Concept 2.1 Hofstede's national cultural dimensions
概念 2.1 霍夫斯泰德的国家文化维度
Geert Hofstede’s research in the area of culture and management is known worldwide. His theories are not only frequently quoted and applied in cross-cultural research, but also used (often indiscriminately) in prescriptive works on dealing with other cultures. Despite, or maybe because of, its prominence, his work has provoked much criticism from theorists and practitioners alike, as we will see later. Nevertheless, consideration of Hofstede’s work is indispensable to any study on culture and management.
Geert Hofstede 在文化与管理领域的研究举世闻名。他的理论不仅在跨文化研究中被频繁引用和应用,而且还被用于(经常是不加区分地)与其他文化打交道的规范性著作中。尽管霍夫斯特的理论声名显赫,或者说正因为如此,他的著作也引起了理论家和实践者的许多批评,这一点我们稍后会看到。尽管如此,对霍夫斯泰德的研究对于任何有关文化与管理的研究都是不可或缺的。
Hofstede developed a dimensional approach to cross-cultural comparisons through his pioneering studies into how management is affected by differences between cultural groupings. He conducted extensive studies into national cultural differences, the first being across employees working in subsidiaries of a multinational corporation (IBM) in 64 countries. Hofstede, who had founded and managed the personnel research department of IBM Europe, took a database of scores resulting from attitude surveys among IBM employees worldwide and re-analysed the figures. The surveys had been developed as a management tool to examine issues relating to the work situation (determined beforchand through interviews with personnel). The original respondents in these surveys were matched groups (Hofstede, 1980) in seven occupational categories, five of them being non-managerial and two managerial.
霍夫斯泰德开创性地研究了不同文化群体之间的差异对管理的影响,从而提出了一种跨文化比较的维度方法。他对各国的文化差异进行了广泛的研究,其中第一项研究的对象是一家跨国公司(IBM)在 64 个国家的子公司的员工。霍夫斯泰德曾创建并管理着 IBM 欧洲公司的人事研究部门,他从 IBM 全球员工的态度调查中获取了一个得分数据库,并对数据进行了重新分析。这些调查是作为一种管理工具开发出来的,用于研究与工作状况有关的问题(通过与员工面谈确定)。这些调查的原始受访者是七个职业类别中的匹配群体(Hofstede,1980 年),其中五个是非管理人员,两个是管理人员。
The research set-up, as well as the statistical methods used by Hofstede, was applied by other researchers to other groups, including students in 23 countries, commercial airline pilots in 23 countries and civil service managers in 14 countries. These studies together identified and validated the first four dimensions of national culture differences described in this concept. Hofstede later developed a fifth dimension to account for value orientations that emerged from research carried out from a Chinese perspective. A sixth dimension emerged recently based essentially on research into subjective well-being - or ‘happiness’.
其他研究人员将霍夫斯泰德的研究设置和统计方法应用于其他群体,包括 23 个国家的学生、23 个国家的商业航空公司飞行员和 14 个国家的公务员管理人员。这些研究共同确定并验证了这一概念中描述的民族文化差异的前四个维度。霍夫斯泰德后来又开发了第五个维度,以解释从中国视角开展的研究中出现的价值取向。第六个维度是最近出现的,主要基于对主观幸福感(或 "快乐")的研究。
Hofstede used the results of his research to produce a comparison between cultures on four and eventually five dimensions (the sixth dimension not yet having sufficient data):
霍夫斯泰德利用他的研究成果,从四个维度对不同文化进行了比较,最终得出了五个维度(第六个维度还没有足够的数据):
- Power distance (high/low): attitudes to authority, the distance between individuals in a hierarchy.
权力距离(高/低):对权威的态度,等级制度中个人之间的距离。
- Uncertainty avoidance (high/low): the degree of tolerance for uncertainty or instability.
不确定性规避(高/低):对不确定性或不稳定性的容忍程度。
- Individual versus group orientation: independence and interdependence, the loyalty towards oneself and towards a group.
个人取向与群体取向:独立与相互依存,对自己的忠诚与对群体的忠诚。
- Masculine versus feminine orientation: importance of work goals (earnings, advancement) compared with personal goals (co-operation, relationships).
男性取向与女性取向:工作目标(收入、晋升)与个人目标(合作、关系)的重要性。
- Short-term versus long-term orientation: fostering virtues related to the past and present or virtues related to the future.
短期导向与长期导向:培养与过去和现在相关的美德还是与未来相关的美德。
It should be stressed that these dimensions form a general model and are not necessarily applicable in specific circumstances. They describe tendencies within a certain cultural grouping; they present orientations adopted by the majority of members of a cultural grouping in normal situations. They do not account for cultural differences in absolute terms but in relative terms.
需要强调的是,这些维度构成了一个通用模型,并不一定适用于具体情况。它们描述的是某一文化群体中的倾向;呈现的是某一文化群体中的大多数成员在正常情况下所采取的取向。它们并不能绝对地反映文化差异,只能相对地反映文化差异。
In the second edition of his publication Cultures and Organizations (2005), which he wrote with his son, Hofstede examines differences between cultures not only at society level, but also in terms of the family, education and the workplace. When examining these cultural dimensions, this book will focus on the workplace, i.e. the business context.
霍夫斯泰德在其与儿子合著的《文化与组织》(Cultures and Organizations,2005 年)第二版中,不仅探讨了社会层面的文化差异,还探讨了家庭、教育和工作场所的文化差异。在研究这些文化层面时,本书将重点关注工作场所,即企业环境。
Low/high power distance 低/高功率距离
‘Power distance’ refers to the extent to which members of a culture expect and accept that power is unequally distributed in society. It was developed by Hofstede on the basis of earlier research concerning preferences for power among different cultures and, in particular, on research identifying centralisation as a characteristic of organisations (Pugh, 1976).
权力距离 "是指一种文化的成员对社会中权力分配不均的预期和接受程度。它是霍夫斯泰德(Hofstede)在早期关于不同文化间权力偏好的研究基础上发展起来的,尤其是在将集权作为组织特征的研究基础上(Pugh,1976 年)。
As the Hofstedes’ book says: ‘Power and inequality, of course, are fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others’ (Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005: 137). Essentially, this dimension reflects how a culture relates to authority of one form or another. In relational terms, the comparisons made between cultures on this dimension convey the extent to which subordinates are dependent on their bosses. The extremes of this cultural dimension are characterised in Table 2.2.
正如霍夫斯泰德的书中所说:"当然,权力和不平等是任何社会的基本事实,任何具有一定国际经验的人都会意识到,所有社会都是不平等的,但有些社会比其他社会更加不平等"(Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005: 137)。从本质上讲,这一维度反映了一种文化与某种形式的权威的关系。就关系而言,不同文化在这一维度上的比较反映了下属对上司的依赖程度。表 2.2 列出了这一文化维度的两个极端。
In high power distance cultures, effective managers are essentially benevolent autocrats who are focused on the task. They are inaccessible and enjoy privileges their power gives them. If things go wrong, the subordinates - who are dependent on their superiors are usually to blame. In low power distance cultures, on the other hand, effective managers are more oriented towards the people in an organisation and allow them to participate more in making decisions. The relations between subordinates and superiors are more horizontal than vertical: superiors are accessible and try to make out they are less powerful than they are. If anything goes wrong, the system is more to blame rather than the individuals involved.
在高权力距离文化中,有效的管理者本质上是仁慈的专制者,他们专注于任务。他们平易近人,享受权力赋予他们的特权。如果出了问题,依赖于上级的下属通常难辞其咎。另一方面,在低权力距离文化中,有效的管理者会更倾向于组织中的员工,并允许他们更多地参与决策。下级与上级之间的关系更多是横向的,而不是纵向的:上级平易近人,并努力使自己的权力小于实际权力。如果出现任何问题,更多的是系统的责任,而不是相关个人的责任。
Table 2.2 Extremes of Hofstede’s ‘power distance’ dimension
表 2.2 霍夫斯泰德 "权力距离 "维度的极值
Low power distance 低功率距离 |
High power distance 高功率距离 |
应尽量减少不平等,因为不平等会剥削他人
There should be a minimum of inequality since it |
can exploit others |
There should be a minimum of inequality since it
can exploit others| There should be a minimum of inequality since it |
| :--- |
| can exploit others | |
不平等不可避免,每个人都有自己应得的位置
Inequality is unavoidable and everyone has the |
place they deserve |
Inequality is unavoidable and everyone has the
place they deserve| Inequality is unavoidable and everyone has the |
| :--- |
| place they deserve | |
如果组织中存在等级制度,那只是为了方便起见
If there is a hierarchy in an organis ation it is only for |
the sake of convenience |
If there is a hierarchy in an organis ation it is only for
the sake of convenience| If there is a hierarchy in an organis ation it is only for |
| :--- |
| the sake of convenience | |
组织中的等级制度反映了自然差异
Hierarchy in an organisation reflects natural |
differences |
Hierarchy in an organisation reflects natural
differences| Hierarchy in an organisation reflects natural |
| :--- |
| differences | |
上下级都一样
People who are superiors or subordinates are all the |
same |
People who are superiors or subordinates are all the
same| People who are superiors or subordinates are all the |
| :--- |
| same | |
上级或下级是不同类型的人
Superiors or subordinates are different kinds of |
people |
Superiors or subordinates are different kinds of
people| Superiors or subordinates are different kinds of |
| :--- |
| people | |
每个人都应享有同等特权,不应有任何身份象征
Everyone should enjoy the same privileges, there |
should be no status symbols |
Everyone should enjoy the same privileges, there
should be no status symbols| Everyone should enjoy the same privileges, there |
| :--- |
| should be no status symbols | |
权力拥有者有权享有特权和地位象征
Power-holders are entitled to privileges and status |
symbols |
Power-holders are entitled to privileges and status
symbols| Power-holders are entitled to privileges and status |
| :--- |
| symbols | |
Subordinates should be consulted 应征求下属的意见 |
Subordinates should be told what to do 应该告诉下属该做什么 |
Individua ilty is to be respected 尊重个人尊严 |
Authority is to be respected 尊重权威 |
The manager should be a resourceful democrat 管理者应是足智多谋的民主人士 |
The manager should be a benevolent autocrat 管理者应该是一个仁慈的专制者 |
Low power distance High power distance
"There should be a minimum of inequality since it
can exploit others" "Inequality is unavoidable and everyone has the
place they deserve"
"If there is a hierarchy in an organis ation it is only for
the sake of convenience" "Hierarchy in an organisation reflects natural
differences"
"People who are superiors or subordinates are all the
same" "Superiors or subordinates are different kinds of
people"
"Everyone should enjoy the same privileges, there
should be no status symbols" "Power-holders are entitled to privileges and status
symbols"
Subordinates should be consulted Subordinates should be told what to do
Individua ilty is to be respected Authority is to be respected
The manager should be a resourceful democrat The manager should be a benevolent autocrat| Low power distance | High power distance |
| :--- | :--- |
| There should be a minimum of inequality since it <br> can exploit others | Inequality is unavoidable and everyone has the <br> place they deserve |
| If there is a hierarchy in an organis ation it is only for <br> the sake of convenience | Hierarchy in an organisation reflects natural <br> differences |
| People who are superiors or subordinates are all the <br> same | Superiors or subordinates are different kinds of <br> people |
| Everyone should enjoy the same privileges, there <br> should be no status symbols | Power-holders are entitled to privileges and status <br> symbols |
| Subordinates should be consulted | Subordinates should be told what to do |
| Individua ilty is to be respected | Authority is to be respected |
| The manager should be a resourceful democrat | The manager should be a benevolent autocrat |
Individualism/collectivism
个人主义/集体主义
This dimension concerns itself with the relationship between the individual and the group. To what extent are individuals in society autonomous and to what extent are they embedded in the group? This particular construct, apparent in ancient civilisations and to be found at the heart of much philosophical thought about the nature of the state and the individual, continues to be given much attention in many disciplines, particularly sociology, anthropology and psychology. It was Hofstede who subjected this construct to empirical investigation on a large scale and eventually produced a ranking of societies in collectivistic/individualistic terms. The extremes of this dimension are characterised in Table 2.3.
这一层面涉及个人与群体之间的关系。社会中的个人在多大程度上是自主的?这种特殊的结构在古代文明中显而易见,是许多关于国家和个人性质的哲学思想的核心,在许多学科中,尤其是在社会学、人类学和心理学中继续受到广泛关注。霍夫斯泰德(Hofstede)对这一概念进行了大规模的实证调查,最终得出了集体主义/个人主义社会的排名。表 2.3 列出了这一维度的两个极端。
Table 2.3 Extremes of Hofstede’s ‘collectivist/individualist’ dimension
表 2.3 霍夫斯泰德 "集体主义/个人主义 "维度的极端情况
Collectivist 集体主义 |
Individualist 个人主义 |
We' mentality 我们 "的心态 |
Tr mentality Tr 心态 |
Identity is based on one's social group 身份认同基于个人的社会群体 |
Identity is based on the individual 身份基于个人 |
主要根据小组的最佳利益做出决定
Decisions are primarily made according to what is |
best for the group |
Decisions are primarily made according to what is
best for the group| Decisions are primarily made according to what is |
| :--- |
| best for the group | |
Decisions are based primarily on individual needs 主要根据个人需求做出决定 |
Relationships prevail over task 关系胜于任务 |
Tasks prevail over relationships 任务重于关系 |
Focus is on belonging to an organisation 重点是属于某个组织 |
Focus is on individual initiative and achievement 注重个人的主动性和成就 |
Values differ according to the group (particularism) 价值观因群体而异(特殊主义) |
Value standards apply to all (universalism) 价值标准适用于所有人(普遍主义) |
Collectivist Individualist
We' mentality Tr mentality
Identity is based on one's social group Identity is based on the individual
"Decisions are primarily made according to what is
best for the group" Decisions are based primarily on individual needs
Relationships prevail over task Tasks prevail over relationships
Focus is on belonging to an organisation Focus is on individual initiative and achievement
Values differ according to the group (particularism) Value standards apply to all (universalism)| Collectivist | Individualist |
| :--- | :--- |
| We' mentality | Tr mentality |
| Identity is based on one's social group | Identity is based on the individual |
| Decisions are primarily made according to what is <br> best for the group | Decisions are based primarily on individual needs |
| Relationships prevail over task | Tasks prevail over relationships |
| Focus is on belonging to an organisation | Focus is on individual initiative and achievement |
| Values differ according to the group (particularism) | Value standards apply to all (universalism) |
This dimension is essentially about the importance that a cultural grouping attaches to relationships. Some cultures place more importance on personal relationships rather than on the task to be performed or the deal to be completed. These relationships may well be within an extended family, so that blood-ties guarantee trust and loyalty. Relations outside the family need to be built on face-to-face social encounters. Loyalty to those within the circle of relations and friends is considered essential and is rewarded in many ways. Collective achievement is the focus, rather than the attainment of individual goals and carecrs. Indeed, some form of personal sacrifice may be necessary for the sake of the common good. In individualist cultures, the focus is more on rights and the achievements of the individual. Individuals are expected to achieve their own goals and to do so are willing, if necessary, to undergo contractual obligations. Managers expect employees to fulfil the terms of a contract and vice versa. Close ties may develop between the two, but this does not diminish the value of the contractual arrangements. Within this sort of environment, competition between individuals is encouraged, thus allowing them to meet their goals and needs, as long as these are in line with those of the organisation within which they are working.
这个维度主要是指一个文化群体对人际关系的重视程度。有些文化更重视人际关系,而不是要完成的任务或交易。这些关系很可能是大家族内部的关系,因此血缘关系是信任和忠诚的保证。而家庭以外的关系则需要建立在面对面的社交中。对亲友圈内人的忠诚被认为是至关重要的,并会以多种方式得到回报。集体成就是重点,而不是个人目标的实现和照顾者。事实上,为了共同利益,某种形式的个人牺牲可能是必要的。在个人主义文化中,更注重个人的权利和成就。人们期望个人实现自己的目标,为此,必要时愿意承担合同义务。管理者希望员工履行合同条款,反之亦然。两者之间可能会建立密切的联系,但这并不会降低合同安排的价值。在这种环境下,个人之间的竞争受到鼓励,从而使他们能够实现自己的目标和需求,只要这些目标和需求与他们所在组织的目标和需求相一致。
Masculinity/femininity 男性气质/女性气质
From his initial studies at IBM, Hofstede developed a dimension whereby certain societies could be characterised as being either assertive and competitive (masculine in nature), or more caring and therefore more feminine. Hofstede does stress rather traditional roles
霍夫斯泰德通过在 IBM 的初步研究,提出了一个维度,根据这个维度,某些社会可以被描述为自信、好胜(男性化),或者更有爱心,因而更女性化。霍夫斯泰德确实强调了相当传统的角色
of the sexes: masculine values such as achievement and exercise of power are used to characterise cultures along this dimension, as are feminine values: caring for others, being less self-centred. Nevertheless, when a culture is examined in terms of the work environment, this dimension allows clear distinctions to be made between cultures in terms of their attitude to work. The characterisation of the two extremes of this dimension shows how dramatic these distinctions can be (Table 2.4).
在这一维度上,男性价值观(如成就和行使权力)和女性价值观(如关心他人、不那么以自我为中心)被用来描述不同文化的特征。尽管如此,如果从工作环境的角度来考察一种文化,这一维度就可以从工作态度的角度对不同文化进行清晰的区分。对这一维度两个极端的描述表明,这些区别是多么的明显(表 2.4)。
Table 2.4 Extremes of the ‘masculine/feminine’ dimension
表 2.4 "男性/女性 "维度的极值
Masculinity 男性气质 |
Femininity 女性气质 |
Distinct gender roles 不同的性别角色 |
Fluid gender roles 流动的性别角色 |
Men are assertive, women are nurturing 男人有主见,女人有教养 |
Men and women in nurturing roles 担任养育角色的男性和女性 |
Stress on competition and performance 强调竞争和绩效 |
强调合作和环保意识
Stress on co-operation and environmental |
awareness |
Stress on co-operation and environmental
awareness| Stress on co-operation and environmental |
| :--- |
| awareness | |
Acquisition of wealth 获取财富 |
Quality of life 生活质量 |
Ambition motivates 雄心壮志催人奋进 |
Service motivates 服务激励 |
Live to work 从生活到工作 |
Work to live 为生活而工作 |
Sympathy for the successful achiever 对成功者的同情 |
Sympathy for the unfortunate 对不幸者的同情 |
Independence ideal 独立理想 |
Interdependence ideal 相互依存的理想 |
Managers are expected to be decisive and assertive 希望管理人员果断、自信 |
Managers use intuition and strive for consensus 管理者运用直觉,努力达成共识 |
Masculinity Femininity
Distinct gender roles Fluid gender roles
Men are assertive, women are nurturing Men and women in nurturing roles
Stress on competition and performance "Stress on co-operation and environmental
awareness"
Acquisition of wealth Quality of life
Ambition motivates Service motivates
Live to work Work to live
Sympathy for the successful achiever Sympathy for the unfortunate
Independence ideal Interdependence ideal
Managers are expected to be decisive and assertive Managers use intuition and strive for consensus| Masculinity | Femininity |
| :--- | :--- |
| Distinct gender roles | Fluid gender roles |
| Men are assertive, women are nurturing | Men and women in nurturing roles |
| Stress on competition and performance | Stress on co-operation and environmental <br> awareness |
| Acquisition of wealth | Quality of life |
| Ambition motivates | Service motivates |
| Live to work | Work to live |
| Sympathy for the successful achiever | Sympathy for the unfortunate |
| Independence ideal | Interdependence ideal |
| Managers are expected to be decisive and assertive | Managers use intuition and strive for consensus |
Highly masculine cultures see work as a challenge, offering the possibility of high rewards and recognition. The stress is on performance, on competing with others to achieve goals. Highly feminine cultures give more attention to the broader picture, particularly to relationships with others in the workplace. Quality of life is a prime concern, not just in terms of how the work is performed but also in terms of what the work achieves.
高度男性化的文化将工作视为一种挑战,提供了获得高回报和认可的可能性。工作的压力在于业绩,在于与他人竞争以实现目标。高度女性化的文化则更注重大局,特别是工作场所中与他人的关系。生活质量是首要关注的问题,这不仅体现在工作方式上,也体现在工作成果上。
This dimension is one that Hofstede (1998: 11) himself characterised later as ‘taboo’ since he saw the ‘duality of male versus female’ as a problem always under discussion, answers to which cause wide-ranging discussion. The taboo was greatest, he felt, among ‘masculine’ countries where there was considerable stress on political correctness and concern about sexual harassment. Perhaps the very explicit use of the term masculine/ feminine exacerbated matters, as evidenced in the tendency of other researchers exploring the phenomenon to talk of ‘gender egalitarianism’ (House et al., 2004) or to incorporate features of this dimension into one relating to assertiveness.
霍夫斯泰德(1998:11)后来将这一维度称为 "禁忌",因为他认为 "男性与女性的二元性 "是一个一直在讨论的问题,其答案会引起广泛的讨论。他认为,在 "男性化 "国家,这种禁忌最为严重,因为这些国家非常强调政治正确性,并对性骚扰表示担忧。也许,非常明确地使用 "男性化/女性化 "这一术语会使问题更加严重,其他研究人员在探讨这一现象时倾向于谈论 "性别平等主义"(House 等人,2004 年),或将这一维度的特征纳入与自信有关的维度。
Uncertainty avoidance 避免不确定性
This fourth dimension measures the extent to which people in a certain culture avoid uncertainty. To what extent do they feel threatened by ambiguous, risky situations? To what extent do they prefer predictability in their lives, dearly prescribed rules and procedures in their work? Uncertainty-avoiding cultures perceive life as a battle against anxiety and stress. They may be willing to accept familiar risks but not the danger of the unknown. To that end they tend to resist innovation or anything that deviates from the known.
第四个维度衡量的是某种文化中的人对不确定性的回避程度。他们在多大程度上会对模棱两可、充满风险的情况感到威胁?他们在多大程度上更喜欢生活中的可预测性、工作中的严格规定和程序?回避不确定性的文化将生活视为一场与焦虑和压力的斗争。他们可能愿意接受熟悉的风险,但不愿意接受未知的危险。为此,他们倾向于抵制创新或任何偏离已知的事物。
They appreciate authorities who have the ‘right’ answers, who lay down rules to prevent ambiguities. Cultures with low uncertainty avoidance are not disconcerted by ambiguity, and generally tolerate differences. They perceive that there are not always answers to problems and that laws are not always effective or necessary in dealing with deviationthey may be changed if deemed ineffective.
他们欣赏有 "正确 "答案的权威,欣赏制定规则以防止出现模棱两可的情况的权威。不确定性规避程度低的文化不会因模棱两可而感到不安,通常会容忍差异。他们认为问题并不总是有答案的,法律在处理偏差方面并不总是有效或必要的,如果法律被认为无效,就会被修改。
The two extremes of this dimension are characterised in Table 2.5.
表 2.5 列出了这一维度的两个极端。
Table 2.5 Extremes for Hofstede’s ‘uncertainty avoidance’ dimension
表 2.5 霍夫斯泰德 "避免不确定性 "维度的极值
Low uncertainty avoidance 低不确定性规避 |
High uncertainty avoidance 高度避免不确定性 |
Uncertainty is a fact of life: take things as they come 不确定性是生活的现实:顺其自然 |
生活中的不安定因素具有威胁性,必须减少
Uncerta inty in life is threatening and must be |
reduced |
Uncerta inty in life is threatening and must be
reduced| Uncerta inty in life is threatening and must be |
| :--- |
| reduced | |
Deviance is not a threat 偏差不是威胁 |
Intolerant of deviant persons and ideas 不容忍离经叛道的人和思想 |
Ambiguity is tolerated 模棱两可是可以容忍的 |
Predictability and clarity are preferable 可预测性和清晰度更可取 |
Readiness to take risks 愿意承担风险 |
Concern about security 对安全的关注 |
Toleration of innovation 宽容创新 |
Resistance to change 抵制变革 |
The fewer rules there are the better 规则越少越好 |
Formal rules and regulations are necessary 正式的规章制度是必要的 |
Competition and conflict can be constructive 竞争和冲突可以是建设性的 |
Consensus is better than conflict 共识胜于冲突 |
Belief in generalists and common sense 相信通才和常识 |
Belief in experts and their knowledge 相信专家及其知识 |
Hard work as such is not a virtue 勤奋本身并不是一种美德 |
There is an inner urge to work hard 有一种努力工作的内在冲动 |
Low uncertainty avoidance High uncertainty avoidance
Uncertainty is a fact of life: take things as they come "Uncerta inty in life is threatening and must be
reduced"
Deviance is not a threat Intolerant of deviant persons and ideas
Ambiguity is tolerated Predictability and clarity are preferable
Readiness to take risks Concern about security
Toleration of innovation Resistance to change
The fewer rules there are the better Formal rules and regulations are necessary
Competition and conflict can be constructive Consensus is better than conflict
Belief in generalists and common sense Belief in experts and their knowledge
Hard work as such is not a virtue There is an inner urge to work hard| Low uncertainty avoidance | High uncertainty avoidance |
| :--- | :--- |
| Uncertainty is a fact of life: take things as they come | Uncerta inty in life is threatening and must be <br> reduced |
| Deviance is not a threat | Intolerant of deviant persons and ideas |
| Ambiguity is tolerated | Predictability and clarity are preferable |
| Readiness to take risks | Concern about security |
| Toleration of innovation | Resistance to change |
| The fewer rules there are the better | Formal rules and regulations are necessary |
| Competition and conflict can be constructive | Consensus is better than conflict |
| Belief in generalists and common sense | Belief in experts and their knowledge |
| Hard work as such is not a virtue | There is an inner urge to work hard |
Managers in uncertainty-avoiding cultures would be expected to maintain the rules and regulations of an organisation, to have precise answers to questions and to give exact instructions. Managers in cultures with low uncertainty avoidance would be expected to uphold or establish rules only as absolutely necessary (most problems can be resolved without strict rules anyway); managers cannot possibly be the source of all wisdom and may need to draw others into their decision-making who are more competent.
在回避不确定性的文化中,人们期望管理者维护组织的规章制度,对问题有准确的回答,并给出确切的指示。在不确定性规避程度较低的文化中,管理者只有在绝对必要时才会维护或制定规则(反正大多数问题无需严格的规则即可解决);管理者不可能是所有智慧的源泉,他们可能需要让其他更有能力的人参与决策。
Hofstede’s initial four dimensions have had an enormous influence on the development of management theories in many management areas, particularly those focusing on relations between the leader and the led. Two dimensions, power distance and uncertainty avoidance, are particularly important in this respect. As Hofstede and Hofstede themselves say:
霍夫斯泰德最初提出的四个维度对许多管理领域的管理理论发展产生了巨大影响,尤其是那些关注领导者与被领导者之间关系的理论。在这方面,权力距离和不确定性规避这两个维度尤为重要。正如霍夫斯泰德和霍夫斯泰德自己所说:
Both dimensions help answer two fundamental questions:
这两个维度都有助于回答两个基本问题:
Who should have the power to decide what?
谁有权决定什么?
What rules or procedures should be followed in order to attain the desired ends?
为实现预期目标,应遵循哪些规则或程序?
Hofstede & Hofstede, 2005: 63
The fifth dimension: short-term versus long-term orientation
第五个维度:短期导向与长期导向
The fifth dimension outlined in Table 2.6 supplemented the other dimensions already given. It is based on the results of the Chinese Value Survey developed by Michael Bond and associates (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987). They originally labelled it as Confucian work dynamism since it reflected values upheld by Confucius and his followers. These values permeate those of a number of countries in Asia, as Chapter 4 will show.
表 2.6 中列出的第五个维度是对其他维度的补充。该维度以迈克尔-邦德(Michael Bond)及其同事开发的中国价值调查(Chinese Culture Connection, 1987)的结果为基础。他们最初将其命名为 "儒家工作动力",因为它反映了孔子及其追随者所坚持的价值观。正如第 4 章所述,这些价值观渗透到亚洲许多国家的价值观中。
Hofstede added the fifth dimension on the basis of the survey mentioned above, but gave it the label of short-term versus long-term orientation since the majority of the countries where the fifth dimension was found are ‘unfamiliar with Confucius’s teachings and anyway, both opposing poles of the dimension contain Confucian values’ (Hofstede, 2001: 55). According to Hofstede, non-Confucian countries such as Brazil and India have quite a high score on this dimension. Those values deemed short-term in nature are oriented towards the past and present and are more static; those deemed to be long-term are oriented towards the future and are more dynamic.
霍夫斯泰德在上述调查的基础上增加了第五个维度,但将其命名为 "短期取向与长期取向",因为发现第五个维度的大多数国家 "不熟悉孔子的学说,无论如何,维度的两个对立面都包含儒家价值观"(Hofstede, 2001: 55)。根据 Hofstede 的观点,巴西和印度等非儒家国家在这一维度上得分很高。那些被认为是短期性的价值观面向过去和现在,比较静态;那些被认为是长期性的价值观面向未来,比较动态。
Table 2.6 Hofstede's fifth dimension
表 2.6 霍夫斯泰德的第五维度
Short-term orientation 短期定向 |
Long-term orientation 长期定位 |
Need for achievement self-determination 成就自决的需要 |
Need for accountability, self-discipline 需要问责和自律 |
对他人的忠诚度可根据业务需要而有所不同
Loyalty towards others can vary according to the |
needs of business |
Loyalty towards others can vary according to the
needs of business| Loyalty towards others can vary according to the |
| :--- |
| needs of business | |
Develop and maintain lifelong personal networks 发展和维护终身个人网络 |
应量才录用
People should be rewarded according to their |
abilities |
People should be rewarded according to their
abilities| People should be rewarded according to their |
| :--- |
| abilities | |
不应容忍巨大的社会和经济差异
Large sodial and economic differences should not |
be tolerated |
Large sodial and economic differences should not
be tolerated| Large sodial and economic differences should not |
| :--- |
| be tolerated | |
Stress is on short-term profits 强调短期利润 |
Stress is on future market position 强调未来的市场地位 |
Managers and employees are in different camps 管理者和员工分属不同阵营 |
业主经理和工人有着共同的愿望
Owner-managers and workers share the same |
aspirations |
Owner-managers and workers share the same
aspirations| Owner-managers and workers share the same |
| :--- |
| aspirations | |
Short-term orientation Long-term orientation
Need for achievement self-determination Need for accountability, self-discipline
"Loyalty towards others can vary according to the
needs of business" Develop and maintain lifelong personal networks
"People should be rewarded according to their
abilities" "Large sodial and economic differences should not
be tolerated"
Stress is on short-term profits Stress is on future market position
Managers and employees are in different camps "Owner-managers and workers share the same
aspirations"| Short-term orientation | Long-term orientation |
| :--- | :--- |
| Need for achievement self-determination | Need for accountability, self-discipline |
| Loyalty towards others can vary according to the <br> needs of business | Develop and maintain lifelong personal networks |
| People should be rewarded according to their <br> abilities | Large sodial and economic differences should not <br> be tolerated |
| Stress is on short-term profits | Stress is on future market position |
| Managers and employees are in different camps | Owner-managers and workers share the same <br> aspirations |
A short-term orientation includes fostering virtues related to past and present, especially respect for tradition, preservation of face and fulfilling social obligations. A long-term orientation includes fostering virtues oriented towards the future, especially perseverance and thrift, ordering relationships by status and having a sense of shame.
短期取向包括培养与过去和现在相关的美德,尤其是尊重传统、维护面子和履行社会义务。长期取向包括培养面向未来的美德,特别是坚忍不拔和勤俭节约、按地位排序的人际关系和羞耻感。
SPOTLIGHT 2.1 聚焦 2.1
How the Chinese run their businesses outside China
中国人如何在境外经营企业
When studying Chinese who were running businesses overseas, Gordon Redding (1990) shows how Confucian dynamism works. The companies are owned by the family and usually run by one dominant family member. They are kept small to enable this family control to persist since non-family employees are unlikely to have the necessary loyalty to the enterprise If such companies decide to co-operate with other compa-
戈登-雷丁(Gordon Redding,1990 年)在研究在海外经商的中国人时,揭示了儒家活力是如何发挥作用的。这些公司为家族所有,通常由一名占主导地位的家族成员经营。由于非家族雇员不太可能对企业有必要的忠诚度,因此这些公司规模较小,以便家族控制得以持续。
nies, they do so through a network of personal relations based on (extended) family members, village, clan or ethnic group within the Chinese population. The Confucian virtues of thrift and persistence are evident in their cost-conscious approach and in their patient accumulation of wealth. The two virtues are combined in the way the Chinese move their capital round the world to take advantage of low risk and high profitability.
他们是通过以华人(大家庭)成员、村庄、宗族或民族为基础的个人关系网络来实现这一目标的。中国人注重成本,耐心积累财富,这充分体现了儒家节俭和坚持不懈的美德。这两种美德在中国人利用低风险和高收益在世界各地转移资本的方式中得到了结合。
The sixth dimension: indulgence versus restraint
第六维度:放纵与克制
In the third (2010) edition of Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, Hofstede et al. added a sixth dimension as a result of the analysis done by Michael Minkov, of the World Values Survey (
http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org). This dimension is termed ‘Indulgence versus Restraint’. According to Hofstede (2011), this extra dimension was
在《文化与组织》的第三版(2010 年)中,霍夫斯泰德等人在 "心灵软件 "中增加了第六个维度:在第三版(2010 年)《文化与组织:心灵软件》中,霍夫斯泰德等人根据迈克尔-明可夫对世界价值观调查(http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org)的分析,增加了第六个维度。这个维度被称为 "放纵与克制"。根据 Hofstede(2011 年),这个额外的维度是
included to cover aspects not covered by the other five and is one known from thappiness research’. The literature on ‘happiness’, often referred to as ‘subjective well-being’ or ‘subjective appreciation of life’ has flourished in recent decades. A ‘World Database of Happiness’ (
http://www1.eur.nl/fsw/happiness/index.html) registers the work carried out in this area.
近几十年来,关于 "幸福"(通常称为 "主观幸福感 "或 "主观生活评价")的文献蓬勃发展。一个 "世界幸福数据库"(http://www1.eur.nl/fsw/happiness/index.html)登记了在这一领域开展的工作。
This new dimension deals with the extent to which a society allows basic and natural desires to be gratified in its pursuit of happiness. The term ‘indulgence’ typifies societies which exercise little constraint in this pursuit; the term ‘restraint’ applies to societies which control desires for happiness and use strict social norms to do so. The differences relate to freedom of speech, the importance of leisure, involvement in sport, the extent of obesity, the strictness of sexual norms and the maintenance of social order.
这一新维度涉及一个社会在追求幸福的过程中允许满足基本和自然欲望的程度。放纵 "一词指的是在追求幸福的过程中很少受到约束的社会;"克制 "一词指的是控制幸福欲望并使用严格的社会规范来实现这一目标的社会。这些差异涉及言论自由、休闲的重要性、参与体育运动、肥胖程度、性规范的严格程度以及社会秩序的维护。
According to Hofstede (2011: 16),
根据 Hofstede(2011:16)的说法、
Indulgence tends to prevail in South and North America, in Western Europe and in parts of Sub-
在南美洲和北美洲、西欧和亚欧大陆部分地区,纵欲往往盛行。
Sahara Africa. Restraint prevails in Eastern Europe, in Asia and in the Muslim world.
非洲撒哈拉。东欧、亚洲和穆斯林世界则盛行克制。
Mediterranean Europe takes a middle position on this dimension.
地中海地区的欧洲在这方面处于中间位置。
SPOTLIGHT 2.2 聚光灯 2.2
If you're happy and you know it. . . become a chief happiness officer
如果你知道自己很幸福.......成为首席幸福官
Companies are employing people to create happier workforces, so if you like to organise celebrations. training and events this may be the job for you.
如果您喜欢组织庆祝、培训和活动,那么这份工作可能会很适合您。
Vikki Knowles 维基-诺尔斯
A wave is rolling over corporate America, across HR departments from Google to Zappos. The emergence of the chief happiness officer (CHO). once met with stifled sniggers and confused expressions, reflects the increasing importance placed on cultivating a contented workforce to attract and retain the most sparkling talent.
从 Google 到 Zappos,美国企业人力资源部门正掀起一股浪潮。首席幸福官(CHO)的出现曾一度遭到嗤之以鼻和困惑不解的表情,但它的出现反映了企业越来越重视培养一支满足的员工队伍,以吸引和留住最闪亮的人才。
Now the CHO is cropping up around the UK and Europe, with the role varying from championing
现在,CHO 正在英国和欧洲各地兴起,其职责从倡导
customer service to a more traditional HR function. ‘The CHO’s job is to spearhead different initiatives to make people happier, like celebrations, training, events and similar activities in the workplace that help people do great work and see the purpose of what they do,’ says consultant Alexander Kjerulf, co-founder at WooHoo inc in Denmark. Kjerulf conducts speeches and workshops worldwide to help companies such as Lego and Ikea create happier workplaces.
客户服务转变为更传统的人力资源职能。丹麦 WooHoo inc 公司的联合创始人、顾问 Alexander Kjerulf 说:"CHO 的工作是带头采取各种措施,让人们更加快乐,比如在工作场所开展庆祝、培训、活动和类似活动,帮助人们出色地工作,并认识到自己工作的目的。Kjerulf 在世界各地举办演讲和研讨会,帮助乐高和宜家等公司创造更快乐的工作场所。
Source: extract from
https://www.theguardiancom/ careers/2015/jul/13/if-youre-happy-and-you-know-it-become-a-chief-happiness-officer
来源:摘自 https://www.theguardiancom/ careers/2015/jul/13/if-youre-happy-and-you-know-it-become-a-chief-happiness-officer
This sixth dimension is still relatively new and has not yet been widely used in intercultural research and training. The initial four-dimension model devised by Hofstede is the one which has been applied most frequently.
第六个维度相对较新,尚未广泛应用于跨文化研究和培训。霍夫斯泰德最初设计的四维模型是最常用的模型。
Criticism of Hofstede's dimensions
对霍夫斯泰德维度的批评
The very simplicity of Hofstede’s framework of analysis is seductive: he has come up with a minimum number of dimensions to enable cultural observers and analysts to pinpoint features to which they and their readers can relate. The fact that the results of
霍夫斯泰德的分析框架非常简单,但却极具诱惑力:他提出了最低数量的维度,使文化观察者和分析者能够找出他们和他们的读者能够产生共鸣的特征。事实上,霍夫斯泰德的分析结果
replicated research often reflect those of Hofstede’s original research has helped to increase his stature in the field.
霍夫斯泰德的研究成果往往反映了他的原创性研究,这有助于提高他在该领域的地位。
However, since the publication in 1980 of the first edition of his major work, Culture’s Consequences, Hofstede has been subject to criticism from fellow researchers and from humble mortals who are wrestling with day-to-day problems arising from cross-cultural co-operation in an increasingly global world. Since 2000, this criticism has become more vocal.
然而,自 1980 年出版其主要著作《文化的后果》第一版以来,霍夫斯泰德一直受到研究同行和那些在日益全球化的世界中与跨文化合作所产生的日常问题作斗争的卑微凡人的批评。自 2000 年以来,批评的声音越来越大。
Hofstede's research method
霍夫斯泰德的研究方法
Scholars have put forward a number of general objections to the way Hofstede carried out his research. One in particular concerns the use of attitude-survey questionnaires alone. Since, they argue, culture manifests itself in so many different ways, the use of a single method approach cannot be considered to be a valid basis for inferring the values of respondents.
学者们对霍夫斯泰德开展研究的方式提出了许多一般性的反对意见。其中特别涉及到只使用态度调查问卷的问题。他们认为,由于文化的表现形式多种多样,因此使用单一方法不能被视为推断受访者价值观的有效依据。
A number of critics question the representative nature of the respondents. How can those who completed the questionnaire be considered representative of a national culture if they come from only one location in each country and from only one company (IBM) and its carefully selected employees?
一些评论家质疑调查对象的代表性。如果填写问卷的人只来自每个国家的一个地方,只来自一家公司(IBM)及其精心挑选的员工,他们怎么能被视为国家文化的代表呢?
To make the assumption that there is homogeneity within IBM is, for many critics, a questionable one, particularly if, as Hofstede maintains, you can separate its organisational and occupational cultures from the national cultures present. Can one really talk of one organisational culture at IBM? One of Hofstede’s staunchest critics, Brendan MeSweeney, points out that Hofstede had not investigated this question carefully and acknowledged in his later work that organisations could contain different types of organisational culture (McSweeney, 2002). Even if the idea that IBM has one organisational culture is accepted, McSweeney asks whether such a culture, as Hofstede maintains, has to do with perceived common practices rather than the values of the employees concerned. Even if Hofstede has matched the results of the survey at IBM on an occupational basis, can one talk of a homogeneic occupational culture in the company? How can employees from different nations who share the same occupation really be said to share uniformity of culture? Courses purporting to deliver similar qualifications can differ considerably between countries as well as within a country.
在许多批评家看来,假设 IBM 内部存在同质性是一个值得商榷的问题,尤其是如果像霍夫斯泰德所坚持的那样,可以将其组织文化和职业文化与现有的民族文化区分开来的话。IBM 真的只有一种组织文化吗?霍夫斯泰德最坚定的批评者之一布伦丹-梅斯威尼(Brendan MeSweeney)指出,霍夫斯泰德没有仔细研究过这个问题,他在后来的著作中承认,组织可能包含不同类型的组织文化(McSweeney, 2002)。即使接受了 IBM 只有一种组织文化的观点,McSweeney 还是要问,这种文化是否如 Hofstede 所说的那样,与人们认为的共同做法有关,而不是与相关员工的价值观有关。即使霍夫斯泰德的调查结果与 IBM 的职业调查相吻合,我们还能谈论该公司的同质职业文化吗?来自不同国家、从事相同职业的员工,怎么能说他们的文化是一致的呢?在不同国家之间以及在一个国家内部,声称提供类似资格的课程可能会有很大的不同。
McSweeney (2002) also addresses the question of homogencity with regard to national culture. If Hofstede were consistent in his research approach, he would maintain that each individual within a country shares the same national culture. However, the IBM questionnaires produced responses within each country that were very different. What Hofstede did was to average the responses nationally and then compare them. The differences were then classified as national cultural differences. If the average tendency of IBM employees is considered to be nationally representative then
McSweeney (2002) 也谈到了民族文化的同质性问题。如果霍夫斯泰德的研究方法是一致的,他就会认为一个国家的每个人都拥有相同的民族文化。然而,IBM 的问卷调查结果显示,每个国家的回答都大相径庭。霍夫斯泰德的做法是将各国的回答平均化,然后进行比较。这些差异被归类为民族文化差异。如果认为 IBM 员工的平均倾向具有全国代表性,那么
it must also be assumed that this would be the same as the average tendency in every other company, tennis club, knitting club, political party, massage parlour, socialist party and fascist party within the same country.
还必须假定,这与同一国家内其他所有公司、网球俱乐部、针织俱乐部、政党、按摩院、社会主义政党和法西斯政党的平均趋势相同。
The characterisation of national cultures
民族文化的特征
The dimensions Hofstede uses to delineate cultural differences have also undergone many critical reviews. Apart from questioning whether just a couple of dimensions can really encapsulate all the complexities of a national culture, critics cast doubt on the independent nature of each of Hofstede’s dimensions: how can we be sure, they argue, that these dimensions do not interact? There is also doubt expressed about the way Hofstede differentiates between cultures on each dimension according to their position on a continuum. Although this position reflects an ‘average tendency’, it does not account for which situations cause cultures to emphasise one extreme of a continuum rather than the other. Sinha et al. (2001), for example, demonstrate how collectivism co-exists with individualism in India and give a number of seenarios where one or the other comes to the fore, or where both intertwine. The fifth dimension has come in for particular criticism. Unlike the first four dimensions, it does not appear to offer contrasting or opposing alternatives. However, according to Fang (2003: 354), the Chinese do not consider long-term/short-term orientation as being opposite in nature, but instead as being ‘rather closely interrelated with one another’. The Chinese philosophical principle of paradox and dualism in the world embraces opposites as described in the fifth dimension.
霍夫斯泰德用来划分文化差异的维度也受到了许多批评。除了质疑仅仅几个维度是否真的能概括一个国家文化的所有复杂性之外,批评者还对霍夫斯泰德的每个维度的独立性质提出了质疑:他们认为,我们怎么能确定这些维度不会相互影响呢?还有人对霍夫斯泰德根据不同文化在连续体上的位置来区分不同文化的方法表示怀疑。虽然这种定位反映了一种 "平均趋势",但它并没有说明哪些情况会导致文化强调连续体的一个极端而不是另一个极端。例如,Sinha 等人(2001 年)展示了印度的集体主义与个人主义是如何共存的,并列举了一些集体主义与个人主义突出或两者交织的情况。第五个维度尤其受到批评。与前四个维度不同,第五维度似乎没有提供对比或对立的选择。然而,根据 Fang(2003:354)的说法,中国人并不认为长期/短期取向在本质上是相反的,而是 "彼此密切相关"。中国哲学中的世界悖论和二元论原则包含第五维度所述的对立面。
Furthermore, there is the problem of characterising cultures which are territorially bound. Even though Hofstede himself acknowledges that this unit of measurement is not perfect, objections continue to be raised about the validity of national cultural profiles, particularly in the light of recent world developments. What is the status of Hong Kong’s profile now that it has become part of China? Is it now to be regarded as a subculture within a much larger entity? What about the cultural profile of (former) Yugoslavia? Do all the independent states that once comprised the country now ‘deserve’ separate full-blown cultural profiles?
此外,还有一个问题是如何描述受地域限制的文化。尽管霍夫斯泰德本人也承认这种测量单位并不完美,但人们仍然对国家文化概况的有效性提出异议,特别是考虑到最近的世界发展。香港已经成为中国的一部分,那么香港的文化概况又是什么情况呢?它现在是否被视为一个更大实体中的亚文化?前)南斯拉夫的文化状况如何?曾经组成南斯拉夫的所有独立国家现在是否都 "值得 "单独建立完整的文化档案?
SPOTLIGHT 2.3 聚光灯 2.3
A question of identity
身份问题
By Simon Kuper 作者:西蒙-库珀
During the economic crisis, the EU has been morphing into something of a federal state: central control over national budgets, European bailouts, perhaps banking union. Europeans have sulked, but they’ve mostly accepted this.
在经济危机期间,欧盟一直在蜕变成一个联邦国家:中央控制国家预算、欧洲救助,或许还有银行联盟。欧洲人生过气,但他们大多都接受了这一点。
That doesn’t mean they love the EU. Nobody ever ran into the street drunk, waving the Europeanflag. The emotional
这并不意味着他们热爱欧盟。从来没有人醉醺醺地跑到街上,挥舞着欧洲国旗。情绪
Europe. Rather, people are gradually replacing nationalism with an array of transnational loyalties. Someone might identify with the global community of English-speakers, or as a Londoner, black person, Muslim, Justin Bieber fan, member of the global elite, or possibly all these things. Most people also still identify with a nation, but that’s becoming just one identity among many.
欧洲。相反,人们正逐渐用一系列跨国忠诚取代民族主义。有人可能认同全球英语社区,也可能认同伦敦人、黑人、穆斯林、贾斯汀-比伯(Justin Bieber)的粉丝、全球精英的成员,也可能是所有这些身份。大多数人仍然认同一个国家,但这只是众多身份中的一种。
In short, the validity and applicability of Hofstede’s model is called into question by a number of critics, not only by scholars, but also by practitioners in the field of cross-cultural management training who feel uneasy when applying Hofstede’s dimensions to the real world’.
总之,霍夫斯泰德模型的有效性和适用性受到了许多批评者的质疑,不仅是学者,而且跨文化管理培训领域的从业人员在将霍夫斯泰德的维度应用于现实世界时也感到不安。
Hofstede's response 霍夫斯泰德的回应
As criticism has grown, so has the robustness of Hofstede’s reactions to them, aided and abetted by the results of many follow-up research projects and the employment of facts and figures produced by economic institutions to back up his findings. Possibly tired of the occasional but persistent criticism of his work, Hofstede even lists a number of the reservations made about his work in the second edition of Culture’s Consequences in 2001. These deal with the criticism that using surveys to measure culture is unsuitable, that using nations as units of analysis is not the most appropriate, that using only surveys at one company - IBM as the basis of his research cannot yield information about entire national cultures. Finally, he responds to the reproach made that culture cannot be boiled down to so few dimensions.
随着批评的增多,霍夫斯泰德对这些批评的反应也越来越有力,许多后续研究项目的成果以及经济机构提供的事实和数字都为他的研究成果提供了支持。霍夫斯泰德可能已经厌倦了人们对他的研究成果不时而又持续的批评,他甚至在 2001 年出版的《文化的后果》第二版中列出了对他的研究成果所持的一些保留意见。这些保留意见涉及以下批评:用调查来衡量文化是不合适的;用国家作为分析单位并不是最合适的;只对一家公司(IBM)进行调查作为研究基础并不能得出整个国家文化的信息。最后,他对文化不能被归结为这么几个方面的指责做出了回应。
Surveys are suitable, Hofstede maintains, but should not be the only method used. He agrees that nations are not always appropriate units of analysis, but they are the only sort of unit available. In response to the question as to why only one company was surveyed, Hofstede states that this was advantageous to his research: the company was homogeneous in nature, and so allowed a comparison to be made of cultural values across the subsidiaries. By ensuring that respondents to his questionnaires shared one organisational culture as well as one occupational culture (if their responses were matched), Hofstede believed he had been able to isolate nationality:
霍夫斯泰德认为,调查是合适的,但不应是唯一的方法。他同意国家并不总是合适的分析单位,但国家是唯一可用的单位。在回答为什么只调查一家公司的问题时,霍夫斯泰德指出,这对他的研究是有利的:这家公司在性质上是同质的,因此可以对各子公司的文化价值观进行比较。霍夫斯泰德认为,通过确保调查问卷的受访者共享一种组织文化和一种职业文化(如果他们的回答相吻合的话),他能够将民族性隔离开来:
The only thing that can account for systematic and consistent differences between national groups within such a homogeneous multinational population is nationality itself.
在如此同质的多民族人口中,唯一能够解释民族群体之间系统而一致的差异的是国籍本身。
Hofstede, 1991:252 霍夫斯泰德,1991:252
Furthermore, in response to criticisms of his research method generally, Hofstede emphasises the detailed and thorough nature of his research, the well-matched samples obtained and the correlations with other data, including many replications of his research.
此外,在回应对其研究方法的一般性批评时,霍夫斯泰德强调了其研究的详细和彻底性、所获得的匹配良好的样本以及与其他数据的相关性,包括对其研究的许多重复。
When it comes to the reproach frequently made that his five dimensions cannot possibly tell the whole story, Hofstede’s reaction is, basically: if others can find more dimensions that are independent of those he has devised and which can be validated fine! As he puts it: ‘Candidates are welcome to apply’ (Hofstede, 2001: 73). Nevertheless, about one decade later he added a sixth dimension to the other five!
有人经常指责霍夫斯泰德的五个维度不可能说明全部问题,对此,霍夫斯泰德的基本反应是:如果其他人能找到更多独立于他所设计的维度之外的维度,并且这些维度能够得到验证,那就更好了!正如他所说欢迎候选人提出申请"(Hofstede, 2001: 73)。然而,大约十年后,他又在其他五个维度的基础上增加了第六个维度!
Concept 2.2 Cultural dimensions according to GLOBE
概念 2.2 根据全球生态平衡立法的文化维度
Another study using dimensions is the Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour Effectiveness research programme, in short, the GLOBE project. GLOBE is a long-term programme divided into four phases, designed to conceptualise, operationalise, test and validate a cross-level integrated theory of the relationship between culture and societal, organisational and leadership effectiveness. The results of the second phase of the project are described in House et al. (2004). The follow-up to the project can be found in a second publication entitled Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth
另一项使用维度的研究是全球领导力与组织行为有效性研究计划,简称 GLOBE 项目。GLOBE 是一项长期计划,分为四个阶段,旨在对文化与社会、组织和领导效能之间关系的跨层次综合理论进行概念化、操作化、测试和验证。项目第二阶段的成果在 House 等人(2004 年)中有所描述。该项目的后续活动见第二本出版物《全球文化与领导力》:GLOBE 深入研究手册