市场的更大成功归因于学校到工作。这种推论只有在参加学校到工作的学生表现良好的情况下才有效 相对较好 比其他（可比的）学生。（参见 波特 （1997） 关于教育研究的这一点的讨论， Neumark 和 Joyce （2001） 针对学校到工作的特定环境，以及 赫克曼，拉隆德和史密斯（1999） 对评估研究进行深入讨论。理想情况下，应根据随机分配将学生分为对照组和治疗组，尽管 Heckman 等人 （1999） 指出，这不一定是万能的，而且往往不切实际。在实践中，可能需要使用统计方法来调整非随机选择的治疗组和对照组之间的差异。In general, our search for evaluations of school-to-work activities in Michigan revealed a handful of such studies, and most have some serious limitations. With that said, though, there are some valid reasons for the lack of such studies, so our main message is not to criticize the current lack of evaluation studies, but rather to encourage such studies to be undertaken in the future. First, the complexity of social sciences, in which multiple human factors affect outcomes, leads many researchers to believe that mixed methodologies such as surveying, interviewing, and observation are required to truly understand the root of the outcome ( Dunn, 1994 ). J. Mahony (personal communication, November 2001), of the Office of Career and Technical Preparation, suggested that the complexity of analysis that might be needed to fully evaluate school-to-work may have inhibited the state or the majority of the state's practitioners from engaging in significant evaluation. Second, the state's tech prep efforts indicate there are other challenges to evaluating student outcomes early in the process of systems building ( Jacobs & Teahen, 1998 ). Some of these include confusion over what constitutes success, and a lack of students involved in the program long enough to measure the impact of their participation. Jacobs and Teahen also reported that the many changes occurring within the state's decentralized education system made it difficult to determine whether changes were the result of tech prep or some other initiative. The same is likely true of the evolving Career Preparation System. In the remainder of this section we review the available evaluations, both summarizing their findings and, most importantly, assessing their ability to establish causal effects of school-to-work.
总的来说，我们对密歇根州学校到工作活动的评估的搜索揭示了少数此类研究，并且大多数研究都有一些严重的局限性。话虽如此，缺乏此类研究还是有一些正当理由的，因此我们的主要信息不是批评目前缺乏评估研究，而是鼓励将来进行此类研究。首先，社会科学的复杂性，其中多种人为因素会影响结果，导致许多研究人员认为，需要调查、访谈和观察等混合方法才能真正理解结果的根源。 Dunn， 1994 年 ).职业和技术准备办公室的 J. Mahony（个人通信，2001 年 11 月）认为，全面评估学校到工作可能需要的分析的复杂性可能已经抑制了该州或该州的大多数从业者进行重要评估。其次，该州的技术准备工作表明，在系统构建过程的早期评估学生成绩还存在其他挑战 （ Jacobs & Teahen， 1998 ).其中一些包括对什么是成功的困惑，以及缺乏学生参与该计划足够长的时间来衡量他们参与的影响。Jacobs 和 Teahen 还报告说，该州分散的教育系统内发生的许多变化使得很难确定这些变化是技术准备还是其他举措的结果。不断发展的职业准备系统可能也是如此。在本节的其余部分，我们回顾了可用的评估，既总结了他们的发现，最重要的是，评估了它们建立学校到工作因果影响的能力。
State-wide Data 全州数据
Mathematica study . Representatives from the EAGs and the Office of Career and Technical Preparation reported that most of the activity regarding measurement and assessment of the STWOA in Michigan occurred through participation in a national school-to-work study by Mathematica Research, Inc. ( Hershey et al., 1999 ). According to J. Mahony (personal communication, November 2001), "There was a sense that if people were using their resources for evaluation, they wouldn't have anything left for program implementation." The Mathematica report indicates that 90 percent of Michigan's schools participated in some school-to-work activity during the STWOA funding period. During that time, more than 80 percent of the participating schools provided data to Mathematica. As one of Mathematica's eight study states, Michigan schools participated in surveys, observations, and interviews with Mathematica researchers during 1996, 1997, and 1998.
Mathematica 研究 .来自 EAG 和职业和技术准备办公室的代表报告说，密歇根州 STWOA 的大部分测量和评估活动都是通过参与 Mathematica Research， Inc. （ Hershey 等人，1999 年 ).根据 J. Mahony（个人通信，2001 年 11 月）的说法，“有一种感觉，如果人们使用他们的资源进行评估，他们就不会留下任何东西来实施计划。Mathematica 报告表明，在 STWOA 资助期间，密歇根州 90% 的学校参加了一些从学校到工作的活动。在此期间，超过 80% 的参与学校向 Mathematica 提供了数据。作为 Mathematica 的八个研究州之一，密歇根州的学校在 1996 年、1997 年和 1998 年期间参与了对 Mathematica 研究人员的调查、观察和访谈。While the Mathematica study provides a national picture of school-to-work initiatives, little information was disaggregated to isolate findings from specific states. Therefore, while Michigan schools actively participated in the research efforts, little evaluation specific to Michigan's school-to-work initiatives was provided. In addition, the Mathematica study did not constitute an evaluation per se, as it did not attempt to assess the causal relationship between student outcomes and school-to-work. As the study argues:
虽然 Mathematica 研究提供了从学校到工作倡议的全国情况，但几乎没有信息被分解以分离来自特定州的调查结果。因此，虽然密歇根州的学校积极参与了研究工作，但很少提供针对密歇根州从学校到工作倡议的评估。此外，Mathematica 研究本身并不构成评估，因为它没有试图评估学生成绩与学校到工作之间的因果关系。正如该研究所指出的：The evaluation can help us understand the extent to which a STW system is being created and how students' experiences are changing. It cannot, however, provide evidence of whether STW activities cause changes in student outcomes. STW implementation generally involves broad and diverse initiatives that in varied ways touch most or all students, so it is impossible to distinguish between participants and an unaffected comparison group. ( Hershey et al., 1997 , p. xviii)
评估可以帮助我们了解 STW 系统的创建程度以及学生体验的变化。然而，它无法提供证据证明 STW 活动是否会导致学生成绩的变化。STW 的实施通常涉及广泛而多样的举措，这些举措以不同的方式触及大多数或所有学生，因此无法区分参与者和未受影响的对照组。( Hershey 等人，1997 年 ，第 xviii 页）In other words, the authors contend, it is not even possible to define treatment and control groups. While the Mathematica study offers data showing that students in school-to-work programs receive more training and are employed in a broader range of industries than are other students in paid positions, Neumark and Joyce (2001) counter that the Mathematica report lacks evidence that the cause of these outcomes was the school-to-work experience, suggesting instead that "Students most likely (to find these jobs) may simply have sorted into school-to-work programs" (p. 668). This problem with comparing non-randomly selected treatment and control groups is referred to as the "selection problem" in evaluation studies. In addition, Neumark and Joyce argue that the Mathematica study could, in principle, have carried out something more akin to an evaluation, exploiting the variation across school districts and states in the incidence of school-to-work partnerships supported by grants under the STWOA.
换句话说，作者认为，甚至不可能定义治疗组和对照组。虽然 Mathematica 研究提供的数据显示，与其他从事有薪职位的学生相比，参加学校到工作计划的学生接受了更多的培训，并在更广泛的行业就业。 Neumark 和 Joyce （2001） 反驳说，Mathematica 报告缺乏证据证明这些结果的原因是从学校到工作的经历，相反，它表明“学生最有可能（找到这些工作）可能只是被归类到学校到工作计划中”（第 668 页）。这种比较非随机选择的治疗组和对照组的问题在评估研究中被称为“选择问题”。此外，Neumark 和 Joyce 认为，Mathematica 研究原则上可以进行更类似于评估的事情，利用 STWOA 资助支持的学校到工作伙伴关系发生率的学区和州之间的差异。A study commissioned by the state by Detroit-based Moore & Associates, Inc., provided to the state in November 2000, appears to be based in part on a review of data submitted for this national evaluation, as well as interviews with school-to-work coordinators or directors at the Michigan Works! offices. (This study was not publicly available, but was described in a personal communication with J. Mahoney, October 2001.) It provides some participation data and a summary of interview responses, indicating that most respondents believed school-to-work initiatives were making a difference to students by increasing opportunities for career awareness. However, the study includes no evaluation of the impact of these opportunities on students' career decisions.
由底特律的 Moore & Associates， Inc.委托进行的一项研究，于 2000 年 11 月提供给该州，似乎部分基于对提交此国家评估的数据的审查，以及对 Michigan Works 的学校到工作协调员或主管的采访！办事处。（这项研究没有公开，但在 2001 年 10 月与 J. Mahoney 的个人通信中进行了描述。它提供了一些参与数据和访谈回复摘要，表明大多数受访者认为，通过增加职业意识的机会，学校到工作倡议对学生产生了影响。然而，该研究没有评估这些机会对学生职业决策的影响。Career and Technical Education Survey . The limitations of the Mathematica study also appear in the majority of studies on school-to-work programs in Michigan. At the state level, the Michigan Office of Career and Technical Preparation, through their Follow-up Survey of Completers in Career and Technical Education, collects data on career and technical education students who recently graduated, to determine how their high school experiences relate to their current job or schooling. However, the surveys are required to be given only to students in career and technical education programs, providing no comparison with students not in such programs, let alone attempting to control for selection of students into these programs.
职业和技术教育调查 .Mathematica 研究的局限性也出现在密歇根州大多数关于学校到工作计划的研究中。在州一级，密歇根州职业和技术准备办公室 （Michigan Office of Career and Technical Preparation） 通过其职业和技术教育完成者后续调查，收集了最近毕业的职业和技术教育学生的数据，以确定他们的高中经历与他们目前的工作或学校教育有何关系。但是，这些调查只要求提供给职业和技术教育课程的学生，不能与未参加此类课程的学生进行比较，更不用说试图控制学生进入这些课程的选择了。The state's 2001 Follow-up Survey of 2000 Completers in Career and Technical Education shows a breakdown of how participants perceive the relationship between their current job and education and their secondary career preparation experiences ( Michigan Department of Career Development, Office of Career and Technical Preparation, 2001 ). The survey results show the following: 18.1 percent of the 4,966 respondents report current work and education as related to their secondary career preparation programs; 7.2 percent report that neither their work nor their current education are related; 3.2 percent report that their job is related, but their current education is not; and 8.6 percent report that their current education is related, but their job is not. Yet it is unknown if these percentages have a direct relationship with career and technical education. It could be, for example, that the same percentage of all students, regardless of their high school experience, find their postsecondary work and school relevant to their high school education. Another shortcoming of this evidence is that by limiting surveys to students in career and technical programs, no data are collected to assess broader career preparation activities-such as Career Pathways curricula, job shadowing, internships, career visits, or career fairs-for students who have not enrolled in career and technical education programs.
该州 2001 年对 2000 名职业和技术教育完成者进行的后续调查显示，参与者如何看待他们目前的工作和教育与他们的中学职业准备经历之间的关系。 密歇根州职业发展部，职业和技术准备办公室，2001 年 ).调查结果显示如下：4,966 名受访者中有 18.1% 表示目前的工作和教育与他们的中学职业准备计划有关;7.2% 的人表示他们的工作和目前的教育无关;3.2% 的人报告说他们的工作相关，但他们目前的教育背景不是;8.6% 的人表示他们目前的教育相关，但他们的工作无关。然而，尚不清楚这些百分比是否与职业和技术教育有直接关系。例如，所有学生中相同比例的学生，无论他们的高中经历如何，都认为他们的高等教育工作和学校与他们的高中教育相关。这一证据的另一个缺点是，通过将调查限制在职业和技术课程中的学生，没有收集数据来评估更广泛的职业准备活动——例如职业途径课程、工作见习、实习、职业访问或招聘会——针对尚未参加职业和技术教育计划的学生。A few EAG representatives report using the state surveys as an assessment tool for all graduating seniors. In particular, representatives from EAGs in Macomb, Gratiot, Ionia, Isabella, and Montcalm counties reported distributing the state survey to all students, and extending the survey to collect data that connects students' high school career preparation activities to their current education and employment. This is a promising development, but our interviews yielded no indication that EAG areas have made much progress in their evaluation efforts. There is, though, some indication that the state is taking steps to move evaluation of the Career Preparation System forward, as J. Mahoney (personal communication, November 2001), of the Office of Career and Technical Preparation, reported that a career preparation accountability committee reportedly has been established at the state level to look at issues of assessing the effectiveness of career preparation activities in better preparing students for careers.
一些 EAG 代表报告说，使用州调查作为所有应届毕业生的评估工具。特别是，来自 Macomb、Gratiot、Ionia、Isabella 和 Montcalm 县的 EAG 的代表报告说，向所有学生分发了州调查，并扩展了调查以收集将学生的高中职业准备活动与他们当前的教育和就业联系起来的数据。这是一个有前途的进展，但我们的访谈没有发现 EAG 地区在评估工作中取得了很大进展。不过，有一些迹象表明，该州正在采取措施推进对职业准备系统的评估，因为职业和技术准备办公室的 J. Mahoney（个人通信，2001 年 11 月）报告说，据报道，在州一级已经成立了一个职业准备问责委员会，以研究评估职业准备活动在更好地为学生做好职业准备方面的有效性的问题。
Local Data 本地数据
Some practitioners in the state are also making efforts to evaluate the effects of career preparation for their graduates. A report by one of the Michigan Works! agencies stated that all Berrien county high schools have adopted the Career Pathways model and are in the process of measuring the impact of the results for every graduating student ( Michigan Works! Agency, 2001 ). Other local efforts we found that attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of school-to-work or career preparation activities for students include annual reports on Kalamazoo County's Education For Employment (EFE) program, Marquette-Alger Intermediate School District's (MAISD) school-to-work initiative, and follow-up studies of students in Macomb County.
该州的一些从业者也在努力评估毕业生的职业准备效果。密歇根工厂之一的报告！机构表示，所有贝林县高中都采用了职业路径模型，并且正在衡量结果对每个应届毕业生的影响（ 密歇根工作！机构，2001 年 ).我们发现，其他尝试评估学生从学校到工作或职业准备活动的有效性的地方努力包括关于卡拉马祖县就业教育 （EFE） 计划的年度报告、马凯特-阿尔及尔中级学区 （MAISD） 的学校到工作计划，以及对马科姆县学生的后续研究。Berrien County . Data collected so far in Berrien County suggest that the district's adoption of the Career Pathways model led to large increases in student enrollments in math and science courses and in career and technical education ( Rudy, 2001 ). These data indicate a dramatic increase in career and technical education enrollment, from 895 students in 1997 to 5,554 students in 2001. Likewise, enrollment in 3 rd year math programs increased from 686 students in 1997 to 2,080 students in 2001, and enrollment in 3 rd year science programs increased from 769 students in 1997 to 2,389 students in 2001. The Berrien County report also shows large increases in the number of students enrolling in postsecondary education either as high school students through dual enrollment or as graduates. In 1997, 62 high school students were enrolled in college level courses, increasing to 299 in 2001. Similarly, in 1997 61 percent of Berrien County graduates attended postsecondary institutions, rising to 69 percent in 2001.
贝林县 .迄今为止在贝林县收集的数据表明，该学区采用职业途径模型导致数学和科学课程以及职业和技术教育的学生入学人数大幅增加。 鲁迪，2001 年 ).这些数据表明，职业和技术教育入学人数急剧增加，从 1997 年的 895 名学生增加到 2001 年的 5,554 名学生。同样，3 RD Year 数学课程从 1997 年的 686 名学生增加到 2001 年的 2,080 名学生，入学人数为 3 年 RD 年科学课程从 1997 年的 769 名学生增加到 2001 年的 2,389 名学生。贝林县的报告还显示，通过双录取成为高中生或毕业生，接受高等教育的学生人数大幅增加。1997 年，有 62 名高中生参加了大学课程，到 2001 年增加到 299 人。同样，1997 年，贝林县 61% 的毕业生就读于高等教育机构，2001 年上升到 69%。These data, which coincide with the implementation of Career Pathways and Education Development Plans, suggest that these activities have had a positive effect on students' postsecondary enrollments and career preparation. Of course, in line with our general point regarding evaluation studies, it is difficult to conclude that these impacts are attributable to school-to-work programs, without a comparison showing relative gains with respect to students in other districts where these efforts were not implemented.
这些数据与职业道路和教育发展计划的实施相吻合，表明这些活动对学生的高等教育入学和职业准备产生了积极影响。当然，根据我们关于评估研究的一般观点，很难得出这些影响归因于学校到工作计划的结论，如果不进行比较显示与未实施这些努力的其他地区的学生相比的相对收益。MAISD school-to-work initiative evaluation report . The Education and Human Services Committee of the Lake Superior Community Partnership commissioned a study to assess the effectiveness of school-to-work initiatives in schools served by the Marquette-Alger Intermediate School District (Dubow & Mourand, 1999). The local plan for the MAISD school-to-work initiative was to engage the community in the preparation of young people for work. The local efforts focused on high school students' work-based learning experiences, with career planning beginning as early as elementary school ( Dubow & Mourand, 1999 ). The local plan intended to accomplish the following: promote the use of local businesses for the development of work-based learning programs; restructure the role of counselors and teachers to provide students with access to school-to-work activities and better information to make career decisions; promote two high school pathways-Tech Prep and University Prep; form partnerships through four local school-to-work focus groups with more than 50 percent membership from businesses; and hire local school-to-work coordinators in participating counties.
MAISD 学校到工作倡议评估报告 .苏必利尔湖社区伙伴关系的教育和人类服务委员会委托进行了一项研究，以评估在 Marquette-Alger 中级学区服务的学校中学校到工作倡议的有效性（Dubow & Mourand，1999 年）。MAISD school-to-work 倡议的当地计划是让社区参与为年轻人工作做准备。当地的努力侧重于高中生基于工作的学习体验，早在小学就开始了职业规划 （ Dubow & Mourand，1999 年 ).地方计划旨在实现以下目标：促进利用当地企业开发基于工作的学习计划;调整辅导员和教师的角色，为学生提供从学校到工作的活动和更好的信息，以做出职业决定;推广两种高中途径——Tech Prep 和 University Prep;通过四个当地 School-to-Work 焦点小组建立合作伙伴关系，其中 50% 以上的成员来自企业;并在参与县聘请当地的学校到工作协调员。The intent of the study was not to address how well each of the above goals were met, but rather to "… paint a picture, based on the information and perceptions of key stakeholders of Marquette and Alger Counties, regarding the school-to-work initiative" ( Dubow & Mourand, 1999 , p. 7). Researchers gathered quantitative data on all of the area's high school students to measure progress on the state's five school-to-work goals. The researchers reported that MAISD met the state's graduation rate goal of 90 percent, and that 98 percent of the area's graduates were employed or attending a postsecondary school one year following graduation, which they characterized as falling short of state goals (although it would seem unreasonable to expect 100 percent success). (We have not been able to identify the source of the state standards cited in this study.) While approximately 38 percent of the area's high school seniors completed a career and technical course in 1997, the authors reported that there was no state-certificate program available at the time the data were collected, making it difficult to achieve the state goal of certification for 35 percent of seniors. Data also indicate that 75 percent of the area's students participated in a work-based learning experience, versus the state goal of 100 percent participation, and about 86 percent of students in the area achieved an endorsed diploma in communication arts, mathematics, and science, versus the state standard of 90 percent.
该研究的目的不是解决上述每个目标的实现情况，而是“......根据马凯特县和阿尔及尔县主要利益相关者的信息和看法，描绘一幅关于学校到工作倡议的图景”（ Dubow & Mourand，1999 年 ，第 7 页）。研究人员收集了该地区所有高中生的定量数据，以衡量该州实现五个“从学校到工作”目标的进展情况。研究人员报告说，MAISD 达到了该州 90% 的毕业率目标，并且该地区 98% 的毕业生在毕业一年后就业或就读于高等教育学校，他们将其描述为达不到州目标（尽管期望 100% 的成功似乎不合理）。（我们无法确定本研究中引用的州标准的来源。虽然该地区大约 38% 的高中生在 1997 年完成了职业和技术课程，但作者报告说，在收集数据时没有可用的州证书计划，因此很难实现 35% 的老年人获得认证的州目标。数据还表明，该地区 75% 的学生参加了基于工作的学习体验，而该州的目标是 100% 的参与率，该地区约 86% 的学生获得了传播艺术、数学和科学的认可文凭，而州标准为 90%。To attempt to establish progress due to school-to-work, data on some goals such as academic achievement, employment, and graduation over three years are provided. But there is in fact little evidence that establishes this progress. For example, follow-up surveys of graduates at all of the MAISD high schools for 1995, 1996, and 1997 indicate a consistent rate of 25 percent of graduates employed fulltime. While the number of students participating in school and work increased each of the three years, the number of students enrolled in school alone decreased in each of the three years. The result is a slight increase in the share of students either enrolled in school alone or in school and working, from 64 percent in 1995 to 66 percent in 1996, and remaining at 66 percent in 1997. The share of unemployed graduates was consistent at 2 percent for all three years. Other data presented are simply for one year, providing no comparison to gauge progress on state goals, and- echoing our earlier criticism-providing no indication that the outcomes represented in the data are a direct result of school-to-work activities.
为了尝试确定从学校到工作的进展，提供了有关一些目标的数据，例如三年内的学业成绩、就业和毕业。但事实上，几乎没有证据证明这一进展。例如，对 1995 年、1996 年和 1997 年所有 MAISD 高中毕业生的后续调查表明，全职就业的毕业生比例始终为 25%。虽然三年中参加学校和工作的学生人数每年都在增加，但三年中每年仅在学校入学的学生人数都在减少。其结果是，独自入学或上学并工作的学生比例略有增加，从 1995 年的 64% 增加到 1996 年的 66%，1997 年保持在 66%。所有三年的毕业生失业率一直保持在 2%。提供的其他数据只是一年的数据，没有提供比较来衡量国家目标的进展情况，并且 - 呼应我们之前的批评 - 没有表明数据中表示的结果是学校到工作活动的直接结果。The report's qualitative data provide some evidence that school-to-work activities help students better connect to career interests. For example, responses from educators as to the strengths of school-to-work included statements such as "students find out they don't like certain types of work" ( Dubow & Mourand, 1999 , p. 11). However, most of the questions and responses in the report reflect the local plan's efforts to build partnerships among businesses and schools and to establish priorities for school-to-work within schools and communities. Based on the qualitative data, the authors contend that key issues regarding the effectiveness of the school-to-work efforts are the need for a school-to-work coordinator to help build partnerships between educators and employers and to coordinate school-to-work opportunities for students, and the priority of school-to-work activities within the school community. Much of the MAISD study underscores the systems issues discussed earlier ( Jacobs & Teahen, 1998 ), such as the need for educators and parents to see value in school-to-work activities for all students. Overall, there is little evidence in the MAISD report that directly ties school-to-work activities to youth employment (or education) outcomes.
该报告的定性数据提供了一些证据，表明学校到工作的活动有助于学生更好地与职业兴趣联系起来。例如，教育工作者对学校到工作的优势的回答包括“学生发现他们不喜欢某些类型的工作”（ Dubow & Mourand，1999 年 ，第 11 页）。然而，报告中的大多数问题和回答都反映了当地计划在企业和学校之间建立伙伴关系以及确定学校和社区内从学校到工作的优先事项的努力。根据定性数据，作者认为，关于学校到工作工作的有效性的关键问题是需要一名学校到工作协调员来帮助在教育工作者和雇主之间建立伙伴关系，协调学生从学校到工作的机会，以及学校到工作活动的优先权在学校社区内。MAISD 研究的大部分内容都强调了前面讨论的系统问题 （ Jacobs & Teahen， 1998 ），例如教育工作者和家长需要看到所有学生从学校到工作活动的价值。总体而言，MAISD 报告中几乎没有证据表明学校到工作活动与青年就业（或教育）结果直接相关。Kalamazoo County's Education for Employment (EFE) . Kalamazoo County provides career and technical education for a broad range of careers, offering both classroom-based and work-based programs through its EFE program. The classroombased programs are conducted in schools, post-secondary institutions, or work sites, and cover 30 different occupations. Work-based programs supplement classroombased programs by including cooperative learning (co-op), business/industry worksite training, and apprenticeships.
卡拉马祖县的就业教育 （EFE） .卡拉马祖县为广泛的职业提供职业和技术教育，通过其 EFE 计划提供基于课堂和基于工作的课程。基于课堂的课程在学校、大专院校或工作场所进行，涵盖 30 种不同的职业。基于工作的课程通过包括合作学习 （co-op）、商业/行业工作场所培训和学徒制来补充基于课堂的课程。Kalamazoo County's EFE program commissioned the Upjohn Institute to conduct a study of its programs through annual follow-up surveys with program participants. In addition, Upjohn conducted focus groups with students engaged in EFE programs in 1996. Surveys of participating students and completers were conducted covering the period 1996-2001, to garner an understanding of the impact of the EFE program on career and postsecondary decisions, opinions about EFE programs, and trends in EFE experiences and employment.
卡拉马祖县的 EFE 计划委托 Upjohn 研究所通过对计划参与者的年度后续调查对其计划进行研究。此外，Upjohn 还在 1996 年与参与 EFE 计划的学生进行了焦点小组讨论。对参与的学生和完成者进行了 1996-2001 年期间的调查，以了解 EFE 计划对职业和高等教育决策的影响、对 EFE 计划的看法以及 EFE 经历和就业的趋势。Approximately 2,500 students in Kalamazoo County were enrolled in EFE programs at the time of the surveys conducted in 2001 ( Hollenbeck & DeBurman, 2001 ). Results from the focus groups and surveys suggest that the school-to-work experiences of students in EFE have an impact on the students' career decisions. "The programs provided students with information that helped them to select specific institutions and to narrow their fields of study. Articulation agreements allowed students to acquire college credits for courses they were taking, and work experiences allowed students to gain hours toward occupational certification" ( Hollenbeck, 1996 , p. 27). Even though the study surveyed only students involved in the EFE programs, the Upjohn Institute study does attempt to offer some causal evidence based on a comparison of student groups. For example, students enrolled in EFE programs may participate in programs with work-based learning components or programs without work-based learning components. By surveying students in both of these EFE tracks, the data indicate some differences between students who have experienced work-based learning and those who have not.
在 2001 年进行的调查时，卡拉马祖县约有 2,500 名学生参加了 EFE 课程（ Hollenbeck & DeBurman， 2001 ).焦点小组和调查的结果表明，EFE 学生从学校到工作的经历对学生的职业决定有影响。“这些项目为学生提供了信息，帮助他们选择特定的机构并缩小他们的学习领域。衔接协议允许学生获得他们正在学习的课程的大学学分，而工作经验允许学生获得职业认证的时间”（ Hollenbeck， 1996 年 ，第 27 页）。尽管该研究仅调查了参与 EFE 计划的学生，但 Upjohn Institute 的研究确实试图根据学生群体的比较提供一些因果证据。例如，参加 EFE 课程的学生可以参加具有基于工作的学习组件的课程或没有基于工作的学习组件的课程。通过对这两个 EFE 轨道的学生进行调查，数据表明体验过基于工作学习的学生与没有经历过的学生之间存在一些差异。The study indicates, for example, that work-based learning experiences affected students' choices of postsecondary programs. "… [S]tudents who were not in a work-based program in high school were much more likely to report that their EFE training was not at all related to their field than the students who were in a workbased program" ( Hollenbeck, 1996 , p. 46). Specifically, survey data from students in 2001 indicate that students' participation in EFE programs influenced student decisions to attend a postsecondary institution for about 40 percent of the students. In addition, about two-thirds of the survey respondents who were in postsecondary programs and who have selected a field of study reported that it was related to the EFE class either "a lot" or "somewhat."
例如，该研究表明，基于工作的学习经历影响了学生对高等教育课程的选择。"…与参加基于工作的课程的学生相比，高中时没有参加基于工作的课程的学生更有可能报告他们的 EFE 培训与他们所在的领域完全无关”（ Hollenbeck， 1996 年 ，第 46 页）。具体来说，2001 年学生的调查数据表明，学生参加 EFE 课程影响了大约 40% 的学生进入高等教育机构的决定。此外，大约三分之二的高等教育课程受访者并选择了研究领域，他们报告说它与 EFE 课程“很大”或“有点”相关。But because EFE students self-select into particular EFE programs, determining for themselves whether they will enroll in a work-based program, it is possible that there are characteristics of students who self-select into work-based programs that are associated with better career decisions, or greater focus on career decisions at this point in their lives. However, the 1996 focus groups with EFE students suggested that students who were exposed to work-based learning were better able to make career decisions based on their experiences. The study cites three specific types of benefits based on the student interviews: exposure to all aspects of an industry; identification of specific careers; and development of personal contacts with employers.
但是，由于 EFE 学生自行选择参加特定的 EFE 课程，自行决定他们是否会参加基于工作的课程，因此自选参加基于工作的课程的学生可能存在与更好的职业决策相关的特征，或者在他们生命的这个阶段更加关注职业决策。然而，1996 年对 EFE 学生的焦点小组表明，接触基于工作学习的学生能够更好地根据他们的经验做出职业决定。该研究根据学生访谈列举了三种特定类型的好处：接触行业的各个方面;确定特定职业;以及发展与雇主的个人联系。Employment data on EFE graduates indicate that two-fifths of the students who were working reported using skills and training received in their EFE classes. The other three-fifths, however, reported using "hardly any" of their EFE skills and training. These data are not broken down according to students who were in workbased or non-work-based programs, so again it is difficult to determine if work-based experiences make a difference to whether students are using their training on the job. And data from a comparison group of students not enrolled in EFE would provide a basis to determine whether the programs had any effects at all.
EFE 毕业生的就业数据表明，五分之二的在职学生报告说使用了他们在 EFE 课程中获得的技能和培训。然而，其他五分之三的学生报告说，他们“几乎没有”使用他们的 EFE 技能和培训。这些数据没有根据参加基于工作或非基于工作的课程的学生进行细分，因此同样很难确定基于工作的经历是否会影响学生是否在工作中使用他们的培训。来自未参加 EFE 的学生的对照组的数据将为确定这些项目是否有任何影响提供基础。Finally, some of the most recent employment figures are, at least on the surface, discouraging. Employment data for the 2001 report show a decrease in the number of participating students who were currently employed in jobs other than those affiliated with the work-based EFE programs, which could suggest failure to move students into jobs outside of the school-to-work system. The percentage dropped from 60 percent in 1996 to 50 percent in 2001, although the drop may have been caused by increased enrollment of 9 th and 10 th grade students ( Hollenbeck & DeBurman, 2001 ). In addition, the 2001 employment rate of EFE completers was lower than in any of the previous years. In 2001, 75 percent of completers surveyed were employed compared with 82 and 88 percent in the previous two years. However, the 2001 survey was conducted earlier in the year than the previous surveys, which might account for the discrepancy in employment figures ( Hollenbeck & DeBurman, 2001 , p. 49). Finally, some of the 2001 results may also have been influenced by a slowing economy, yet again emphasizing the need for a comparison group.
最后，至少从表面上看，一些最新的就业数据令人沮丧。2001 年报告的就业数据显示，目前从事与基于工作的 EFE 计划相关的工作以外的工作的参与学生人数有所减少，这可能表明学生未能转移到学校到工作系统之外的工作。这一比例从 1996 年的 60% 下降到 2001 年的 50%，尽管下降可能是由于入学人数增加 9 th 和 10 th 给学生评分 （ Hollenbeck & DeBurman， 2001 ).此外，2001 年 EFE 完成者的就业率低于以往任何一年。2001 年，75% 的受访完成者找到了工作，而前两年分别为 82% 和 88%。然而，2001 年的调查比以前的调查更早进行，这可能是就业数字差异的原因 （ Hollenbeck & DeBurman， 2001 ，第 49 页）。最后，2001 年的一些结果也可能受到经济放缓的影响，这再次强调了对比较组的需求。Macomb County . A series of five-year follow-up telephone surveys of Macomb County graduates was initiated by the Macomb County School-to-Work Partnership in 1997. The fourth poll by the group, now called the Macomb County Career Preparation System, was conducted in 2000 and covered students who graduated in 1995 ( Macomb County Career Preparation System, 2000 ). This survey-the Macomb County Five-year Follow-up Survey of the Class of 1995-provides data on the educational programs attended by 1995 graduates, the kinds of careers chosen by graduates, and their employment and expected and actual income. None of these data, however, are tied to students' experiences in high school school-to-work programs. The survey does, though, ask graduates about the effectiveness of high school counseling in finding postsecondary education, training, and careers, and there is a brief discussion of the impact high school employment had on graduates.
马科姆县 .1997 年，马科姆县学校到工作伙伴关系 （Macomb County School-to-Work Partnership） 发起了一系列对马科姆县毕业生的五年后续电话调查。该组织的第四次民意调查（现在称为马科姆县职业准备系统）于 2000 年进行，覆盖了 1995 年毕业的学生（ 马科姆县职业准备系统，2000 年 ).这项调查 - 马科姆县 1995 届五年后续调查 - 提供有关 1995 年毕业生参加的教育课程、毕业生选择的职业类型以及他们的就业、预期和实际收入的数据。然而，这些数据都与学生在高中从学校到工作项目中的经历无关。不过，该调查确实询问了毕业生高中咨询在寻找高等教育、培训和职业方面的有效性，并简要讨论了高中就业对毕业生的影响。Whereas a 1995 survey of Macomb County seniors indicated that 97 percent of the respondents planned to continue their education following graduation, data from the five-year follow-up survey indicate that 90 percent of the respondents attended some type of "formal education" or education leading to a diploma, degree, or certification upon completion. Eighteen percent of the respondents who reported attending an educational program also reported not completing the program. Without knowledge of the school-to-work initiatives that may have influenced students' postsecondary education and career decisions, or a comparison group, data from the follow-up survey provide no indication about the relationship between the county's school-to-work or career preparation system and student career and education outcomes.
虽然 1995 年对马科姆县老年人的调查表明，97% 的受访者计划在毕业后继续接受教育，但五年随访调查的数据表明，90% 的受访者参加了某种类型的“正规教育”或毕业后获得文凭、学位或证书的教育。18% 报告参加教育计划的受访者也报告没有完成该计划。如果不了解可能影响学生高等教育和职业决策的从学校到工作倡议，或进行比较组，来自后续调查的数据无法表明该县的学校到工作或职业准备系统与学生职业和教育成果之间的关系。A review of survey results from the previous three years is also presented in the report. A comparison shows that college enrollment rose 10 percentage points from the class of 1994 (77 percent) to the class of 1995 (87 percent). However, approximately the same difference exists between the class of 1993 (84 percent) and the class of 1992 (75 percent)-classes graduating prior to the STWOA-indicating that it is difficult to draw any inference of an effect of the STWOA. There was a significant decrease, however, in the number of students who reported not attending any further education from the class of 1994 (17 percent) to the class of 1995 (10 percent), possibly indicating that school-to-work initiatives help more students see the need for further education. But without more information about school-to-work activities and students' participation in them, it is impossible to determine if schoolto- work helps explain the drop.
报告还回顾了过去三年的调查结果。比较显示，从 1994 届 （77%） 到 1995 届 （87%） ，大学入学率上升了 10 个百分点。然而，1993 届 （84%） 和 1992 届 （75%） 之间存在大致相同的差异——在 STWOA 之前毕业——这表明很难对 STWOA 的影响做出任何推断。然而，从 1994 届 （17%） 到 1995 届 （10%） ，报告没有接受任何继续教育的学生人数显着减少，这可能表明学校到工作的举措帮助更多学生看到继续教育的必要性。但是，如果没有更多关于 school-to-work 活动和学生参与这些活动的信息，就无法确定 schoolto- work 是否有助于解释这种下降。The Macomb County Five-year Follow-up Survey of the Class of 1995 indicates that about half of the 1995 graduates believe high school counselors could do a better job preparing students for college, postsecondary training, or careers. Students who engaged in training and education programs other than college gave a more favorable assessment of high school counseling than other students, with only 48 percent reporting that high school counseling could be improved. In contrast, of the graduates who went on to college and responded to the survey, 59 percent indicated that high school counseling for helping students explore what various colleges had to offer could be improved, and 57 percent indicated that improvements could be made in helping students find ways to finance a college education. Among all of the survey respondents, 55 percent reported high school counselors could have provided more help in exploring and choosing a career.
马科姆县 1995 届毕业生五年随访调查表明，大约一半的 1995 年毕业生认为高中辅导员可以更好地为学生准备大学、高等教育培训或职业。参加大学以外的培训和教育计划的学生比其他学生对高中咨询的评价更高，只有 48% 的学生表示高中咨询可以改进。相比之下，在继续上大学并回答调查的毕业生中，59% 的人表示可以帮助学生探索各种大学所提供的东西的高中咨询可以改进，57% 的人表示可以改进帮助学生找到资助大学教育的方法。在所有受访者中，55% 的人表示高中辅导员可以在探索和选择职业方面提供更多帮助。Employment rates of Macomb County graduates have remained consistent over the past four years, with unemployment at 2 percent for the classes of 1995, 1993, and 1992, and unemployment slightly lower at 1 percent for the class of 1994. The class of 1995 reported a lower number of respondents employed full-time (71 percent) than in the other three years (78 percent in 1994, and 73 percent in 1992 and 1993), and a higher number of respondents employed part-time (19 percent) than in the other three years (14 percent in 1994, 17 percent in 1993, and 16 percent in 1992). Both the class of 1995 and the class of 1992 reported 7 percent of graduates attending school five years after graduation, higher than the classes of 1994 (4 percent) and 1993 (5 percent). Again, the employment data offer little evidence on the effectiveness of school-to-work or the career preparation system without any tie to students' high school career preparation activities, and aside from that, indicate no clear trends over time that might at least informally be linked to school-to-work.
马科姆县毕业生的就业率在过去四年中保持不变，1995 年、1993 年和 1992 届的失业率为 2%，1994 届的失业率略低，为 1%。1995 届毕业生报告称，全职就业的受访者人数 （71%） 低于其他三年（1994 年为 78%，1992 年和 1993 年为 73%），兼职就业的受访者人数 （19%） 高于其他三年（1994 年为 14%，1993 年为 17%，1992 年为 16%）。1995 届和 1992 届都报告了 7% 的毕业生在毕业五年后上学，高于 1994 届 （4%） 和 1993 届 （5%）。同样，就业数据几乎没有提供证据证明 school-to-work 或职业准备系统的有效性，与学生的高中职业准备活动没有任何联系，除此之外，没有表明随着时间的推移，没有明显的趋势可能至少与学校到工作有非正式的联系。The report also discusses the impact of employment during high school. Eightyeight percent of the respondents of the class of 1995 reported having a job during their senior year in high school. Of these students, 76 percent reported that their high school jobs had no effect on the grades they earned in high school and 67 percent said that their high school job did not influence them at all when it came to choosing a career. Sixty-six percent, however, said their high school job helped prepare them for the world of work. Of course, because of selection into high school employment, and because these data are self-reported perceptions of preparedness rather than objective measures of outcomes, such results are not too informative about the impact of work in high school.
该报告还讨论了高中期间就业的影响。88% 的 1995 届受访者报告说他们在高中高年级时有一份工作。在这些学生中，76% 的人表示他们的高中工作对他们在高中取得的成绩没有影响，67% 的人表示他们的高中工作在选择职业时根本没有影响他们。然而，66% 的人表示，他们的高中工作帮助他们为工作世界做好了准备。当然，由于被选入高中就业，并且因为这些数据是自我报告的对准备情况的看法，而不是对结果的客观衡量，所以这样的结果并不能很好地说明高中工作的影响。Discussion 讨论
Building on the state's tech prep initiative, school-to-work in Michigan has resulted in a comprehensive Career Preparation System, which is being adopted by most of the state's school districts. This fact alone provides evidence that the goal of the STWOA to build a system of career preparation for all students has been successful in Michigan. But what has been the impact of these activities on Michigan students? State-level evaluation work has focused on students in career and technical education programs. In general, outcome-based assessment activities other than the collection and reporting of data on career and technical education for the state have not been universal or even widespread. We did, though, uncover some local studies of school-to-work at the level of counties or school districts. Overall, the strength of the evidence in this limited set of studies in support of positive effects of school-towork or career preparation activities on student career education, training, and employment, is weak. But for the most part, at this point there is simply insufficient information to provide either a constructive assessment of school-to-work in Michigan, or much guidance for improvement. At best, there are a couple of instances of suggestive evidence that career preparation activities may assist with students' career and employment decisions, and that work-based learning experiences, in particular, may help students make better career decisions.
在该州的技术准备计划的基础上，密歇根州的 School-to-Work 形成了一个全面的职业准备系统，该系统已被该州的大多数学区采用。仅这一事实就证明了 STWOA 为所有学生建立职业准备系统的目标在密歇根州已经成功。但是，这些活动对密歇根州的学生有什么影响呢？州级评估工作侧重于职业和技术教育计划的学生。一般来说，除了收集和报告该州职业和技术教育数据之外，基于结果的评估活动并不普遍，甚至不广泛。不过，我们确实在县或学区层面发现了一些关于学校到工作的地方研究。总体而言，这组有限的研究中支持在校工作或职业准备活动对学生职业教育、培训和就业有积极影响的证据强度较弱。但在大多数情况下，目前根本没有足够的信息来提供对密歇根州的学校到工作岗位的建设性评估，或提供太多的改进指导。充其量，有几个暗示性证据表明，职业准备活动可能有助于学生的职业和就业决定，特别是基于工作的学习经历可能有助于学生做出更好的职业决定。In contrast, there is somewhat more information available on the progress local school districts and the state have made toward building a career preparation system. Assessing this progress can provide some useful information with regard to schoolto- work, including: the implementation of school-to-work; the number of students being served by the system and characteristics of those students; the number of students earning employable certification; and the extent of employer participation. However, these "progress reports" generally do not provide any information on the causal impact of the system on student outcomes such as attendance, discipline, academic achievement, graduation rates, and enrollment in postsecondary education, or on labor market outcomes.
相比之下，关于当地学区和州在建立职业准备系统方面取得的进展，有更多信息。评估这一进展可以提供一些关于学校到工作方面的有用信息，包括： 学校到工作的实施;系统所服务的学生人数和这些学生的特点;获得就业证明的学生人数;以及雇主参与的程度。然而，这些“进度报告”通常不提供任何关于该系统对学生成绩（如出勤率、学科、学业成绩、毕业率和高等教育入学率）或劳动力市场结果的因果影响的信息。The goal of this paper was to ask whether by engaging in an exhaustive case study of school-to-work initiatives in one state a more compelling picture of beneficial effects of school-to-work programs would emerge than has been established by the work done on this question at the national level. Unfortunately, the answer appears to be in the negative.
本文的目的是询问，通过对一个州的 school-to-work 计划进行详尽的案例研究，是否会比在国家层面就此问题所做的工作所建立的更令人信服的学校-工作计划的有益影响出现。不幸的是，答案似乎是否定的。But we hope that this case study helps to clarify some of the imperatives for future research on school-to-work. To gauge the impact of school-to-work programs on students, evaluators need to look at the outcomes of students in relation to their career preparation activity. Equally important, efforts should be made to rule out other causes for changes or differences in student education, employment, and career outcomes. Finally, efforts must be directed to assessing the effects of school-to-work on all students, not just those enrolled in particular programs (such as, in Michigan, career and technical education). The difficulty in engaging in evaluation activities during program implementation is apparent, but waiting until full implementation is achieved can lead to important missed opportunities. In particular, beginning to collect data on student career outcomes before all students are participating in a school-to-work system can provide at least some data that can be helpful in constructing comparison groups that can be used to help evaluate the effects of career preparation on students. Efforts such as those in Michigan to develop a career preparation accountability committee are on the right track.
但我们希望这个案例研究有助于阐明未来学校到工作研究的一些必要条件。为了衡量从学校到工作计划对学生的影响，评估人员需要查看学生的职业准备活动的结果。同样重要的是，应努力排除学生教育、就业和职业结果发生变化或差异的其他原因。最后，必须努力评估从学校到工作对所有学生的影响，而不仅仅是那些参加特定课程（例如，在密歇根州的职业和技术教育）的学生。在项目实施过程中参与评价活动的困难是显而易见的，但等到全面实施可能会导致错失重要的机会。特别是，在所有学生都参与学校到工作系统之前开始收集有关学生职业成果的数据，至少可以提供一些数据，这些数据有助于构建可用于帮助评估职业准备对学生的影响的比较组。密歇根州为建立职业准备问责委员会所做的努力正走在正确的轨道上。But it is most important that government bodies responsible for school-to-work not delay efforts to formally evaluate school-to-work programs, including collection of data while implementation remains incomplete, and consideration of whether some components of implementation of the system-not necessarily restricted to ex post data collection, but perhaps also expanded to include, for example, differential program treatments across geographic regions-may be utilized to construct more rigorous evaluations of school-to-work programs. Indeed, we would go so far as to suggest that serious thought be given to including mandates for rigorous evaluation in any future legislation allocating funds to school-to-work. A related policy was pursued in the run-up to welfare reform in the early 1990s, as states requesting waivers from federal welfare regulations in order to try implementing their own welfare reforms were required to engage in experimental evaluations of their waiver programs. Blank (2002) describes the results of these evaluations as contributing importantly to the federal reforms adopted in 1996.
但最重要的是，负责学校到工作的政府机构不要拖延正式评估学校到工作计划的努力，包括在实施尚未完成的情况下收集数据，并考虑是否可以利用系统实施的某些组成部分——不一定局限于事后数据收集，但也可能扩展到包括例如，跨地理区域的差异化计划处理——来构建更严格的对学校到工作计划的评估。事实上，我们甚至建议认真考虑在未来任何为学校工作分配资金的立法中包括严格评估的授权。在 1990 年代初期福利改革的准备阶段，实施了一项相关政策，因为要求豁免联邦福利法规以尝试实施自己的福利改革的州需要对其豁免计划进行实验性评估。 空白 （2002） 将这些评估的结果描述为对 1996 年通过的联邦改革做出了重要贡献。References 引用
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Acknowledgments
DAVID NEUMARK is Senior Fellow in Economics at the Public Policy Institute of California, Professor of Economics at Michigan State University, and a Research Associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research. [e-mail: neumark@ppic.org ] His research interests include school-to-work, the returns to education, discrimination, affirmative action, minimum wages, living wages, and the economics of aging. ANN ALLEN is a graduate student in the College of Education at Michigan State University. [e-mail: AnnAllen@aol.com ] We thank David Plank and anonymous referees for helpful comments. This research was supported by the Education Policy Center at Michigan State University. Any opinions expressed are the authors' own, and do not necessarily express the views of the Education Policy Center or the Public Policy Institute of California. Corresponding author: David Neumark, Public Policy Institute of California, 500 Washington St., Suite 800, San Francisco, CA 94127, 415-291-4476, neumark@ppic.org .
大卫·诺伊马克（DAVID NEUMARK）是加州公共政策研究所（Public Policy Institute of California）经济学高级研究员、密歇根州立大学（Michigan State University）经济学教授、美国国家经济研究局（National Bureau of Economic Research）研究员。[电子邮件： neumark@ppic.org ] 他的研究兴趣包括学校到工作、教育回报、歧视、平权行动、最低工资、生活工资和老龄化经济学。ANN ALLEN 是密歇根州立大学教育学院的研究生。[电子邮件： AnnAllen@aol.com ] 我们感谢 David Plank 和匿名裁判的有益评论。这项研究得到了密歇根州立大学教育政策中心的支持。所表达的任何观点均为作者自己的观点，并不一定代表教育政策中心或加州公共政策研究所的观点。通讯作者：David Neumark，加利福尼亚公共政策研究所，500 Washington St.， Suite 800， San Francisco， CA 94127,415-291-4476， neumark@ppic.org .