International Phonetic Alphabet
国际音标

International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标
"IPA", transcribed narrowly as [aɪ̯ pʰiː eɪ̯] "IPA"，狭义转写为 [aɪ̯ pʰiː eɪ̯]
Script type  脚本类型	Alphabet – partially featural 字母表 – 部分特征式
Time period  时间段	1888–present  1888 年至今
Languages  语言	Used for phonetic and phonemic transcription of any oral language 用于任何口语语言的语音和音素转录
Related scripts  相关文字系统
Parent systems  祖系统	Egyptian hieroglyphs  埃及象形文字 Proto-Sinaitic script  原始西奈文字 Phoenician alphabet  腓尼基字母 Greek alphabet  希腊字母 Latin script  拉丁音乐脚本 Lepsius Standard Alphabet 勒普西乌斯标准字母 Palaeotype alphabet, English Phonotypic Alphabet 古音字母，英语语音字母 Romic alphabet  罗米克字母 International Phonetic Alphabet 国际音标
Unicode
Unicode range  Unicode 范围	See Phonetic symbols in Unicode § Unicode blocks 参见 Unicode 中的语音符号 § Unicode 块
This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. 本条款包含国际音标（IPA）的语音转录。有关 IPA 符号的入门指南，请参见 帮助:IPA。有关 [ ] 、 / / 和 ⟨⟩ 之间的区别，请参见 IPA § 括号和转录定界符。

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin script. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standard written representation for the sounds of speech.^[1] The IPA is used by linguists, lexicographers, foreign language students and teachers, speech–language pathologists, singers, actors, constructed language creators, and translators.^[2][3]
国际音标（IPA）是一种基于拉丁音乐剧本的字母式语音符号系统。它由国际语音学会于 19 世纪末设计，作为语音声音的标准书面表示。 ^[1] IPA 被语言学家、词典编纂者、外语学生和教师、言语语言病理学家、歌手、演员、构造语言创作者和翻译人员使用。 ^{[2] [3]}

The IPA is designed to represent those qualities of speech that are part of lexical (and, to a limited extent, prosodic) sounds in oral language: phones, intonation and the separation of syllables.^[1] To represent additional qualities of speech – such as tooth gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate – an extended set of symbols may be used.^[2]
IPA 旨在表示口语中词汇（以及在有限程度上韵律）声音的那些语音特质：音素、语调和音节分隔。 ^[1] 为表示额外的语音特质——如咬牙切齿、口齿不清以及腭裂发音——可使用扩展片场的符号。 ^[2]

Segments are transcribed by one or more IPA symbols of two basic types: letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English digraph ⟨ch⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter: [c], or with multiple letters plus diacritics: [t̠̺͡ʃʰ], depending on how precise one wishes to be. Slashes are used to signal phonemic transcription; therefore, /tʃ/ is more abstract than either [t̠̺͡ʃʰ] or [c] and might refer to either, depending on the context and language.^{[note 1]}
音段由一种或多种 IPA 符号转录，这些符号有两种基本类型：字母和变音符号。例如，英语双字母组合 ⟨ch⟩ 的发音可以用单个字母 [c] 在 IPA 中转录，或者用多个字母加变音符号 [t̠̺͡ʃʰ] 转录，这取决于想要多精确。斜线用于表示音位转录；因此， /tʃ/ 比 [t̠̺͡ʃʰ] 或 [c] 更抽象，可能指代其中任意一个，具体取决于上下文和语言。 ^{[note 1]}

Occasionally, letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of the most recent change in 2005,^[4] there are 107 segmental letters, an indefinitely large number of suprasegmental letters, 44 diacritics (not counting composites), and four extra-lexical prosodic marks in the IPA. These are illustrated in the current IPA chart, posted below in this article and on the International Phonetic Association's website.^[5]
国际语音学协会偶尔会添加、删除或修改字母或变音符号。截至 2005 年最近一次变更， ^[4] IPA 中有 107 个音段字母，无限多的超音段字母，44 个变音符号（不包括复合符号），以及四个词外韵律标记。这些内容在当前的 IPA 图表中有所展示，已在本文下方发布，并在国际语音学协会的 Website 上公布。 ^[5]

In 1886 a group of French and English language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would be known from 1897 onwards as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l'Association phonétique internationale).^[6] The idea of the alphabet had been suggested to Passy by Otto Jespersen. It was developed by Passy along with other members of the association, principally Daniel Jones. The original IPA alphabet was based on the Romic alphabet, an English spelling reform created by Henry Sweet that in turn was based on the Palaeotype alphabet of Alexander John Ellis, but to make it usable for other languages the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.^{[note 2]} For example, the sound [ʃ] (the sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ for English but with ⟨x⟩ for French and German; with German, ⟨c⟩ was used for the [x] sound of Bach.^[6] With a growing number of transcribed languages this proved impractical, and in 1888 the values of the letters were made uniform across languages. This would provide the base for all future revisions.^[6][8]
1886 年，一群由法国语言学家 Paul Passy 领导的法英语言教师组成了一个团体，从 1897 年起被称为国际语音学会（法语为 l'Association phonétique internationale）。 ^[6] 这个字母表的想法是由 Otto Jespersen 向 Passy 提出的。它由 Passy 和协会的其他成员，主要是 Daniel Jones 共同开发。最初的 IPA 字母表基于 Romic 字母表，这是由 Henry Sweet 创建的英语拼写改革，而 Romic 字母表又基于 Alexander John Ellis 的 Palaeotype 字母表，但为了使其适用于其他语言，符号的发音值允许因语言而异。 ^{[note 2]} 例如，音 [ʃ] （shoe 中的 sh）最初用字母 ⟨c⟩ 表示英语中的发音，但在法语和德语中用 ⟨x⟩ 表示；在德语中， ⟨c⟩ 用于表示 Bach 中的 [x] 音。 ^[6] 随着转录语言数量的增加，这种做法变得不切实际，1888 年，字母的发音值在各语言间统一。这为所有未来的修订提供了基础。 ^{[6] [8]}

Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After relatively frequent revisions and expansions from the 1890s to the 1940s, the IPA remained nearly static until the Kiel Convention in 1989, which substantially revamped the alphabet. A smaller revision took place in 1993 with the resurrection of letters for mid central vowels^[2] and the retirement of letters for voiceless implosives.^[9] The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap.^[10] Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely of renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces.^[2]
自创建以来，IPA 经历了多次修订。从 1890 年代到 1940 年代，IPA 经历了相对频繁的修订和扩展包，之后几乎保持不变，直到 1989 年的基尔大会，对字母表进行了大幅度的改造。1993 年进行了较小的修订，恢复了中央元音的字母 ^[2] ，并废除了无声内爆音的字母 ^[9] 。字母表最后一次修订是在 2005 年 5 月，增加了一个唇齿拍音的字母 ^[10] 。除了符号的增减外，IPA 的变化主要包括符号和类别的重命名以及字体的修改 ^[2] 。

Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for speech pathology (extIPA) were created in 1990 and were officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994.^[11] They were substantially revised in 2015.
国际音标的扩展包，用于言语病理学（extIPA），于 1990 年创建，并于 1994 年被国际临床语音学与语言学协会正式采纳 ^[11] 。它们在 2015 年进行了大幅修订。

The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound (speech segment).^{[note 3]} This means that:
IPA 的基本原则是为每个独特的声音（语音片段）提供一个字母 ^{[note 3]} 。这意味着：

• It does not normally use combinations of letters to represent single sounds, the way English does with ⟨sh⟩, ⟨th⟩ and ⟨ng⟩, nor single letters to represent multiple sounds, the way ⟨x⟩ represents /ks/ or /ɡz/ in English.
  它通常不使用字母组合来表示单个音素，就像英语中用 ⟨sh⟩ 、 ⟨th⟩ 和 ⟨ng⟩ 那样，也不使用单个字母来表示多个音素，就像 ⟨x⟩ 在英语中表示 /ks/ 或 /ɡz/ 那样。
• There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, the way ⟨c⟩ and ⟨g⟩ in several European languages have a "hard" or "soft" pronunciation.
  没有字母具有依赖语境的发音值，就像几种欧洲语言中的 ⟨c⟩ 和 ⟨g⟩ 有“硬音”或“软音”的发音区别。
• The IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".^{[2][note 4]} However, if a large number of phonemically distinct letters can be derived with a diacritic, that may be used instead.^{[note 5]}
  IPA 通常不会为两个音素设置单独的字母，如果没有已知语言区分它们，这是一种称为“选择性”的属性。 ^{[2] [note 4]} 但是，如果可以通过添加变音符号衍生出大量音位上不同的字母，则可以使用这种方法。 ^{[note 5]}

The alphabet is designed for transcribing sounds (phones), not phonemes, though it is used for phonemic transcription as well. A few letters that did not indicate specific sounds have been retired – ⟨ˇ⟩, once used for the "compound" tone of Swedish and Norwegian, and ⟨ƞ⟩, once used for the moraic nasal of Japanese – though one remains: ⟨ɧ⟩, used for the sj-sound of Swedish. When the IPA is used for broad phonetic or for phonemic transcription, the letter–sound correspondence can be rather loose. The IPA has recommended that more 'familiar' letters be used when that would not cause ambiguity.^[13] For example, ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ for [ɛ] and [ɔ], ⟨t⟩ for [t̪] or [ʈ], ⟨f⟩ for [ɸ], etc. Indeed, in the illustration of Hindi in the IPA Handbook, the letters ⟨c⟩ and ⟨ɟ⟩ are used for /t͡ʃ/ and /d͡ʒ/.
该字母表旨在转录声音（音素），而非音位，尽管它也用于音位转录。一些不表示特定声音的字母已被废止——⟨ ˇ ⟩，曾用于瑞典语和挪威语的“复合”声调，和⟨ ƞ ⟩，曾用于日语的莫拉鼻音——但仍保留一个：⟨ ɧ ⟩，用于瑞典语的 sj 音。当 IPA 用于宽泛的语音或音位转录时，字母与声音的对应关系可能相当松散。IPA 建议在不会引起歧义的情况下使用更“熟悉”的字母。 ^[13] 例如，⟨ e ⟩和⟨ o ⟩用于 [ɛ] 和 [ɔ] ，⟨ t ⟩用于 [t̪] 或 [ʈ] ，⟨ f ⟩用于 [ɸ] ，等等。事实上，在 IPA 手册中印地语的示例中，字母⟨ c ⟩和⟨⟩用于 /t͡ʃ/ 和 /d͡ʒ/ 。

Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics are used to modify these, and 17 additional signs indicate suprasegmental qualities such as length, tone, stress, and intonation.^{[note 6]} These are organized into a chart; the chart displayed here is the official chart as posted at the website of the IPA.
在 IPA 的体征中，107 个字母代表辅音和元音，31 个变音符号用于修饰这些字母，另外 17 个体征表示超音段特性，如长度、音调、重音和语调。 ^{[note 6]} 这些体征被组织成一个图表；这里显示的图表是 IPA 网站上发布的官方图表。

The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet.^{[note 7]} For this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters are neither: for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, originally had the form of a question mark with the dot removed. A few letters, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative, ⟨ʕ⟩, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter ⟨ﻉ⟩, ʿayn, via the reversed apostrophe).^[9]
选择用于 IPA 的字母旨在与拉丁音乐字母表协调。 ^{[note 7]} 因此，大多数字母要么是拉丁音乐字母，要么是希腊字母，或其变体。有些字母则不是：例如，表示声门塞音的字母⟨ ʔ ⟩，最初的形式是去掉点的问号。还有一些字母，如表示浊咽擦音的⟨ ʕ ⟩，灵感来自其他书写系统（在这种情况下，是通过反转的撇号借鉴了阿拉伯字母⟨ ﻉ⟩，ʿayn）。 ^[9]

Some letter forms derive from existing letters:
一些字母形式源自现有字母：

• The right-swinging tail, as in ⟨ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ ⟩, indicates retroflex articulation. It originates from the hook of an r.
  右挥杆的尾部，如 ⟨ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɽ ʂ ʐ ɻ ɭ  ⟩，表示卷舌发音。它起源于 r 的左曲球。
• The top hook, as in ⟨ɠ ɗ ɓ⟩, indicates implosion.
  顶部的钩子，如 ⟨ ɠ ɗ ɓ ⟩，表示内爆音。
• Several nasal consonants are based on the form ⟨n⟩: ⟨n ɲ ɳ ŋ⟩. ⟨ɲ⟩ and ⟨ŋ⟩ derive from ligatures of gn and ng, and ⟨ɱ⟩ is an ad hoc imitation of ⟨ŋ⟩.
  几个鼻音辅音基于形式 ⟨ n ⟩：⟨ n ɲ ɳ ŋ ⟩。⟨ ɲ ⟩ 和 ⟨ ŋ ⟩ 源自 gn 和 ng 的连写，⟨ ɱ ⟩ 是对 ⟨ ŋ ⟩ 的临时模仿。
• Letters turned 180 degrees for suggestive shapes, such as ⟨ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɥ ɯ ɹ ʌ ʍ ʎ⟩ from ⟨a c e f h m r v w y⟩.^{[note 8]} Either the original letter may be reminiscent of the target sound, e.g., ⟨ɐ ə ɹ ʍ⟩ – or the turned one, e.g., ⟨ɔ ɟ ɥ ɯ ʌ ʎ⟩. Rotation was popular in the era of mechanical typesetting, as it had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols, much as the sorts had traditionally often pulled double duty for ⟨b⟩ and ⟨q⟩, ⟨d⟩ and ⟨p⟩, ⟨n⟩ and ⟨u⟩, ⟨6⟩ and ⟨9⟩ to reduce cost.
  字母旋转 180 度以形成暗示性形状，例如从⟨ a c e f h m r v w y ⟩变为⟨ ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɥ ɯ ɹ ʌ ʍ ʎ ⟩。 ^{[note 8]} 原始字母可能让人联想到目标音，例如⟨ ɐ ə ɹ ʍ ⟩，或者旋转后的字母，例如⟨ ɔ ɟ ɥ ɯ ʌ ʎ ⟩。旋转在机械排版时代很流行，因为它的优点是不需要为 IPA 符号铸造特色菜石膏，就像排序传统上常常兼作学位和设置、设置和背景、厢式货车和 UI、用户界面和 Cast、石膏和 Special、特色菜以降低成本一样。

  

• Among consonant letters, the small capital letters ⟨ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ⟩, and also ⟨ꞯ⟩ in extIPA, indicate more guttural sounds than their base letters – ⟨ʙ⟩ is a late exception. Among vowel letters, small capitals indicate lax vowels. Most of the original small-cap vowel letters have been modified into more distinctive shapes – e.g. ⟨ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ⟩ from U Ɐ E A^{[citation needed]} – with only ⟨ɪ ʏ⟩ remaining as small capitals.
  在辅音字母中，小型大写字母⟨ ɢ ʜ ʟ ɴ ʀ ʁ ⟩，以及 extIPA 中的⟨ ꞯ ⟩，表示比其垒字母更喉音的声音——⟨ ʙ ⟩是一个晚期异常。在元音字母中，小型大写表示松元音。大多数原始小型大写元音字母已被修改为更具特色的形状——例如从 u ɐ e a ^{[citation needed]} 变为⟨ ʊ ɤ ɛ ʌ ⟩——只有⟨ ɪ ʏ ⟩仍保持小型大写。

The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin script, and uses as few non-Latin letters as possible.^[6] The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most letters would correspond to "international usage" (approximately Classical Latin).^[6] Hence, the consonant letters ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨f⟩, ⟨ɡ⟩, ⟨h⟩, ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨v⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨z⟩ have more or less their word-initial values in English (g as in gill, h as in hill, though p t k are unaspirated as in spill, still, skill); and the vowel letters ⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩ correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: [i] is like the vowel in machine, [u] is as in rule, etc. Other Latin letters, particularly ⟨j⟩, ⟨r⟩ and ⟨y⟩, differ from English, but have their IPA values in Latin or other European languages.
国际音标基于拉丁音乐剧本，并尽可能少使用非拉丁音乐字母。 ^[6] 协会创建国际音标是为了使大多数字母的发音值与“国际用法”（大致为古典音乐拉丁音乐）相对应。 ^[6] 因此，辅音字母⟨ b ⟩、⟨ d ⟩、⟨ f ⟩、⟨ ɡ ⟩、⟨ h ⟩、⟨ k ⟩、⟨⟩、⟨ m ⟩、⟨ n ⟩、⟨ p ⟩、⟨ s ⟩、⟨ t ⟩、⟨ v ⟩、⟨ w ⟩ 和 ⟨ z ⟩ 在英语中的词首发音大致相同（g 如 gill，h 如 hill，尽管 p t k 在 spill 和 skill 中是不送气的）；元音字母⟨ a ⟩、⟨ e ⟩、⟨⟩、⟨ o ⟩、⟨ u ⟩ 对应拉丁音乐的（长）发音值： [i] 类似 machine 中的元音， [u] 如 rule 中的元音，等等。其他拉丁音乐字母，特别是⟨⟩、⟨ r ⟩ 和 ⟨ y ⟩，与英语不同，但在拉丁音乐或其他欧洲语言中具有其国际音标值。

This basic Latin inventory was extended by adding small-capital and cursive forms, diacritics and rotation. The sound values of these letters are related to those of the original letters, and their derivation may be iconic.^{[note 9]} For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex equivalents of the source letters, and small capital letters usually represent uvular equivalents of their source letters.
这个基本的拉丁音乐背包通过添加小型大写字母和草写形式、变音符号以及旋转得到了扩展。这些字母的发音值与原始字母相关联，其派生可能具有象征性。 ^{[note 9]} 例如，底部带有向右的左曲球的字母表示源字母的卷舌音等价物，而小型大写字母通常表示其源字母的小舌音等价物。

There are also several letters from the Greek alphabet, though their sound values may differ from Greek. For most Greek letters, subtly different glyph shapes have been devised for the IPA, specifically ⟨ɑ⟩, ⟨ꞵ⟩, ⟨ɣ⟩, ⟨ɛ⟩, ⟨ɸ⟩, ⟨ꭓ⟩ and ⟨ʋ⟩, which are encoded in Unicode separately from their parent Greek letters. One, however – ⟨θ⟩ – has only its Greek form, while for ⟨ꞵ ~ β⟩ and ⟨ꭓ ~ χ⟩, both Greek and Latin forms are in common use.^[16] The tone letters are not derived from an alphabet, but from a pitch trace on a musical scale.
还有一些来自希腊字母的字母，尽管它们的发音值可能与希腊语不同。对于大多数希腊字母，IPA 设计了略有不同的字形，特别是⟨ ɑ ⟩、⟨ ꞵ ⟩、⟨ ɣ ⟩、⟨ ɛ ⟩、⟨ ɸ ⟩、⟨ ꭓ ⟩和⟨ ʋ ⟩，它们在 Unicode 中与其母希腊字母分开编码。然而，有一个——⟨ θ ⟩——只有其希腊形式，而对于⟨ ꞵ ~ β ⟩和⟨ ꭓ ~ χ ⟩，希腊和拉丁音乐形式都被广泛使用。 ^[16] 音调字母不是源自任何字母表，而是源自音乐音阶上的音高轨迹。

Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with the letters to add tone and phonetic detail such as secondary articulation. There are also special symbols for prosodic features such as stress and intonation.
除了字母本身，还有各种辅助符号帮助成绩单。变音符号可以与字母结合，添加音调和语音细节，如次要发音。还有用于韵律特征的特色菜符号，如重音和语调。

There are two principal types of brackets used to set off (delimit) IPA transcriptions:
有两种主要类型的括号用于标示（分隔）IPA 成绩单：

Symbol  符号	Use
[ ... ]	Square brackets are used with phonetic notation, whether broad or narrow[17] – that is, for actual pronunciation, possibly including details of the pronunciation that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, but which the author nonetheless wishes to document. Such phonetic notation is the primary function of the IPA. 方括号用于音标表示，无论是宽音标还是窄音标 [17] ——即表示实际发音，可能包括在所转录语言中不用于区分词义的发音细节，但作者仍希望记录这些细节。这种音标表示是国际音标的主要功能。
/ ... /	Slashes[note 10] are used for abstract phonemic notation,[17] which note only features that are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail. For example, while the 'p' sounds of English pin and spin are pronounced differently (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus, phonemically the words are usually analyzed as /ˈpɪn/ and /ˈspɪn/, with the same phoneme /p/. To capture the difference between them – the allophones of /p/ – they can be transcribed phonetically as [pʰɪn] and [spɪn]. Phonemic notation commonly uses IPA symbols that are rather close to the default pronunciation of a phoneme, but for legibility often uses simple and 'familiar' letters rather than precise notation, for example /r/ and /o/ for the English [ɹʷ] and [əʊ̯] sounds, or /c, ɟ/ for [t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ] as mentioned above. 同性恋 [note 10] 用于抽象的音位符号， [17] 仅记录语言中具有区分性的特征，而不包含任何多余的细节。例如，虽然英语中 pin 和 spin 的 'p' 音发音不同（在某些语言中这种差异是有意义的），但在英语中这种差异并不具有意义。因此，从音位角度来看，这些词通常被分析为 /ˈpɪn/ 和 /ˈspɪn/ ，具有相同的音位 /p/ 。为了捕捉它们之间的差异—— /p/ 的变体音——可以用语音符号分别转写为 [pʰɪn] 和 [spɪn] 。音位符号通常使用与音位的默认发音较为接近的 IPA 符号，但为了易读性，常用简单且“熟悉”的字母而非精确符号，例如英语 [ɹʷ] 和 [əʊ̯] 音分别用 /r/ 和 /o/ ，或者如上文所述的 [t͜ʃ, d͜ʒ] 用 /c, ɟ/ 表示。

Less common conventions include:
较少见的惯例包括：

Symbol  符号	Use
{ ... }	Braces ("curly brackets") are used for prosodic notation.[18] See Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for examples in this system. 大括号（“花括号”）用于韵律符号。 [18] 参见国际音标的扩展以获取该系统中的示例。
( ... )	Parentheses are used for indistinguishable[17] or unidentified utterances. They are also seen for silent articulation (mouthing),[19] where the expected phonetic transcription is derived from lip-reading, and with periods to indicate silent pauses, for example (…) or (2 sec). The latter usage is made official in the extIPA, with unidentified segments circled instead.[20] 括号用于表示无法区分的 [17] 或未识别的发声。它们也用于表示无声发音（口腔动作）、 [19] ，即预期的语音转录是通过唇读得出的，以及用句号表示无声停顿，例如 (…) 或 (2 sec) 。后一种用法在 extIPA 中被正式采用，未识别的片段则用圈出表示。 [20]
⸨ ... ⸩	Double parentheses indicate either a transcription of obscured speech or a description of the obscuring noise. The IPA specifies that they mark the obscured sound,[18] as in ⸨2σ⸩, two audible syllables obscured by another sound. The current extIPA specifications prescribe double parentheses for the extraneous noise, such as ⸨cough⸩ for a cough by another person (not the speaker) or ⸨knock⸩ for a knock on a door, but the IPA Handbook identifies IPA and extIPA usage as equivalent.[21] Early publications of the extIPA explain double parentheses as marking "uncertainty because of noise which obscures the recording", and that within them "may be indicated as much detail as the transcriber can detect."[22] 双括号表示被遮挡的语音的转录或对遮挡噪音的描述。IPA 规定它们标记被遮挡的声音， [18] ，如 ⸨2σ⸩ 中，两个可听的音节被另一声音遮挡。当前 extIPA 规范规定双括号用于表示额外噪音，例如⸨咳嗽⸩表示他人（非说话者）的咳嗽，或⸨敲门⸩表示敲门声，但 IPA 手册认为 IPA 和 extIPA 的用法是等效的。 [21] extIPA 早期出版物解释双括号表示“因噪音遮挡录音而产生的不确定性”，并且其中“可以标注转录者能检测到的尽可能多的细节。” [22]

All three of the above are provided by the IPA Handbook. The following are not, but may be seen in IPA transcription or in associated material (especially angle brackets):
上述三者均由 IPA 手册提供。以下内容则没有，但可能出现在 IPA 成绩单或相关材料中（尤其是角度括号内）：

Symbol  符号	Field  领域	Description   描述
⟦ ... ⟧	Phonetics   语音学	Double square brackets are used for especially precise phonetic transcription, often finer than is normally practicable.[23] This is consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree. Double brackets may indicate that a letter has its cardinal IPA value. For example, ⟦a⟧ is an open front vowel, rather than the perhaps slightly different value (such as open central) that "[a]" may be used to transcribe in a particular language. Thus, two vowels transcribed for easy legibility as [e] and [ɛ] may be clarified as actually being ⟦e̝⟧ and ⟦e⟧; [ð] may be more precisely ⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧.[24] Double brackets may also be used for a specific token or speaker; for example, the pronunciation of a particular child as opposed to the adult pronunciation that is their target.[25] 双重方括号用于特别精确的语音成绩单，通常比通常可行的更细致。 [23] 这与 IPA 中通过加倍符号表示更高程度的惯例一致。双重括号可能表示一个字母具有其基本的 IPA 值。例如， ⟦a⟧ 是一个开放前元音，而不是“ [a] ”在特定语言中可能用来成绩单的稍有不同的值（如开放中央元音）。因此，为了易于辨认而成绩单为 [e] 和 [ɛ] 的两个元音，实际上可能是 ⟦e̝⟧ 和 ⟦e⟧ ； [ð] 可能更精确地是 ⟦ð̠̞ˠ⟧ 。 [24] 双重括号也可用于特定的代币或说话者；例如，某个特定儿童的发音与其目标的成人发音相区别。 [25]
⫽ ... ⫽ { ... } | ... | ‖ ... ‖	Morphophonology  形态音韵学	Double slashes are used for morphophonemic transcription. This is also consistent with the IPA convention of doubling a symbol to indicate greater degree – in this case, more abstract than phonemic transcription. 双重斜线用于形态音韵成绩单。这也与 IPA 中通过加倍符号表示更高程度的惯例一致——在这种情况下，比音位成绩单更抽象。 Also commonly seen are the braces of set theory, especially when enclosing the set of phonemes that constitute the morphophoneme, e.g. {t d} or {t|d} or {/t/, /d/} for a conflated /t/ and /d/. Braces have a conflicting use to delimit prosodic transcription within the Voice Quality Symbols, which are an extension of IPA used in extIPA, but are not otherwise used in IPA proper. 也常见的是集合论中的大括号，特别是在括起构成形态音位的音素集合时，例如 {t d} 或 {t|d} 或 {/t/, /d/} 表示合并的 /t/ 和 /d/ 。大括号在语音质量符号中有冲突的用法，用于界定韵律转录，这些符号是 IPA 的扩展，用于 extIPA，但在 IPA 本身中不使用。 Other delimiters sometimes seen are pipes and double pipes taken from Americanist phonetic notation. However, these conflict with the pipes used in basic IPA prosodic transcription.[note 11] 其他有时见到的界定符是来自美国语音学符号的竖线和双竖线。然而，这些与基本 IPA 韵律转录中使用的竖线存在冲突。 [note 11]
\ ... \ ⫽ ... ⫽ | ... | ! ... !	Diaphonology  音位间语音学	Backslashes are used for diaphonemic transcription, for example setting off pronunciations in dictionaries that do not target a specific preferred dialect.[note 10] 反斜线用于音位间转录，例如用于区分词典中不针对特定首选方言的发音。 [note 10] Other delimiters are double slashes, – the same notation as for morphophonology, – exclamation marks, and pipes. 其他分隔符包括双斜线——与形态音位学中使用的符号相同——感叹号和竖线。
⟨ ... ⟩ ⟪ ... ⟫ | ... |	Graphemics  字形学	Angle brackets[note 12] are used to mark both original Latin orthography and transliteration from another script; they are also used to identify individual graphemes of any script.[28][29] In IPA literature, they are used to indicate the IPA letters themselves rather than the sound values that they carry. 角度括号 [note 12] 用于标记原始拉丁音乐正字法和从另一种脚本的音译；它们也用于识别任何脚本的单个字素。 [28] [29] 在国际音标文献中，它们用于表示国际音标字母本身，而不是它们所承载的声音值。 For example, ⟨cot⟩ would be used for the orthography of the English word cot, as opposed to its pronunciation /ˈkɒt/. Italics are usual when words are written as themselves (as with cot in the previous sentence) rather than to specifically note their orthography. However, italics are sometimes ambiguous, and italic markup is not always accessible to sight-impaired readers who rely on screen reader technology. 例如，⟨ cot ⟩ 用于表示英语单词 cot 的正字法，而不是其发音 /ˈkɒt/ 。当单词以其本身形式书写时（如前句中的 cot），通常使用斜体。然而，斜体有时会产生歧义，且斜体标记并不总是对依赖屏幕阅读器技术的视障读者友好。 Double angle brackets may occasionally be useful to distinguish original orthography from transliteration, or the idiosyncratic spelling of a manuscript from the normalized orthography of the language. 双角括号有时可用于区分原始正字法和音译法，或手稿的特殊拼写法和语言的规范化正字法。 Pipes are sometimes used instead of double angle brackets to denote the distinct allographs of a grapheme that are known as glyphs. For example, print |g| and script |ɡ| are two glyph variants of the grapheme ⟨g⟩ of Latin script.[30] 有时使用竖线代替双角括号来表示被称为字形的字素的不同变体。例如，print |g| 和 script |ɡ| 是拉丁音乐脚本字素 ⟨g⟩ 的两种字形变体。 [30]

Some examples of contrasting brackets in the literature:
文献中对比括号的一些例子：

In some English accents, the phoneme /l/, which is usually spelled as ⟨l⟩ or ⟨ll⟩, is articulated as two distinct allophones: the clear [l] occurs before vowels and the consonant /j/, whereas the dark [ɫ]/[lˠ] occurs before consonants, except /j/, and at the end of words.^[31]
在某些英语口音中，音素 /l/ ，通常拼写为 ⟨l⟩ 或 ⟨ll⟩ ，发音为两个不同的同位异音：清晰的 [l] 出现在元音和辅音 /j/ 之前，而浊音 [ɫ] / [lˠ] 出现在辅音之前，除了 /j/ ，以及单词末尾。 ^[31]

the alternations /f/ – /v/ in plural formation in one class of nouns, as in knife /naɪf/ – knives /naɪvz/, which can be represented morphophonemically as {naɪV} – {naɪV+z}. The morphophoneme {V} stands for the phoneme set {/f/, /v/}.^[32]
复数阵型中一个名词类的交替 /f/ – /v/ ，如 knife /naɪf/ – knives /naɪvz/ ，可以形态音位学地表示为 {naɪV } – {naɪV+z }。形态音位 {V } 代表音位片场 {/f/, /v/ }。 ^[32]

[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{_𝑝ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd _𝑝}] — f-finals held in Barcelona and Madrid.^[33]
[ˈf\faɪnəlz ˈhɛld ɪn (.) ⸨knock on door⸩ bɑɹsə{_𝑝ˈloʊnə and ˈmədɹɪd _𝑝}] — 在巴塞罗那和马德里举行的 f-决赛。 ^[33]

IPA letters have cursive forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes, but the Handbook recommended against their use, as cursive IPA is "harder for most people to decipher".^[34] A braille representation of the IPA for blind or visually impaired professionals and students has also been developed.^[35]
IPA 字母有为手稿和现场笔记设计的草写形式，但《手册》建议不要使用它们，因为草写 IPA “对大多数人来说更难辨认”。 ^[34] 还为盲人或视力障碍的专业人士和学生开发了 IPA 的盲文表示法。 ^[35]

The International Phonetic Alphabet is occasionally modified by the Association. After each modification, the Association provides an updated simplified presentation of the alphabet in the form of a chart. (See History of the IPA.) Not all aspects of the alphabet can be accommodated in a chart of the size published by the IPA. The alveolo-palatal and epiglottal consonants, for example, are not included in the consonant chart for reasons of space rather than of theory (two additional columns would be required, one between the retroflex and palatal columns and the other between the pharyngeal and glottal columns), and the lateral flap would require an additional row for that single consonant, so they are listed instead under the catchall block of "other symbols".^[36] The indefinitely large number of tone letters would make a full accounting impractical even on a larger page, and only a few examples are shown, and even the tone diacritics are not complete; the reversed tone letters are not illustrated at all.
国际音标偶尔会由协会进行修改。每次修改后，协会都会以图表的形式提供该字母表的简化演示。（参见国际音标的历史。）并非字母表的所有方面都能容纳在国际音标发布的图表大小中。例如，齿龈硬腭音和会厌音辅音未包含在辅音图表中，原因是空间限制而非理论原因（需要两个额外的列，一个位于卷舌音和硬腭音列之间，另一个位于咽音和声门音列之间），而侧击音则需要为该单一辅音增加一行，因此它们被列在“其他符号”区块下。音调字母数量无限大，即使在更大的页面上完整列出也不切实际，仅展示了少数示例，甚至音调变音符号也不完整；反转的音调字母则完全未被展示。

The procedure for modifying the alphabet or the chart is to propose the change in the Journal of the IPA. (See, for example, December 2008 on an open central unrounded vowel^[37] and August 2011 on central approximants.)^[38] Reactions to the proposal may be published in the same or subsequent issues of the Journal (as in August 2009 on the open central vowel).^{[39][better source needed]} A formal proposal is then put to the Council of the IPA^{[40][clarification needed]} – which is elected by the membership^[41] – for further discussion and a formal vote.^[42][43]
修改字母表或图表的程序是向《国际音标杂志》提出变更建议。（例如，2008 年 12 月关于开放中央非圆唇元音 ^[37] ，以及 2011 年 8 月关于中央近似音。） ^[38] 对提案的反应可能会发表在同一期或后续期的杂志上（如 2009 年 8 月关于开放中央元音的讨论）。 ^{[39] [better source needed]} 然后，正式提案提交给国际音标理事会 ^{[40] [clarification needed]} ——该理事会由会员选举产生 ^[41] ——进行进一步讨论和正式投票。 ^{[42] [43]}

Many users of the alphabet, including the leadership of the Association itself, deviate from its standardized usage.^{[note 13]} The Journal of the IPA finds it acceptable to mix IPA and extIPA symbols in consonant charts in their articles. (For instance, including the extIPA letter ⟨𝼆⟩, rather than ⟨ʎ̝̊⟩, in an illustration of the IPA.)^[44]
许多字母表的使用者，包括协会领导层本身，偏离其标准化用法。 ^{[note 13]} 《国际音标杂志》认为在其文章中的辅音图表中混用 IPA 和 extIPA 符号是可以接受的。（例如，在 IPA 的插图中使用 extIPA 字母⟨ 𝼆 ⟩，而非⟨ ʎ̝̊ ⟩。） ^[44]

Of more than 160 IPA symbols, relatively few will be used to transcribe speech in any one language, with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are specified in detail, is known as a narrow transcription. A coarser transcription with less detail is called a broad transcription. Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.^[1] Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language.
在 160 多个 IPA 符号中，相对较少的符号会被用来转录任何一种语言的语音，且精确度各不相同。精确的语音转录，即详细指定声音的转录，被称为狭义转录。较粗略、细节较少的转录称为广义转录。两者都是相对术语，通常都用方括号括起来。 ^[1] 广义语音转录可能仅限于容易听到的细节，或仅限于与当前讨论相关的细节，且与音位转录几乎没有差别，但它们并不理论上声称所有转录的区别在语言中都是有意义的。

For example, the English word little may be transcribed broadly as [ˈlɪtəl], approximately describing many pronunciations. A narrower transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: [ˈɫɪɾɫ] in General American, [ˈlɪʔo] in Cockney, or [ˈɫɪːɫ] in Southern US English.
例如，英语单词 little 可以被广义转录为 [ˈlɪtəl] ，大致描述多种发音。狭义转录可能关注个别或方言细节：在全年龄美式英语中为 [ˈɫɪɾɫ] ，在 Cockney 方言中为 [ˈlɪʔo] ，或在美国南部英语中为 [ˈɫɪːɫ] 。

Phonemic transcriptions, which express the conceptual counterparts of spoken sounds, are usually enclosed in slashes (/ /) and tend to use simpler letters with few diacritics. The choice of IPA letters may reflect theoretical claims of how speakers conceptualize sounds as phonemes or they may be merely a convenience for typesetting. Phonemic approximations between slashes do not have absolute sound values. For instance, in English, either the vowel of pick or the vowel of peak may be transcribed as /i/, so that pick, peak would be transcribed as /ˈpik, ˈpiːk/ or as /ˈpɪk, ˈpik/; and neither is identical to the vowel of the French pique, which would also be transcribed /pik/. By contrast, a narrow phonetic transcription of pick, peak, pique could be: [pʰɪk], [pʰiːk], [pikʲ].
音位转录，表达口语声音的概念对应物，通常用斜线（/ /）括起，且倾向于使用带有少量变音符号的简单字母。IPA 字母的选择可能反映了说话者如何将声音概念化为音位的理论主张，或者仅仅是排版的便利。斜线之间的音位近似并没有绝对的声音值。例如，在英语中，pick 的元音或 peak 的元音都可以转录为 /i/ ，因此 pick、peak 可以转录为 /ˈpik, ˈpiːk/ 或 /ˈpɪk, ˈpik/ ；而这两者都不完全等同于法语 pique 的元音，后者也会被转录为 /pik/ 。相比之下，pick、peak、pique 的狭义语音转录可以是： [pʰɪk] 、 [pʰiːk] 、 [pikʲ] 。

IPA is popular for transcription by linguists. Some American linguists, however, use a mix of IPA with Americanist phonetic notation or Sinological phonetic notation or otherwise use nonstandard symbols for various reasons.^[45] Authors who employ such nonstandard use are encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices, which is good practice in general, as linguists differ in their understanding of the exact meaning of IPA symbols and common conventions change over time.
IPA 在语言学家中广泛用于转录。然而，一些美国语言学家会将 IPA 与美国语言学音标或汉学音标混合使用，或者出于各种原因使用非标准符号。 ^[45] 使用此类非标准符号的作者被鼓励附上图表或其他解释说明其选择，这在全年龄中是一种良好做法，因为语言学家对 IPA 符号的确切含义理解不同，且常见惯例会随着时间变化。

Many British dictionaries, including the Oxford English Dictionary and some learner's dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words.^[46] However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of pronunciation respelling systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English and to be more acceptable across dialects, without the implication of a preferred pronunciation that the IPA might convey. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use ⟨y⟩ for IPA [ j] and ⟨sh⟩ for IPA [ ʃ ], reflecting the usual spelling of those sounds in English.^{[47][48][note 14]} (In IPA, [y] represents the sound of the French ⟨u⟩, as in tu, and [sh] represents the sequence of consonants in grasshopper.)
许多英国词典，包括牛津英语词典和一些学习者词典，如牛津高阶学习者词典和剑桥高阶学习者词典，现在使用国际音标来表示单词的发音。 ^[46] 然而，大多数美国（以及一些英国）词典使用各种发音重拼系统，旨在让英语读者更容易接受，并且在不同方言之间更为通用，而不会像国际音标那样暗示首选发音。例如，许多美国词典（如梅里亚姆-韦伯斯特）中的重拼系统使用 ⟨y⟩ 表示国际音标中的 [ j] ，使用 ⟨sh⟩ 表示国际音标中的 [ ʃ ] ，反映了这些音在英语中的常见拼写。 ^{[47] [48] [note 14]} （在国际音标中， [y] 表示法语中 ⟨u⟩ 的发音，如 tu 中的发音， [sh] 表示 grasshopper 中辅音的序列。）

The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with phonemic orthographies generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the Hebrew alphabet for transcription of foreign words.^{[note 15]} Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words.^{[note 16]} The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in Czech.^{[note 17]}
IPA 在除英语以外的其他语言词典中也不是通用的。具有语音正字法的单语词典通常不标注大多数单词的发音，倾向于对发音异常的单词使用重拼写系统。以色列制作的词典很少使用 IPA，有时会使用希伯来字母来转录外来词。 ^{[note 15]} 将外语翻译成俄语的双语词典通常采用 IPA，但单语俄语词典偶尔会对外来词使用发音重拼写。 ^{[note 16]} IPA 在双语词典中更为常见，但这里也有异常。例如，大众市场的捷克语双语词典通常只对捷克语中不存在的音使用 IPA。 ^{[note 17]}

IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably via the Africa Alphabet in many sub-Saharan languages such as Hausa, Fula, Akan, Gbe languages, Manding languages, Lingala, etc. Capital case variants have been created for use in these languages. For example, Kabiyè of northern Togo has Ɖ ɖ, Ŋ ŋ, Ɣ ɣ, Ɔ ɔ, Ɛ ɛ, Ʋ ʋ. These, and others, are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.
IPA 字母已被纳入多种语言的字母表中，特别是通过非洲字母在许多撒哈拉以南语言中，如豪萨语、富拉语、阿坎语、格贝语族、曼丁语族、林加拉语等。为这些语言创建了大写案件变体。例如，多哥北部的 Kabiyè语有Ɖ ɖ、Ŋ ŋ、Ɣ ɣ、Ɔ ɔ、Ɛ ɛ、Ʋ ʋ。这些及其他字符被 Unicode 支持，但出现在除 IPA 扩展之外的拉丁音乐范围内。

In the IPA itself, however, only lower-case letters are used. The 1949 edition of the IPA handbook indicated that an asterisk ⟨*⟩ might be prefixed to indicate that a word was a proper name,^[50] but this convention was not included in the 1999 Handbook, which notes the contrary use of the asterisk as a placeholder for a sound or feature that does not have a symbol.^[51]
然而，在 IPA 本身中，只使用小写字母。1949 年版的 IPA 手册指出，可能会在词前加星号 ⟨*⟩ 以表示该词是专有名词， ^[50] 但这一惯例未被纳入 1999 年版手册，后者指出星号相反地用作表示没有符号的音或特征的占位符。 ^[51]

The IPA has widespread use among classical singers during preparation as they are frequently required to sing in a variety of foreign languages. They are also taught by vocal coaches to perfect diction and improve tone quality and tuning.^[52] Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as Nico Castel's volumes^[53] and Timothy Cheek's book Singing in Czech.^[54] Opera singers' ability to read IPA was used by the site Visual Thesaurus, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database ... for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA".^[55]
IPA 在慢棋歌手准备期间被广泛使用，因为他们经常需要用多种外语演唱。声乐教练也会教授他们以完善发音并提高音质和调音。 ^[52] 歌剧剧本权威地用 IPA 转录，例如 Nico Castel 的著作 ^[53] 和 Timothy Cheek 的《Singing in Czech》一书。 ^[54] 视觉词典网站利用歌剧歌手阅读 IPA 的能力，聘请了几位歌剧歌手“为 VT 词汇数据库中 15 万个单词和短语录音……因为他们的声乐耐力、对发音细节的关注，最重要的是对 IPA 的知识”。 ^[55]

The International Phonetic Association organizes the letters of the IPA into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.^{[note 18][57][58]}
国际音标协会将 IPA 字母分为三类：肺音辅音、非肺音辅音和元音。 ^{[note 18] [57] [58]}

Pulmonic consonant letters are arranged singly or in pairs of voiceless (tenuis) and voiced sounds, with these then grouped in columns from front (labial) sounds on the left to back (glottal) sounds on the right. In official publications by the IPA, two columns are omitted to save space, with the letters listed among "other symbols" even though theoretically they belong in the main chart.^{[note 19]} They are arranged in rows from full closure (occlusives: stops and nasals) at top, to brief closure (vibrants: trills and taps), to partial closure (fricatives), and finally minimal closure (approximants) at bottom, again with a row left out to save space. In the table below, a slightly different arrangement is made: All pulmonic consonants are included in the pulmonic-consonant table, and the vibrants and laterals are separated out so that the rows reflect the common lenition pathway of stop → fricative → approximant, as well as the fact that several letters pull double duty as both fricative and approximant; affricates may then be created by joining stops and fricatives from adjacent cells. Shaded cells represent articulations that are judged to be impossible or not distinctive.
肺音辅音字母以单个或成对的无声（tenuis）和有声音排列，这些字母按列分组，从左侧的前部（唇音）声音到右侧的背部（声门）声音。在国际音标（IPA）的官方出版物中，为节省空间省略了两列，这些字母虽然理论上属于主表，但被列在“其他符号”中。 ^{[note 19]} 它们按行排列，从顶部的完全闭合（阻塞音：爆破音和鼻音），到短暂闭合（振动音：颤音和弹音），再到部分闭合（擦音），最后到底部的最小闭合（近音），同样为了节省空间省略了一行。在下表中，排列略有不同：所有肺音辅音都包含在肺音辅音表中，振动音和边音被分开，使行反映出常见的软化路径：爆破音→擦音→近音，以及几个字母兼具擦音和近音的双重功能；塞擦音则可通过连接相邻单元格中的爆破音和擦音来形成。阴影单元格表示被认为不可能或不具辨别性的发音。

Vowel letters are also grouped in pairs – of unrounded and rounded vowel sounds – with these pairs also arranged from front on the left to back on the right, and from maximal closure at top to minimal closure at bottom. No vowel letters are omitted from the chart, though in the past some of the mid central vowels were listed among the "other symbols".
元音字母也成对分组——非圆唇元音和圆唇元音——这些对也从左侧的前部排列到右侧的背部，并且从顶部的最大闭合到底部的最小闭合排列。图表中没有遗漏任何元音字母，尽管过去一些中央元音被列为“其他符号”。

A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal folds) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in English fall into this category.^[60]
肺音辅音是通过阻塞声门（声带之间的空间）或口腔（口腔）并同时或随后让肺部的空气排出而发出的辅音。肺音辅音构成了国际音标中大多数辅音，也构成人类语言中的大部分辅音。所有英语辅音都属于这一类别。 ^[60]

The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.
肺音辅音表，包括大多数辅音，按发音方式排列行，即辅音的发音方式，按发音部位排列列，即辅音在发声道中的发音位置。主表仅包含具有单一发音部位的辅音。

Place → Labial Coronal Dorsal Laryngeal Manner ↓ Bi­labial Labio­dental Linguo­labial Dental Alveolar Post­alveolar Retro­flex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn­geal/epi­glottal Glottal Nasal m̥ m ɱ̊ ɱ n̼ n̥ n ɳ̊ ɳ ɲ̊ ɲ ŋ̊ ŋ ɴ̥ ɴ Plosive p b p̪ b̪ t̼ d̼ t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k ɡ q ɢ ʡ ʔ Sibilant fricative s z ʃ ʒ ʂ ʐ ɕ ʑ Non-sibilant fricative ɸ β f v θ̼ ð̼ θ ð θ̠ ð̠ ɹ̠̊˔ ɹ̠˔ ɻ̊˔ ɻ˔ ç ʝ x ɣ χ ʁ ħ ʕ h ɦ Approximant ʋ ɹ ɻ j ɰ ʔ̞ Tap/flap ⱱ̟ ⱱ ɾ̼ ɾ̥ ɾ ɽ̊ ɽ ɢ̆ ʡ̆ Trill ʙ̥ ʙ r̥ r ɽ̊r̥ ɽr ʀ̥ ʀ ʜ ʢ Lateral fricative ɬ ɮ ꞎ 𝼅 𝼆 ʎ̝ 𝼄 ʟ̝ Lateral approximant l ɭ ʎ ʟ ʟ̠ Lateral tap/flap ɺ̥ ɺ 𝼈̥ 𝼈 ʎ̆ ʟ̆

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Notes  注释

• In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the obstruents), the letter to the right represents a voiced consonant, except breathy-voiced [ɦ].^[61] In the other rows (the sonorants), the single letter represents a voiced consonant.
  在某些字母成对出现的行（阻碍音）中，右边的字母表示浊辅音，呼气浊音 [ɦ] 除外。 ^[61] 在其他行（响音）中，单个字母表示浊辅音。
• While IPA provides a single letter for the coronal places of articulation (for all consonants but fricatives), these do not always have to be used exactly. When dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.
  虽然国际音标为冠状发音部位（除摩擦音外的所有辅音）提供了单个字母，但这些字母并不总是必须严格使用。在处理特定语言时，这些字母可以根据该语言的需要被视为专门的齿音、齿龈音或后齿龈音，无需使用附加符号。
• Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
  阴影区域表示被判断为不可能的发音部位。
• The letters [β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ] are canonically voiced fricatives but may be used for approximants.^{[note 20]}
  字母 [β, ð, ʁ, ʕ, ʢ] 在规范上是浊擦音，但也可以用作近似音。 ^{[note 20]}
• In many languages, such as English, [h] and [ɦ] are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare phonation.^[63]
  在许多语言中，如英语， [h] 和 [ɦ] 实际上既不是声门音，也不是擦音或近似音。相反，它们是裸露的发声。 ^[63]
• It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives [ʃ ʒ], [ɕ ʑ], and [ʂ ʐ].
  主要是舌头的形状而非其位置区分了擦音 [ʃ ʒ] 、 [ɕ ʑ] 和 [ʂ ʐ] 。
• [ʜ, ʢ] are defined as epiglottal fricatives under the "Other symbols" section in the official IPA chart, but they may be treated as trills at the same place of articulation as [ħ, ʕ] because trilling of the aryepiglottic folds typically co-occurs.^[64]
  [ʜ, ʢ] 在官方 IPA 图表的“其他符号”章节中被定义为会厌擦音，但它们可能被视为与 [ħ, ʕ] 同一发音部位的颤音，因为杓会厌襞的颤动通常同时发生。 ^[64]
• Some listed phones are not known to exist as phonemes in any language.
  一些列出的音素并未被已知存在于任何语言中作为音位。

Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages and some neighboring Bantu languages of Africa), implosives (found in languages such as Sindhi, Hausa, Swahili and Vietnamese), and ejectives (found in many Amerindian and Caucasian languages).
非肺音辅音是指气流不依赖于肺部的声音。这些包括咔哒音（存在于科伊桑语系和非洲一些邻近的班图语系语言中）、内爆音（存在于信德语、豪萨语、斯瓦希里语和越南语等语言中）以及爆破音（存在于许多美洲原住民语言和高加索语言中）。

BL LD D A PA RF P V U EG Ejective Stop pʼ tʼ ʈʼ cʼ kʼ qʼ ʡʼ Fricative ɸʼ fʼ θʼ sʼ ʃʼ ʂʼ ɕʼ xʼ χʼ Lateral fricative ɬʼ Click (top: velar; bottom: uvular) Tenuis kʘ qʘ kǀ qǀ kǃ qǃ kǂ qǂ Voiced ɡʘ ɢʘ ɡǀ ɢǀ ɡǃ ɢǃ ɡǂ ɢǂ Nasal ŋʘ ɴʘ ŋǀ ɴǀ ŋǃ ɴǃ ŋǂ ɴǂ Tenuis lateral kǁ qǁ Voiced lateral ɡǁ ɢǁ Nasal lateral ŋǁ ɴǁ Implosive Voiced ɓ ɗ ᶑ ʄ ɠ ʛ Voiceless ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ᶑ̊ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥

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Notes  注释

• Clicks have traditionally been described as consisting of a forward place of articulation, commonly called the click "type" or historically the "influx", and a rear place of articulation, which when combined with the quality of the click is commonly called the click "accompaniment" or historically the "efflux". The IPA click letters indicate only the click type (forward articulation and release). Therefore, all clicks require two letters for proper notation: ⟨k͡ǀ, ɡ͡ǀ, q͡ǀ⟩, etc., or with the order reversed if both the forward and rear releases are audible. The letter for the rear articulation is frequently omitted, in which case a ⟨k⟩ may usually be assumed. However, some researchers dispute the idea that clicks should be analyzed as doubly articulated, as the traditional transcription implies, and analyze the rear occlusion as solely a part of the airstream mechanism.^[65] In transcriptions of such approaches, the click letter represents both places of articulation, with the different letters representing the different click types, and diacritics are used for the elements of the accompaniment: ⟨ǀ, ǀ̬, ǀ̃⟩, etc.
  爆破音传统上被描述为由一个前部发音部位组成，通常称为爆破音“类型”或历史上的“入口”，以及一个后部发音部位，当与爆破音的音质结合时，通常称为爆破音“伴随”或历史上的“出口”。国际音标（IPA）爆破音字母仅表示爆破音类型（前部发音部位和释放）。因此，所有爆破音的正确标注都需要两个字母：⟨ k͡ǀ, ɡ͡ǀ, q͡ǀ ⟩，等等，或者如果前后释放都可听见，则顺序相反。后部发音的字母经常被省略，在这种情况下通常可以假定为⟨ k ⟩。然而，一些研究者质疑将爆破音分析为双重发音的观点，正如传统转写所暗示的那样，而是将后部闭塞仅分析为气流机制的一部分。 ^[65] 在这种方法的转写中，爆破音字母代表两个发音部位，不同的字母代表不同的爆破音类型，附加符号用于表示伴随元素：⟨ ǀ, ǀ̬, ǀ̃ ⟩，等等。
• Letters for the voiceless implosives ⟨ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ⟩ are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: ⟨ɓ̥, ɗ̥⟩, etc.
  无声内爆音的字母⟨ ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ ⟩不再被国际音标支持，尽管它们仍保留在 Unicode 中。取而代之的是，国际音标通常使用带无声音标的有声音等价字母：⟨ ɓ̥, ɗ̥ ⟩，等等。
• The letter for the retroflex implosive, ⟨ᶑ ⟩, is not "explicitly IPA approved",^[66] but the IPA has endorsed the inclusion of ⟨ᶑ ⟩ and voiceless ⟨𝼉⟩ into Unicode.
  表示卷舌内爆音的字母⟨ ᶑ  ⟩“并非‘明确获得国际音标批准’”， ^[66] 但国际音标已认可将⟨ ᶑ  ⟩和无声⟨ 𝼉 ⟩纳入 Unicode。
• The ejective diacritic is placed at the right-hand margin of the consonant, rather than immediately after the letter for the stop: ⟨t͜ʃʼ⟩, ⟨kʷʼ⟩. In imprecise transcription, it often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as [mˀ], [lˀ], [wˀ], [aˀ] – also transcribable as creaky [m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰].
  喷出音变音符号位于辅音的右侧边缘，而不是紧跟在爆破音字母之后：⟨ t͜ʃʼ ⟩，⟨ kʷʼ ⟩。在不精确的转写中，它常用来表示喉塞音上标，出现在喉化但肺音的响音中，如 [mˀ] 、 [lˀ] 、 [wˀ] 、 [aˀ] —— 也可转写为喉音颤音 [m̰] 、 [l̰] 、 [w̰] 、 [a̰] 。

Affricates and co-articulated stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters with no difference in meaning.^{[note 21]} Affricates are optionally represented by ligatures – e.g. ⟨ʧ, ʤ ⟩ – though this is no longer official IPA usage^[1] because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example ⟨tˢ⟩ for [t͜s], paralleling [kˣ] ~ [k͜x]. The letters for the palatal plosives ⟨c⟩ and ⟨ɟ⟩ are often used as a convenience for [t͜ʃ] and [d͜ʒ] or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.
塞擦音和共发音塞音由两个字母组成，中间用连字线连接，连字线可位于字母上方或下方，意义无差别。 ^{[note 21]} 塞擦音可选择用连字符表示——例如 ⟨ ʧ, ʤ  ⟩——尽管这已不再是官方 IPA 用法 ^[1] ，因为若用此法表示所有塞擦音需要大量连字符。或者，有时使用辅音释放的上标符号来转写塞擦音，例如 ⟨ tˢ ⟩ 表示 [t͜s] ，类似于 [kˣ] ~ [k͜x] 。软腭塞音字母 ⟨ c ⟩ 和 ⟨⟩ 常被用作 [t͜ʃ] 和 [d͜ʒ] 或类似塞擦音的简便表示，即使在官方 IPA 出版物中也是如此，因此必须谨慎解读。

Bi­labial Labio­dental Dental Alveolar Post­alveolar Retro­flex Palatal Velar Uvular Epi­glottal Glottal Pulmonic Sibilant ts dz t̠ʃ d̠ʒ tʂ dʐ tɕ dʑ Non-sibilant pɸ bβ p̪f b̪v t̪θ d̪ð tɹ̝̊ dɹ̝ t̠ɹ̠̊˔ d̠ɹ̠˔ cç ɟʝ kx ɡɣ qχ ɢʁ ʡʜ ʡʢ ʔh Lateral tɬ dɮ tꞎ d𝼅 c𝼆 ɟʎ̝ k𝼄 ɡʟ̝ Ejective Central t̪θʼ tsʼ t̠ʃʼ tʂʼ kxʼ qχʼ Lateral tɬʼ c𝼆ʼ k𝼄ʼ

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Co-articulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the [w] in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, being pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Similar sounds are [ʍ] and [ɥ]. In some languages, plosives can be double-articulated, for example in the name of Laurent Gbagbo.
共发音辅音是指涉及两个同时发音部位的声音（使用声道的两个部分发音）。在英语中，“went”中的 [w] 是一个共发音辅音，发音时嘴唇圆形，舌头背部抬起。类似的声音有 [ʍ] 和 [ɥ] 。在某些语言中，爆破音可以是双重发音，例如 Laurent Gbagbo 的名字中。

Nasal n͡m Labial–alveolar ɳ͡m Labial–retroflex ŋ͡m Labial–velar Plosive t͡p d͡b Labial–alveolar ʈ͡p ɖ͡b Labial–retroflex k͡p ɡ͡b Labial–velar q͡ʡ Uvular–epiglottal q͡p Labial–uvular Fricative/approximant ɥ̊ ɥ Labialized palatal ʍ w Labialized velar ɧ Sj-sound (variable) Lateral approximant ɫ Velarized alveolar Implosive ɠ̊͜ɓ̥ ɠ͡ɓ Labial–velar Ejective t͡pʼ Labial–alveolar

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Notes  注释

• [ɧ], the Swedish sj-sound, is described by the IPA as a "simultaneous [ʃ] and [x]", but it is unlikely such a simultaneous fricative actually exists in any language.^[68]
  [ɧ] ，瑞典语的 sj 音，IPA 描述为“同时 [ʃ] 和 [x] ”，但实际上任何语言中都不太可能存在这种同时发出的摩擦音。 ^[68]
• Multiple tie bars can be used: ⟨a͡b͡c⟩ or ⟨a͜b͜c⟩. For instance, a pre-voiced velar affricate may be transcribed as ⟨g͡k͡x⟩
  可以使用多个连接符号：⟨ a͡b͡c ⟩ 或 ⟨ a͜b͜c ⟩。例如，预浊软腭塞擦音可以转写为⟨ g͡k͡x ⟩
• If a diacritic needs to be placed on or under a tie bar, the combining grapheme joiner (U+034F) needs to be used, as in [b͜͏̰də̀bdʊ̀] 'chewed' (Margi). Font support is spotty, however.
  如果需要在连接符号上方或下方放置变音符号，则需要使用组合字形连接符（U+034F），如 [b͜͏̰də̀bdʊ̀] “咀嚼”（Margi）。字体支持不稳定。

The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.^[69] Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.
IPA 将元音定义为发生在音节中心的声音。 ^[69] 下面是一个描绘 IPA 元音的图表。IPA 根据舌头的位置来映射元音。

Front Central Back Close i y ɨ ʉ ɯ u Near-close ɪ ʏ ʊ Close-mid e ø ɘ ɵ ɤ o Mid e̞ ø̞ ə ɤ̞ o̞ Open-mid ɛ œ ɜ ɞ ʌ ɔ Near-open æ ɐ Open a ɶ ä ɑ ɒ

IPA help  国际音标 帮助  audio   音频 full chart  完整图表 template  模板

The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, [ɑ] (the first vowel in father) is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. [i] (the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.
图表的垂直轴由元音高度映射。舌头降低发音的元音位于底部，舌头抬高发音的元音位于顶部。例如， [ɑ] （father 中的第一个元音）位于底部，因为此时舌头是降低的。 [i] （"meet"中的元音）位于顶部，因为发音时舌头抬高到口腔顶部。

In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as [ɛ], the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as [ʌ], the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart.
以类似的时尚，图表的水平轴由元音的背部位置决定。舌头向口腔前部移动的元音（如 [ɛ] ，"met"中的元音）位于图表的左侧，而舌头向背部移动的元音（如 [ʌ] ，"but"中的元音）则位于图表的右侧。

In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.
在元音成对出现的地方，右边表示圆唇元音（嘴唇呈圆形），而左边则是其非圆唇对应音。

Diphthongs are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in ⟨ui̯⟩ or ⟨u̯i⟩, or with a superscript for the on- or off-glide, as in ⟨uⁱ⟩ or ⟨ᵘi⟩. Sometimes a tie bar is used: ⟨u͜i⟩, especially when it is difficult to tell if the diphthong is characterized by an on-glide or an off-glide or when it is variable.
双元音通常用非音节性变音符号标示，如⟨ ui̯ ⟩或⟨ u̯i ⟩，或用上标表示起滑音或落滑音，如⟨ uⁱ ⟩或⟨ ᵘi ⟩。有时使用连字符：⟨ u͜i ⟩，尤其是在难以判断双元音是以起滑音还是落滑音为特征，或当它是一个变量时。

Notes  注释

• ⟨a⟩ officially represents a front vowel, but there is little if any distinction between front and central open vowels (see Vowel § Acoustics), and ⟨a⟩ is frequently used for an open central vowel.^[45] If disambiguation is required, the retraction diacritic or the centralized diacritic may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in ⟨a̠⟩ or ⟨ä⟩.
  ⟨ a ⟩ 官方表示前元音，但前元音和中央开元音之间几乎没有区别（参见元音 § 声学），且 ⟨ a ⟩ 经常用于表示开中央元音。 ^[45] 如果需要区分，可以添加后缩音符号或中央化音符号以表示开中央元音，如 ⟨ a̠ ⟩ 或 ⟨ ä ⟩。

Diacritics are used for phonetic detail. They are added to IPA letters to indicate a modification or specification of that letter's normal pronunciation.^[70]
变音符号用于表示语音细节。它们被添加到国际音标字母上，以指示该字母正常发音的修改或具体说明。 ^[70]

By being made superscript, any IPA letter may function as a diacritic, conferring elements of its articulation to the base letter. Those superscript letters listed below are specifically provided for by the IPA Handbook; other uses can be illustrated with ⟨tˢ⟩ ([t] with fricative release), ⟨ᵗs⟩ ([s] with affricate onset), ⟨ⁿd⟩ (prenasalized [d]), ⟨bʱ⟩ ([b] with breathy voice), ⟨mˀ⟩ (glottalized [m]), ⟨sᶴ⟩ ([s] with a flavor of [ʃ], i.e. a voiceless alveolar retracted sibilant), ⟨oᶷ⟩ ([o] with diphthongization), ⟨ɯᵝ⟩ (compressed [ɯ]). Superscript diacritics placed after a letter are ambiguous between simultaneous modification of the sound and phonetic detail at the end of the sound. For example, labialized ⟨kʷ⟩ may mean either simultaneous [k] and [w] or else [k] with a labialized release. Superscript diacritics placed before a letter, on the other hand, normally indicate a modification of the onset of the sound (⟨mˀ⟩ glottalized [m], ⟨ˀm⟩ [m] with a glottal onset). (See § Superscript IPA.)
通过作为上标，任何 IPA 字母都可以作为变音符号，赋予其发音元素给垒字母。下面列出的这些上标字母是由 IPA 手册专门提供的；其他用法可以用⟨ tˢ ⟩（ [t] 带摩擦释放）、⟨ ᵗs ⟩（ [s] 带塞擦起始）、⟨ ⁿd ⟩（前鼻化 [d] ）、⟨ bʱ ⟩（ [b] 带气息音）、⟨ mˀ ⟩（喉塞音 [m] ）、⟨ sᶴ ⟩（ [s] 带 [ʃ] 的风味，即无声齿龈后缩嘶嘶音）、⟨ oᶷ ⟩（ [o] 带双元音化）、⟨ ɯᵝ ⟩（压缩 [ɯ] ）。放在字母后的上标变音符号在同时修改音和音的末尾的语音细节之间存在歧义。例如，唇化的⟨ kʷ ⟩可能意味着同时的 [k] 和 [w] ，或者 [k] 带唇化释放。另一方面，放在字母前的上标变音符号通常表示音的起始部分的修改（⟨ mˀ ⟩喉塞音 [m] ，⟨ ˀm ⟩ [m] 带喉塞起始）。(参见§ 上标 IPA。)

Airstream diacritics   气流变音符号
◌ʼ	kʼ sʼ	Ejective  喷出音
Syllabicity diacritics   音节性变音符号
◌̩	ɹ̩ n̩	Syllabic  音节化	◌̯	ɪ̯ ʊ̯	Non-syllabic  非音节化
◌̍	ɻ̍ ŋ̍		◌̑	y̑
Consonant-release diacritics 辅音发布变音符号
◌ʰ	tʰ	Aspirated[α]  送气 [α]	◌̚	p̚	No audible release 无可闻发布
◌ⁿ	dⁿ	Nasal release  鼻音发布	◌ˡ	dˡ	Lateral release  侧面发布
◌ᶿ	tᶿ	Voiceless dental fricative release 无声齿龈摩擦音发布	◌ˣ	tˣ	Voiceless velar fricative release 清软腭擦音发布
◌ᵊ	dᵊ	Mid central vowel release 中央元音释放
Phonation diacritics   发声变音符号
◌̥	n̥ d̥	Voiceless  无声的	◌̬	s̬ t̬	Voiced  浊音
◌̊	ɻ̊ ŋ̊
◌̤	b̤ a̤	Breathy voiced[α]  喘气式浊音 [α]	◌̰	b̰ a̰	Creaky voiced  喀哒式浊音
Articulation diacritics   发音变音符号
◌̪	t̪ d̪	Dental  齿音 (◌͆ is dentolabial or underbite in extIPA) （ ◌͆ 在 extIPA 中表示齿唇音或反咬合）	◌̼	t̼ d̼	Linguolabial  唇舌音
◌͆	ɮ͆
◌̺	t̺ d̺	Apical  舌尖音	◌̻	t̻ d̻	Laminal  舌叶音
◌̟	u̟ t̟	Advanced (fronted)  前移（前置）	◌̠	i̠ t̠	Retracted (backed)  后移（后置）
◌᫈	ɡ᫈		◌᫢	q᫢[β]
◌̈	ë ä	Centralized  集中式	◌̽	e̽ ɯ̽	Mid-centralized  中央化的
◌̝	e̝ r̝	Raised  提高的 ([r̝], [ɭ˔] are fricatives) （ [r̝], [ɭ˔] 是摩擦音）	◌̞	e̞ β̞	Lowered  降低的 ([β̞], [ɣ˕] are approximants) ( [β̞], [ɣ˕] 是近似音)
◌˔	ɭ˔		◌˕	y˕ ɣ˕
Co-articulation diacritics 共发音变音符号
◌̹	ɔ̹ x̹	More rounded / less spread 更圆唇 / 更少展唇 (over-rounding)   （过度圆唇）	◌̜	ɔ̜ xʷ̜	Less rounded / more spread 较少圆唇 / 更展开 (under-rounding)[γ]  （下回合） [γ]
◌͗	y͗ χ͗		◌͑	y͑ χ͑ʷ
◌ʷ	tʷ dʷ	Labialized  圆唇化的	◌ʲ	tʲ dʲ	Palatalized  腭化
◌ˠ	tˠ dˠ	Velarized  软腭化	◌̴	ɫ ᵶ	Velarized or pharyngealized 软腭化或咽化
◌ˤ	tˤ aˤ	Pharyngealized  咽化
◌̘	e̘ o̘	Advanced tongue root 高级舌根 (expanded pharynx)   （扩张的咽部）	◌̙	e̙ o̙	Retracted tongue root 收缩舌头根部
◌꭪	y꭪		◌꭫	y꭫
◌̃	ẽ z̃	Nasalized  鼻化	◌˞	ɚ ɝ	Rhoticity  卷舌音特性

Notes:  注释：

Subdiacritics (diacritics normally placed below a letter) may be moved above a letter to avoid conflict with a descender, as in voiceless ⟨ŋ̊⟩.^[70] The raising and lowering diacritics have optional spacing forms ⟨˔⟩, ⟨˕⟩ that avoid descenders.
下标变音符（通常置于字母下方的变音符）可以移至字母上方，以避免与下延笔画冲突，如无声的 ⟨ ŋ̊ ⟩。 ^[70] 升高和降低变音符有可选的间距形式 ⟨⟩、⟨⟩，以避免下延笔画。

The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from open-glottis to closed-glottis phonation is:
声门状态可以通过变音符号进行精细标注。一系列从开声门到闭声门发音的齿龈爆破音如下：

Phonation scale   发声音阶

Open glottis   开声门	[t]	voiceless  清音
	[d̤]	breathy voice, also called murmured 喘气音，也称为低声
	[d̥]	slack voice  松弛音
Sweet spot  甜点（最佳点）	[d]	modal voice  模式音
	[d̬]	stiff voice  僵硬音
	[d̰]	creaky voice  沙哑音
Closed glottis   闭合声门	[ʔ͜t]	glottal closure   声门闭合

Additional diacritics are provided by the Extensions to the IPA for speech pathology.
附加的变音符号由语音病理学的国际音标扩展提供。

These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, that is, at the level of syllable, word or phrase. These include prosody, pitch, length, stress, intensity, tone and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech.^[72] Various ligatures of pitch/tone letters and diacritics are provided for by the Kiel Convention and used in the IPA Handbook despite not being found in the summary of the IPA alphabet found on the one-page chart.
这些符号描述了语言中超越单个辅音和元音层面的特征，即在音节、单词或短语层面上的特征。这些包括韵律、音高、时长、重音、强度、音调和语言声音的双写，以及语音的节奏和语调。 ^[72] 基尔公约提供了各种音高/音调字母和变音符号的连字，并在 IPA 手册中使用，尽管它们未出现在单页图表中 IPA 字母的摘要中。

Under capital letters below we will see how a carrier letter may be used to indicate suprasegmental features such as labialization or nasalization. Some authors omit the carrier letter, for e.g. suffixed [kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ or prefixed [ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟],^{[note 22]} or place a spacing variant of a diacritic such as ⟨˔⟩ or ⟨˜⟩ at the beginning or end of a word to indicate that it applies to the entire word.^{[note 23]}
在下面的大写字母部分，我们将看到如何使用承载字母来表示超音段特征，如唇音化或鼻音化。一些作者省略了承载字母，例如后缀 [kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ 或前缀 [ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟] 、 ^{[note 22]} ，或者在单词的开头或结尾放置变间距的变音符号，如⟨⟩或⟨ ˜ ⟩，以表示该符号适用于整个单词。 ^{[note 23]}

Length, stress, and rhythm 长度、重音和节奏
ˈke	Primary stress (appears  主要重音（出现在 before stressed syllable) 重读音节之前）	ˌke	Secondary stress (appears 次重音（出现在重读音节之前） before stressed syllable) 重读音节之前）
eː kː	Long (long vowel or 长音（长元音或 geminate consonant)   双写辅音	eˑ	Half-long   半长音
		ə̆ ɢ̆	Extra-short  群众演员短音
ek.ste eks.te	Syllable break   音节断裂 (internal boundary)   （内部边界）	es‿e	Linking (lack of a boundary; 连音（无边界； a phonological word)[note 24] 一个音韵词） [note 24]
Intonation   语调
|[α]	Minor or foot break 辅修或脚停顿	‖[α]	Major or intonation break 专业或语调停顿
↗︎	Global rise[note 25]  全局升调 [note 25]	↘︎	Global fall[note 25]  全球下降 [note 25]
Up- and down-step   上升和趴下阶
ꜛke	Upstep  上升阶	ꜜke	Downstep  趴下阶

Notes:  注释：

Pitch diacritics[note 26]  音高变音符号 [note 26]
ŋ̋ e̋	Extra high   极高	ŋ̌ ě	Rising   上升	ŋ᷄ e᷄	Mid-rising   中升调
ŋ́ é	High   高	ŋ̂ ê	Falling   下降	ŋ᷅ e᷅	Low-rising   低升调
ŋ̄ ē	Mid	ŋ᷈ e᷈	Peaking (rising–falling) 顶峰调（升降调）	ŋ᷇ e᷇	High-falling   高降调
ŋ̀ è	Low	ŋ᷉ e᷉	Dipping (falling–rising) 下降再上升调（跌升调）	ŋ᷆ e᷆	Mid-falling   中降调
ŋ̏ ȅ	Extra low   群众演员低调	(etc.)[note 27]  （等等。） [note 27]

Chao tone letters[note 26] 赵调符号 [note 26]
˥e	꜒e	e˥	e꜒	High   高
˦e	꜓e	e˦	e꜓	Half-high   半高
˧e	꜔e	e˧	e꜔	Mid
˨e	꜕e	e˨	e꜕	Half-low   半低
˩e	꜖e	e˩	e꜖	Low
˩˥e	꜖꜒e	e˩˥	e꜖꜒	Rising (low to high or generic) 上升（从低到高或通用）
˥˩e	꜒꜖e	e˥˩	e꜒꜖	Falling (high to low or generic) 下降（从高到低或通用）
(etc.)   （等等）

The old staveless tone letters, which are effectively obsolete, include high ⟨ˉe⟩, mid ⟨˗e⟩, low ⟨ˍe⟩, rising ⟨ˊe⟩, falling ⟨ˋe⟩, low rising ⟨ˏe⟩ and low falling ⟨ˎe⟩.
旧的无杆音调符号，实际上已废弃，包括高音 ⟨ ˉe ⟩、中音 ⟨ ˗e ⟩、低音 ⟨ ˍe ⟩、升调 ⟨ ˊe ⟩、降调 ⟨ ˋe ⟩、低升调 ⟨ ˏe ⟩ 和低降调 ⟨ ˎe ⟩。

Officially, the stress marks ⟨ˈ ˌ⟩ appear before the stressed syllable, and thus mark the syllable boundary as well as stress (though the syllable boundary may still be explicitly marked with a period).^[75] Occasionally the stress mark is placed immediately before the nucleus of the syllable, after any consonantal onset.^[76] In such transcriptions, the stress mark does not mark a syllable boundary. The primary stress mark may be doubled ⟨ˈˈ⟩ for extra stress (such as prosodic stress). The secondary stress mark is sometimes seen doubled ⟨ˌˌ⟩ for extra-weak stress, but this convention has not been adopted by the IPA.^[75] Some dictionaries place both stress marks before a syllable, ⟨¦⟩, to indicate that pronunciations with either primary or secondary stress are heard, though this is not IPA usage.^{[note 28]}
官方规定，重音符号 ⟨ ˈ ˌ ⟩ 出现在重读音节之前，因此标记了音节边界和重音（尽管音节边界仍可用句点明确标示）。 ^[75] 有时重音符号放在音节核之前，紧跟在辅音起始之后。 ^[76] 在这种转写中，重音符号不标记音节边界。主要重音符号可以加倍 ⟨ ˈˈ ⟩ 表示额外重音（如韵律重音）。次要重音符号有时也会加倍 ⟨ ˌˌ ⟩ 表示额外弱重音，但这一惯例尚未被 IPA 采纳。 ^[75] 一些词典将两个重音符号都放在音节之前，⟨ ¦ ⟩，以表示听到的发音可能带有主要或次要重音，尽管这不是 IPA 的用法。 ^{[note 28]}

There are three boundary markers: ⟨.⟩ for a syllable break, ⟨|⟩ for a minor prosodic break and ⟨‖⟩ for a major prosodic break. The tags 'minor' and 'major' are intentionally ambiguous. Depending on need, 'minor' may vary from a foot break to a break in list-intonation to a continuing–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a comma), and while 'major' is often any intonation break, it may be restricted to a final–prosodic unit boundary (equivalent to a period). The 'major' symbol may also be doubled, ⟨‖‖⟩, for a stronger break.^{[note 29]}
有三种边界标记：⟨⟩表示音节断，⟨ | ⟩表示辅修韵律断，⟨ ‖ ⟩表示专业韵律断。标签“辅修”和“专业”故意保持模糊。根据需要，“辅修”可能表示从脚断到列表语调断再到持续韵律单位边界（相当于逗号），而“专业”通常表示任何语调断，也可能仅限于期末考试韵律单位边界（相当于句号）。“专业”符号也可以加倍，⟨ ‖‖ ⟩，表示更强的断裂。 ^{[note 29]}

Although not part of the IPA, the following additional boundary markers are often used in conjunction with the IPA: ⟨μ⟩ for a mora or mora boundary, ⟨σ⟩ for a syllable or syllable boundary, ⟨+⟩ for a morpheme boundary, ⟨#⟩ for a word boundary (may be doubled, ⟨##⟩, for e.g. a breath-group boundary),^[78] ⟨$⟩ for a phrase or intermediate boundary and ⟨%⟩ for a prosodic boundary. For example, C# is a word-final consonant, %V a post-pausa vowel, and σC a syllable-initial consonant.
虽然不是国际音标（IPA）的一部分，但以下附加的边界标记常与 IPA 一起使用：⟨ μ ⟩表示拍或拍边界，⟨ σ ⟩表示音节或音节边界，⟨ + ⟩表示语素边界，⟨ # ⟩表示词边界（可加倍，如⟨ ## ⟩，例如表示呼吸组边界）， ^[78] ⟨ $ ⟩表示短语或中间边界，⟨ % ⟩表示韵律边界。例如，C#表示词末辅音，%V 表示停顿后元音，σC 表示音节初辅音。

⟨ꜛ ꜜ⟩ are defined in the Handbook as "upstep" and "downstep", concepts from tonal languages. However, the upstep symbol can also be used for pitch reset, and the IPA Handbook uses it for prosody in the illustration for Portuguese, a non-tonal language.
⟨ ꜛ ꜜ ⟩ 在手册中被定义为“升调”和“降调”，这些概念来自声调语言。然而，升调符号也可以用于音高重置，国际音标手册在葡萄牙语（一种非声调语言）的韵律示例中使用了它。

Phonetic pitch and phonemic tone may be indicated by either diacritics placed over the nucleus of the syllable – e.g., high-pitch ⟨é⟩ – or by Chao tone letters placed either before or after the word or syllable. There are three graphic variants of the tone letters: with or without a stave, and facing left or facing right from the stave. The stave was introduced with the 1989 Kiel Convention, as was the option of placing a staved letter after the word or syllable, while retaining the older conventions. There are therefore six ways to transcribe pitch/tone in the IPA: i.e., ⟨é⟩, ⟨˦e⟩, ⟨e˦⟩, ⟨꜓e⟩, ⟨e꜓⟩ and ⟨ˉe⟩ for a high pitch/tone.^[75][79][80] Of the tone letters, only left-facing staved letters and a few representative combinations are shown in the summary on the Chart, and in practice it is currently more common for tone letters to occur after the syllable/word than before, as in the Chao tradition. Placement before the word is a carry-over from the pre-Kiel IPA convention, as is still the case for the stress and upstep/downstep marks. The IPA endorses the Chao tradition of using the left-facing tone letters, ⟨˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩⟩, for underlying tone, and the right-facing letters, ⟨꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖⟩, for surface tone, as occurs in tone sandhi, and for the intonation of non-tonal languages.^{[note 30]} In the Portuguese illustration in the 1999 Handbook, tone letters are placed before a word or syllable to indicate prosodic pitch (equivalent to [↗︎] global rise and [↘︎] global fall, but allowing more precision), and in the Cantonese illustration they are placed after a word/syllable to indicate lexical tone. Theoretically therefore prosodic pitch and lexical tone could be simultaneously transcribed in a single text, though this is not a formalized distinction.
语音音高和音位声调可以通过放置在音节核心上的变音符号来表示——例如，高音调 ⟨ é ⟩——或者通过放置在词或音节前后的位置的赵氏声调字母来表示。声调字母有三种图形变体：带五线谱或不带五线谱，以及五线谱左侧或右侧朝向。五线谱是在 1989 年基尔会议引入的，同时引入了将带五线谱的字母放在词或音节之后的选项，同时保留了旧的惯例。因此，在国际音标中有六种表示音高/声调的方法：即⟨ é ⟩、⟨ ˦e ⟩、⟨ e˦ ⟩、⟨ ꜓e ⟩、⟨ e꜓ ⟩和⟨ ˉe ⟩表示高音调/声调。 ^{[75] [79] [80]} 在声调字母中，图表摘要中仅显示了左向带五线谱的字母和一些代表性组合，实际上，目前声调字母更常见于音节/词之后，正如赵氏传统所示。放置在词前是基尔会议前国际音标惯例的延续，重音和升降调标记仍然如此。 国际音标支持赵氏传统，使用左向音调符号⟨ ˥ ˦ ˧ ˨ ˩ ⟩表示潜在音调，使用右向符号⟨ ꜒ ꜓ ꜔ ꜕ ꜖ ⟩表示表面音调，如音调变调中所见，以及非声调语言的语调。 ^{[note 30]} 在 1999 年手册中的葡萄牙语示例中，音调符号置于词或音节之前以表示韵律音高（相当于 [↗︎] 全局升调和 [↘︎] 全局降调，但允许更精确的表示），而在粤语示例中，音调符号置于词/音节之后以表示词汇音调。因此，理论上韵律音高和词汇音调可以同时在同一文本中转写，尽管这不是一个正式区分。

Rising and falling pitch, as in contour tones, are indicated by combining the pitch diacritics and letters in the table, such as grave plus acute for rising [ě] and acute plus grave for falling [ê]. Only six combinations of two diacritics are supported, and only across three levels (high, mid, low), despite the diacritics supporting five levels of pitch in isolation. The four other explicitly approved rising and falling diacritic combinations are high/mid rising [e᷄], low rising [e᷅], high falling [e᷇], and low/mid falling [e᷆].^{[note 31]}
升降调，如轮廓音调，通过组合表中的音高变音符号和字母来表示，例如升调用抑扬符号组合（grave 加 acute），降调用扬抑符号组合（acute 加 grave）。仅支持六种双重变音符号组合，且仅限于三个音高等级（高、中、低），尽管单独使用时变音符号支持五个音高等级。其他四种明确批准的升降调变音符号组合是高/中升调、低升调、高降调和低/中降调。

The Chao tone letters, on the other hand, may be combined in any pattern, and are therefore used for more complex contours and finer distinctions than the diacritics allow, such as mid-rising [e˨˦], extra-high falling [e˥˦], etc. There are 20 such possibilities. However, in Chao's original proposal, which was adopted by the IPA in 1989, he stipulated that the half-high and half-low letters ⟨˦ ˨⟩ may be combined with each other, but not with the other three tone letters, so as not to create spuriously precise distinctions. With this restriction, there are 8 possibilities.^[81]
另一方面，赵氏声调字母可以以任何模式组合，因此用于比变音符号允许的更复杂的轮廓和更细微的区分，例如中升 [e˨˦] 、群众演员高降 [e˥˦] 等。有 20 种这样的可能性。然而，在赵氏最初的提议中，该提议于 1989 年被国际音标采纳，他规定半高和半低字母⟨ ˦ ˨ ⟩可以相互组合，但不能与其他三个声调字母组合，以避免产生虚假的精确区分。在此限制下，有 8 种可能性。 ^[81]

The old staveless tone letters tend to be more restricted than the staved letters, though not as restricted as the diacritics. Officially, they support as many distinctions as the staved letters,^{[note 32]} but typically only three pitch levels are distinguished. Unicode supports default or high-pitch ⟨ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙⟩ and low-pitch ⟨ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷⟩. Only a few mid-pitch tones are supported – such as ⟨˗ ˴⟩ – and then only accidentally.
旧的无杆声调字母往往比有杆字母更受限制，尽管不如变音符号受限。官方上，它们支持与有杆字母一样多的区分， ^{[note 32]} 但通常只区分三个音高级别。Unicode 支持违约或高音⟨ ˉ ˊ ˋ ˆ ˇ ˜ ˙ ⟩和低音⟨ ˍ ˏ ˎ ꞈ ˬ ˷ ⟩。只有少数中音调被支持——例如⟨ ˗ ˴ ⟩——而且仅是偶然支持。

Although tone diacritics and tone letters are presented as equivalent on the chart, "this was done only to simplify the layout of the chart. The two sets of symbols are not comparable in this way."^[82] Using diacritics, a high tone is ⟨é⟩ and a low tone is ⟨è⟩; in tone letters, these are ⟨e˥⟩ and ⟨e˩⟩. One can double the diacritics for extra-high ⟨e̋⟩ and extra-low ⟨ȅ⟩; there is no parallel to this using tone letters. Instead, tone letters have mid-high ⟨e˦⟩ and mid-low ⟨e˨⟩; again, there is no equivalent among the diacritics. Thus in a three-register tone system, ⟨é ē è⟩ are equivalent to ⟨e˥ e˧ e˩⟩, while in a four-register system, ⟨e̋ é è ȅ⟩ may be equivalent to ⟨e˥ e˦ e˨ e˩⟩.^[75]
虽然音调变音符号和音调字母在布局图上被呈现为等同，但“这样做只是为了简化布局。两组符号并不具有可比性。” 使用变音符号时，高音调为 ⟨ é ⟩，低音调为 ⟨ è ⟩；在音调字母中，这些分别是 ⟨ e˥ ⟩ 和 ⟨ e˩ ⟩。可以将变音符号加倍表示超高音调 ⟨ e̋ ⟩ 和超低音调 ⟨ ȅ ⟩；音调字母中没有对应的表示。相反，音调字母有中高音调 ⟨ e˦ ⟩ 和中低音调 ⟨ e˨ ⟩；变音符号中没有对应的符号。因此，在三档音调系统中，⟨ é ē è ⟩ 等同于 ⟨ e˥ e˧ e˩ ⟩，而在四档系统中，⟨ e̋ é è ȅ ⟩ 可能等同于 ⟨ e˥ e˦ e˨ e˩ ⟩。

The correspondence breaks down even further once they start combining. For more complex tones, one may combine three or four tone diacritics in any permutation,^[75] though in practice only generic peaking (rising-falling) e᷈ and dipping (falling-rising) e᷉ combinations are used. Chao tone letters are required for finer detail (e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦, etc.). Although only 10 peaking and dipping tones were proposed in Chao's original, limited set of tone letters, phoneticians often make finer distinctions, and indeed an example is found on the IPA Chart.^{[note 33]} The system allows the transcription of 112 peaking and dipping pitch contours, including tones that are level for part of their length.
一旦开始组合，对应关系就会进一步崩溃。对于更复杂的声调，可以任意排列组合三到四个声调变音符号， ^[75] 尽管实际上只使用通用的峰值（升降） e᷈ 和谷值（降升） e᷉ 组合。细节更精细的标注需要使用赵氏声调字母（ e˧˥˧, e˩˨˩, e˦˩˧, e˨˩˦ 等）。虽然赵氏最初有限的声调字母集中只提出了 10 个峰值和谷值声调，但语音学家常常做出更细致的区分，实际上在 IPA 音标表上就有一个例子。 ^{[note 33]} 该系统允许转录 112 种峰值和谷值的音高轮廓，包括部分长度保持平调的声调。

Original (restricted) set of Chao tone letters^{[note 34]}
赵氏声调字母的原始（受限）集合 ^{[note 34]}

Register   音区	Level  平调 [note 35]	Rising   上升	Falling   下降	Peaking   峰值	Dipping   下降再上升
e˩	e˩˩	e˩˧	e˧˩	e˩˧˩	e˧˩˧
e˨	e˨˨	e˨˦	e˦˨	e˨˦˨	e˦˨˦
e˧	e˧˧	e˧˥	e˥˧	e˧˥˧	e˥˧˥
e˦	e˦˦			e˧˥˩	e˧˩˥
e˥	e˥˥	e˩˥	e˥˩	e˩˥˧	e˥˩˧

More complex contours are possible. Chao gave an example of [꜔꜒꜖꜔] (mid-high-low-mid) from English prosody.^[81]
更复杂的声调轮廓也是可能的。Chao 给出了一个来自英语韵律的 [꜔꜒꜖꜔] （中-高-低-中）例子。 ^[81]

Chao tone letters generally appear after each syllable, for a language with syllable tone – ⟨a˧vɔ˥˩⟩ – or after the phonological word, for a language with word tone (⟨avɔ˧˥˩⟩). The IPA gives the option of placing the tone letters before the word or syllable – ⟨˧a˥˩vɔ⟩, ⟨˧˥˩avɔ⟩ – but this is rare for lexical tone. Reversed tone letters may be used to clarify that they apply to the following rather than to the preceding syllable – ⟨꜔a꜒꜖vɔ⟩, ⟨꜔꜒꜖avɔ⟩. The staveless letters are not directly supported by Unicode, but some fonts allow the stave in Chao tone letters to be suppressed.
Chao 声调字母通常出现在每个音节之后，用于带有音节声调的语言 – ⟨ a˧vɔ˥˩ ⟩ – 或出现在音位词之后，用于带有词声调的语言（⟨ avɔ˧˥˩ ⟩）。国际音标允许将声调字母置于词或音节之前 – ⟨ ˧a˥˩vɔ ⟩，⟨ ˧˥˩avɔ ⟩ – 但这在词汇声调中较为罕见。反转的声调字母可用于澄清它们适用于后续音节而非前面的音节 – ⟨ ꜔a꜒꜖vɔ ⟩，⟨ ꜔꜒꜖avɔ ⟩。无杠杆字母不被 Unicode 直接支持，但某些字体允许抑制 Chao 声调字母中的杠杆。

IPA diacritics may be doubled to indicate an extra degree (greater intensity) of the feature indicated.^[83] This is a productive process, but apart from extra-high and extra-low tones being marked by doubled high- and low-tone diacritics, ⟨ə̋, ə̏⟩, the major prosodic break ⟨‖⟩ being marked as a doubled minor break ⟨|⟩, and a couple other instances, such usage is not enumerated by the IPA.
国际音标的变音符号可以加倍以表示所示特征的额外学位（更强的强度）。 ^[83] 这是一个生成性过程，但除了通过加倍高音和低音变音符号来标记超高和超低声调⟨ ə̋, ə̏ ⟩，主要韵律断点⟨ ‖ ⟩被标记为加倍的辅修断点⟨ | ⟩，以及其他少数情况外，国际音标并未列举此类用法。

For example, the stress mark may be doubled (or even tripled, etc.) to indicate an extra degree of stress, such as prosodic stress in English.^[84] An example in French, with a single stress mark for normal prosodic stress at the end of each prosodic unit (marked as a minor prosodic break), and a double or even triple stress mark for contrastive/emphatic stress: [ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre | məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖] Entrez monsieur, voilà madame.^[85] Similarly, a doubled secondary stress mark ⟨ˌˌ⟩ is commonly used for tertiary (extra-light) stress, though a proposal to officially adopt this was rejected.^[86] In a similar vein, the effectively obsolete staveless tone letters were once doubled for an emphatic rising intonation ⟨˶⟩ and an emphatic falling intonation ⟨˵⟩.^[87]
例如，重音分数可能会加倍（甚至三倍等）以表示额外的重音学位，比如英语中的韵律重音。 ^[84] 法语中的一个例子，每个韵律单位末尾有一个单一的重音分数表示正常的韵律重音（标记为辅修韵律断点），而双重甚至三重重音分数表示对比/强调重音： [ˈˈɑ̃ːˈtre | məˈsjø ‖ ˈˈvwala maˈdam ‖] Entrez monsieur, voilà madame. ^[85] 类似地，双重次级重音分数⟨ ˌˌ ⟩通常用于三级（额外轻）重音，尽管官方采纳该提议被拒绝。 ^[86] 同样，实际上已废弃的无杆音调字母曾被加倍表示强调上升语调⟨ ˶ ⟩和强调下降语调⟨ ˵ ⟩。 ^[87]

Length is commonly extended by repeating the length mark, which may be phonetic, as in [ĕ e eˑ eː eːˑ eːː] etc., as in English shhh! [ʃːːː], or phonemic, as in the "overlong" segments of Estonian:
长度通常通过重复长度分数来延长，这可能是语音性的，如 [ĕ e eˑ eː eːˑ eːː] 等，如英语中的 shhh! [ʃːːː] ，或者是语素性的，如爱沙尼亚语中的“超长”音段：

• vere /vere/ 'blood [gen.sg.]', veere /veːre/ 'edge [gen.sg.]', veere /veːːre/ 'roll [imp. 2nd sg.]'
  vere /vere/ '血液 [无性向.单数属格]', veere /veːre/ '边缘 [单数属格]', veere /veːːre/ '滚动 [命令式 第二人称单数]'
• lina /linɑ/ 'sheet', linna /linːɑ/ 'town [gen. sg.]', linna /linːːɑ/ 'town [ill. sg.]'
  lina /linɑ/ '床单', linna /linːɑ/ '城镇 [单数属格]', linna /linːːɑ/ '城镇 [单数内格]'

(Normally additional phonemic degrees of length are handled by the extra-short or half-long diacritic, i.e. ⟨e eˑ eː⟩ or ⟨ĕ e eː⟩, but the first two words in each of the Estonian examples are analyzed as typically short and long, /e eː/ and /n nː/, requiring a different remedy for the additional words.)
（通常，额外的音位长度度数通过超短或半长变音符号来处理，即⟨ e eˑ eː ⟩或⟨ ĕ e eː ⟩，但每个爱沙尼亚语示例中的前两个词被分析为典型的短和长， /e eː/ 和 /n nː/ ，因此需要对额外的词采取不同的处理方法。）

Delimiters are similar: double slashes indicate extra phonemic (morpho-phonemic), double square brackets especially precise transcription, and double parentheses especially unintelligible.
分隔符类似：双斜线表示额外的音位（形态音位）区别，双中括号表示特别精确的转录，双括号表示特别难以理解。

Occasionally other diacritics are doubled:
有时其他变音符号会加倍：

• Rhoticity in Badaga /be/ "mouth", /be˞/ "bangle", and /be˞˞/ "crop".^[88]
  Badaga 中的卷舌音 /be/ "口腔"， /be˞/ "手镯"，和 /be˞˞/ "作物"。 ^[88]
• Mild and strong aspiration, [kʰ], [kʰʰ].^{[note 36]}
  轻度和强烈的送气， [kʰ] ， [kʰʰ] 。 ^{[note 36]}
• Nasalization, as in Palantla Chinantec lightly nasalized /ẽ/ vs heavily nasalized /ẽ̃/,^[89] though some care can be needed to distinguish this from the extIPA diacritic for velopharyngeal frication in disordered speech, /e͌/, which has also been analyzed as extreme nasalization.
  鼻化，如在 Palantla Chinantec 中轻度鼻化的 /ẽ/ 与重度鼻化的 /ẽ̃/ ， ^[89] ，尽管有时需要小心区分这与用于失调语音中软腭咽摩擦的 extIPA 附加符号， /e͌/ ，该符号也被分析为极端鼻化。
• Weak vs strong ejectives, [kʼ], [kˮ].^[90]
  弱爆破音与强爆破音， [kʼ] ， [kˮ] 。 ^[90]
• Especially lowered, e.g. [t̞̞] (or [t̞˕], if the former symbol does not display properly) for /t/ as a weak fricative in some pronunciations of register.^[91]
  特别降低，例如 [t̞̞] （或如果前者符号显示不正常，则为 [t̞˕] ）表示 /t/ ，作为某些声调发音中的弱摩擦音。 ^[91]
• Especially retracted, e.g. [ø̠̠] or [s̠̠],^{[note 37][83][92]} though some care might be needed to distinguish this from indications of alveolar or alveolarized articulation in extIPA, e.g. [s͇].
  特别后缩，例如 [ø̠̠] 或 [s̠̠] ， ^{[note 37] [83] [92]} ，尽管有时需要小心区分这与 extIPA 中表示齿龈或齿龈化发音的符号，例如 [s͇] 。
• Especially guttural, e.g. [ɫ] (velarized l), [ꬸ] (pharyngealized l).^[93]
  尤其是喉音，例如 [ɫ] （软腭化的 l）， [ꬸ] （咽化的 l）。 ^[93]
• The transcription of strident and harsh voice as extra-creaky /a᷽/ may be motivated by the similarities of these phonations.
  将刺耳和粗糙的声音转录为群众演员-沙哑的 /a᷽/ 可能是由于这些发音的相似性所致。

The extIPA provides combining parentheses for weak intensity, which when combined with a doubled diacritic indicate an intermediate degree. For instance, increasing degrees of nasalization of the vowel [e] might be written ⟨e ẽ᪻ ẽ ẽ̃᪻ ẽ̃⟩.
extIPA 提供了用于弱强度的组合括号，当与双重变音符号结合时表示中间学位。例如，元音 [e] 的鼻化程度逐渐增加可能写作 ⟨ e ẽ᪻ ẽ ẽ̃᪻ ẽ̃ ⟩。

As noted above, IPA letters are often used quite loosely in broad transcription if no ambiguity would arise in a particular language. Because of that, IPA letters have not generally been created for sounds that are not distinguished in individual languages. A distinction between voiced fricatives and approximants is only partially implemented by the IPA, for example. Even with the relatively recent addition of the palatal fricative ⟨ʝ⟩ and the velar approximant ⟨ɰ⟩ to the alphabet, other letters, though defined as fricatives, are often ambiguous between fricative and approximant. For forward places, ⟨β⟩ and ⟨ð⟩ can generally be assumed to be fricatives unless they carry a lowering diacritic. Rearward, however, ⟨ʁ⟩ and ⟨ʕ⟩ are perhaps more commonly intended to be approximants even without a lowering diacritic. ⟨h⟩ and ⟨ɦ⟩ are similarly either fricatives or approximants, depending on the language, or even glottal "transitions", without that often being specified in the transcription.
如上所述，如果在特定语言中不会引起歧义，IPA 字母在宽泛转录中常常被相当宽松地使用。因此，IPA 字母通常不会为个别语言中未区分的音创建。例如，IPA 对浊擦音和近似音之间的区分仅部分实现。即使最近将腭擦音 ⟨⟩ 和软腭近似音 ⟨ ɰ ⟩ 添加到字母表中，其他字母虽然被定义为擦音，但在擦音和近似音之间常常存在歧义。对于前部发音位置，⟨ β ⟩ 和 ⟨ ð ⟩ 通常可以假定为擦音，除非它们带有降低音标记。然而，对于后部发音位置，⟨ ʁ ⟩ 和 ⟨ ʕ ⟩ 即使没有降低音标记，也更常被理解为近似音。⟨ h ⟩ 和 ⟨ ɦ ⟩ 也类似，根据语言不同，可以是擦音或近似音，甚至是声门“过渡音”，而这些通常在转录中并未具体说明。

Another common ambiguity is among the letters for palatal consonants. ⟨c⟩ and ⟨ɟ⟩ are not uncommonly used as a typographic convenience for affricates, typically [t͜ʃ] and [d͜ʒ], while ⟨ɲ⟩ and ⟨ʎ⟩ are commonly used for palatalized alveolar [n̠ʲ] and [l̠ʲ]. To some extent this may be an effect of analysis, but it is common to match up single IPA letters to the phonemes of a language, without overly worrying about phonetic precision.
另一个常见的歧义出现在腭音辅音字母之间。⟨ c ⟩ 和 ⟨⟩ 通常作为拼写方便被用作塞擦音，通常是 [t͜ʃ] 和 [d͜ʒ] ，而 ⟨ ɲ ⟩ 和 ⟨ ʎ ⟩ 则常用于腭化的齿龈 [n̠ʲ] 和 [l̠ʲ] 。在某种程度上，这可能是分析的结果，但通常会将单个 IPA 字母与一种语言的音位对应，而不过分担心语音精确性。

It has been argued that the lower-pharyngeal (epiglottal) fricatives ⟨ʜ⟩ and ⟨ʢ⟩ are better characterized as trills, rather than as fricatives that have incidental trilling.^[94] This has the advantage of merging the upper-pharyngeal fricatives [ħ, ʕ] together with the epiglottal plosive [ʡ] and trills [ʜ ʢ] into a single pharyngeal column in the consonant chart. However, in Shilha Berber the epiglottal fricatives are not trilled.^[95][96] Although they might be transcribed ⟨ħ̠ ʢ̠⟩ to indicate this, the far more common transcription is ⟨ʜ ʢ⟩, which is therefore ambiguous between languages.
有人认为，下咽（会厌）擦音 ⟨ ʜ ⟩ 和 ⟨ ʢ ⟩ 更适合被描述为颤音，而不是带有偶发颤动的擦音。 ^[94] 这样做的好处是将上咽擦音 [ħ, ʕ] 与会厌爆破音 [ʡ] 和颤音 [ʜ ʢ] 合并到辅音表中的单一咽音列中。然而，在希尔哈柏柏尔语中，会厌擦音并不颤动。 ^{[95] [96]} 虽然它们可能被转写为 ⟨ ħ̠ ʢ̠ ⟩ 以示区别，但更常见的转写是 ⟨ ʜ ʢ ⟩，因此在不同语言间存在歧义。

Among vowels, ⟨a⟩ is officially a front vowel, but is more commonly treated as a central vowel. The difference, to the extent it is even possible, is not phonemic in any language.
在元音中，⟨ a ⟩ 官方上是前元音，但更常被视为中央元音。两者的区别，即使可能，也在任何语言中都不是音位上的差异。

For all phonetic notation, it is good practice for an author to specify exactly what they mean by the symbols that they use.
对于所有语音符号，作者最好明确说明他们所使用符号的具体含义。

Superscript IPA letters are used to indicate secondary aspects of articulation. These may be aspects of simultaneous articulation that are considered to be in some sense less dominant than the basic sound, or may be transitional articulations that are interpreted as secondary elements.^[97] Examples include secondary articulation; onsets, releases, aspiration and other transitions; shades of sound; light epenthetic sounds and incompletely articulated sounds. Morphophonemically, superscripts may be used for assimilation, e.g. ⟨aʷ⟩ for the effect of labialization on a vowel /a/, which may be realized as phonemic /o/.^[98] The IPA and ICPLA endorse Unicode encoding of superscript variants of all contemporary segmental letters in the IPA proper and of all additional fricatives in extIPA, including the "implicit" IPA retroflex letters ⟨ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊 ⟩.^{[44][99][100]}
上标 IPA 字母用于表示发音的次要方面。这些可能是被认为在某种意义上不如基本音更为主导的同时发音方面，或者是被解释为次要元素的过渡发音。 ^[97] 例子包括次要发音；起始音、发布、送气及其他过渡；音色变化；轻微的插入音和不完全发音。从形态音位学角度，上标可能用于同化，例如⟨ aʷ ⟩表示元音上的圆唇化效果 /a/ ，这可能表现为音位 /o/ 。 ^[98] IPA 和 ICPLA 支持在 Unicode 中编码 IPA 正字法中所有现代音段字母的上标变体，以及 extIPA 中所有额外擦音的上标变体，包括“隐含的”IPA 卷舌字母⟨ ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 ᶑ 𝼊  ⟩。 ^{[44] [99] [100]}

Superscripts are often used as a substitute for the tie bar, for example ⟨tᶴ⟩ for [t͜ʃ] and ⟨kᵖ⟩ or ⟨ᵏp⟩ for [k͜p]. However, in precise notation there is a difference between a fricative release in [tᶴ] and the affricate [t͜ʃ], between a velar onset in [ᵏp] and doubly articulated [k͜p].^[101]
上标常用作连接符的替代，例如 ⟨ tᶴ ⟩ 代表 [t͜ʃ] ，以及 ⟨ kᵖ ⟩ 或 ⟨ ᵏp ⟩ 代表 [k͜p] 。然而，在精确的标记中， [tᶴ] 中的擦音发布与塞擦音 [t͜ʃ] 之间存在差异， [ᵏp] 中的软腭起始与双重发音 [k͜p] 之间也有区别。 ^[101]

Superscript letters can be meaningfully modified by combining diacritics, just as baseline letters can. For example, a superscript dental nasal in ⟨ⁿ̪d̪⟩, a superscript voiceless velar nasal in ⟨ᵑ̊ǂ⟩, and labial-velar prenasalization in ⟨ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b⟩. Although the diacritic may seem a bit oversized compared to the superscript letter it modifies, e.g. ⟨ᵓ̃⟩, this can be an aid to legibility, just as it is with the composite superscript c-cedilla ⟨ᶜ̧⟩ and rhotic vowels ⟨ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞⟩. Superscript length marks can be used to indicate the length of aspiration of a consonant, e.g. [pʰ tʰ𐞂 kʰ𐞁]. Another option is to use extIPA parentheses and a doubled diacritic: ⟨p⁽ʰ⁾ tʰ kʰʰ⟩.^[44]
上标字母可以通过组合变音符号进行有意义的修改，就像基线字母一样。例如，⟨ ⁿ̪d̪ ⟩ 中的上标齿龈鼻音，⟨ ᵑ̊ǂ ⟩ 中的上标无声软腭鼻音，以及 ⟨ ᵑ͡ᵐɡ͡b ⟩ 中的唇软腭前鼻化。尽管变音符号相较于它所修饰的上标字母看起来稍大，例如 ⟨ ᵓ̃ ⟩，这有助于提高可读性，就像复合上标 c-塞迪拉 ⟨ ᶜ̧ ⟩ 和卷舌元音 ⟨ ᵊ˞ ᶟ˞ ⟩ 一样。上标长度符号可用于表示辅音的送气长度，例如 [pʰ tʰ𐞂 kʰ𐞁] 。另一种选择是使用 extIPA 括号和双重变音符号：⟨ p⁽ʰ⁾ tʰ kʰʰ ⟩。 ^[44]

A number of IPA letters and diacritics have been retired or replaced over the years. This number includes duplicate symbols, symbols that were replaced due to user preference, and unitary symbols that were rendered with diacritics or digraphs to reduce the inventory of the IPA. The rejected symbols are now considered obsolete, though some are still seen in the literature.
多年来，许多国际音标字母和变音符号已被废止或替换。这些包括重复的符号、因用户偏好而被替换的符号，以及为了减少国际音标背包而用变音符号或双字母组合替代的单一符号。被废弃的符号现在被视为过时，尽管在文献中仍可见到一些。

The IPA once had several pairs of duplicate symbols from alternative proposals, but eventually settled on one or the other. An example is the vowel letter ⟨ɷ⟩, rejected in favor of ⟨ʊ⟩. Affricates were once transcribed with ligatures, such as ⟨ʧ ʤ ⟩ (and others, some of which not found in Unicode). These have been officially retired but are still used. Letters for specific combinations of primary and secondary articulation have also been mostly retired, with the idea that such features should be indicated with tie bars or diacritics: ⟨ƍ⟩ for [zʷ] is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosives, ⟨ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ ⟩, were dropped soon after their introduction and are now usually written ⟨ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ ⟩. The original set of click letters, ⟨ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ⟩, was retired but is still sometimes seen, as the current pipe letters ⟨ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ⟩ can cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets ([ ] or / /), the letter ⟨l⟩ (small L), or the prosodic marks ⟨|, ‖⟩. (For this reason, some publications which use the current IPA pipe letters disallow IPA brackets.)^[102]
国际音标曾经有几对来自不同提案的重复符号，但最终选择了其中一个。例如元音字母⟨ ɷ ⟩被放弃，采用了⟨ ʊ ⟩。塞擦音曾用连字表示，如⟨ ʧ ʤ  ⟩（以及其他一些 Unicode 中未收录的符号）。这些符号已被官方废止，但仍在使用。表示主要和次要发音组合的字母也大多被废止，认为这类特征应通过连接符或变音符号表示：⟨ ƍ ⟩表示 [zʷ] 就是一个例子。此外，罕见的无声内爆音⟨ ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ  ⟩在引入后不久被废止，现在通常写作⟨ ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥  ⟩。最初的咔哒音字母⟨ ʇ, ʗ, ʖ, ʞ ⟩已被废止，但仍偶尔见到，因为当前的竖线字母⟨ ǀ, ǃ, ǁ, ǂ ⟩在可读性上可能有问题，尤其是在与括号（[ ]或/ /）、字母⟨⟩（小写 L）或韵律符号⟨ |, ‖ ⟩一起使用时。（因此，一些使用当前 IPA 竖线字母的出版物禁止使用 IPA 括号。） ^[102]

Individual non-IPA letters may find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with:
个别非国际音标字母可能会出现在使用标准国际音标的出版物中。这种情况尤其常见于：

• Affricates, such as the Americanist barred lambda ⟨ƛ⟩ for [t͜ɬ] or ⟨č⟩ for [t͜ʃ ].^{[note 38]}
  塞擦音，例如美式学派的带杠λ ⟨ ƛ ⟩ 表示 [t͜ɬ] ，或 ⟨ č ⟩ 表示 [t͜ʃ ] 。 ^{[note 38]}
• The Karlgren letters for Chinese vowels, ⟨ɿ, ʅ , ʮ, ʯ ⟩.
  汉语元音的 Karlgren 字母，⟨ ɿ, ʅ , ʮ, ʯ  ⟩。
• Digits for tonal phonemes that have conventional numbers in a local tradition, such as the four tones of Standard Chinese. This may be more convenient for comparison between related languages and dialects than a phonetic transcription would be, because tones vary more unpredictably than segmental phonemes do.
  用于声调音素的数字，这些声调在某些地方传统中有惯用数字，例如普通话的四个声调。与语音转写相比，这种表示方式在比较相关语言和方言时可能更方便，因为声调的变化比音段音素更不可预测。
• Digits for tone levels, which are simpler to typeset, though the lack of standardization can cause confusion (e.g. ⟨1⟩ is high tone in some languages but low tone in others; ⟨3⟩ may be high, medium or low tone, depending on the local convention).
  用于声调等级的数字，排版更简单，尽管缺乏标准化可能导致混淆（例如，⟨ 1 ⟩在某些语言中表示高调，而在其他语言中表示低调；⟨ 3 ⟩可能表示高、中或低调，取决于当地惯例）。
• Iconic extensions of standard IPA letters that are implicit in the alphabet, such as retroflex ⟨ᶑ⟩ and ⟨ꞎ⟩. These are referred to in the Handbook and have been included in Unicode at IPA request.
  标准 IPA 字母的象形扩展，这些扩展在字母表中是隐含的，如卷舌音⟨ ᶑ⟩和⟨ ꞎ⟩。这些在《Handbook》中有所提及，并已应 IPA 请求被纳入 Unicode。
• Even presidents of the IPA have used para-IPA notation, such as resurrecting the old diacritic ⟨◌̫⟩ for purely labialized sounds (not simultaneously velarized), the lateral fricative letter ⟨ꞎ ⟩, and either the old dot diacritic ⟨ṣ ẓ⟩ or the novel letters ⟨ ᶘ ᶚ⟩ for the not-quite-retroflex fricatives of Polish sz, ż and of Russian ш ж.
  即使是 IPA 的主席们也使用过准 IPA 符号，例如复活用于纯唇化音（非同时软腭化）的旧变音符号⟨ ◌̫ ⟩，侧面摩擦音字母⟨ ꞎ  ⟩，以及用于波兰语 sz、ż和俄语ш、ж的非完全卷舌摩擦音的旧点变音符号⟨ ṣ ẓ ⟩或新字母⟨  ᶘ ᶚ ⟩。

In addition, it is common to see ad hoc typewriter substitutions, generally capital letters, for when IPA support is not available, e.g. S for ⟨ ʃ ⟩. (See also SAMPA and X-SAMPA substitute notation.)
此外，当没有 IPA 支持时，通常会看到临时的打字机替代符号，通常是大写字母，例如用 S 代替⟨  ʃ  ⟩。（另见 SAMPA 和 X-SAMPA 替代符号。）

The Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for Disordered Speech, commonly abbreviated "extIPA" and sometimes called "Extended IPA", are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. At the Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions,^{[note 39]} which were based on the previous work of the PRDS (Phonetic Representation of Disordered Speech) Group in the early 1980s.^[104] The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, when they were officially adopted by the ICPLA.^[105] While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips,^[2] as well as regular lexical sounds such as lateral fricatives that do not have standard IPA symbols.
国际音标的扩展符号，用于记录言语障碍，通常缩写为“extIPA”，有时称为“Extended IPA”，其最初目的是准确转录言语障碍。在 1989 年的基尔大会上，一组语言学家制定了最初的扩展符号，这些符号基于 1980 年代初 PRDS（言语障碍的语音表示）小组的先前工作。扩展符号首次于 1990 年发布，随后进行了修改，并于 1994 年在《国际音标协会杂志》上再次发布，当时它们被 ICPLA 正式采纳。虽然最初目的是转录言语障碍，语言学家们也使用这些扩展符号来表示标准交流中的多种声音，如嘘声、咬牙声和嘴唇的咂嘴声，以及没有标准 IPA 符号的常规词汇音，如侧面摩擦音。

In addition to the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, there are the conventions of the Voice Quality Symbols, which include a number of symbols for additional airstream mechanisms and secondary articulations in what they call "voice quality".
除了用于异常语音的 IPA 扩展外，还有语音质量符号的惯例，其中包括一些用于额外气流机制和次要发音部位的符号，这些符号被称为“语音质量”。

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Capital letters and various characters on the number row of the keyboard are commonly used to extend the alphabet in various ways.
大写字母和键盘数字行上的各种字符通常用于以各种方式扩展字母表。

There are various punctuation-like conventions for linguistic transcription that are commonly used together with IPA. Some of the more common are:
有各种类似标点的语言转录惯例，通常与国际音标一起使用。其中一些较常见的有：

⟨*⟩

(a) A reconstructed form.
（a）重建形式。

(b) An ungrammatical form (including an unphonemic form).
(b) 一个不合语法的形式（包括非音位形式）。

⟨**⟩

(a) A reconstructed form, deeper (more ancient) than a single ⟨*⟩, used when reconstructing even further back from already-starred forms.
(a) 一种重建形式，比单一的 ⟨*⟩ 更深层（更古老），用于从已经标星的形式进一步向前重建。

(b) An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than ⟨*⟩ (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.^[106]
(b) 一种不合语法的形式。比 ⟨*⟩ (b)更少见的惯例，有时在同一文本中出现重建形式和不合语法形式时使用。 ^[106]

⟨×⟩, ⟨✗⟩

An ungrammatical form. A less common convention than ⟨*⟩ (b), this is sometimes used when reconstructed and ungrammatical forms occur in the same text.^[107]
一种不合语法的形式。比 ⟨*⟩ (b)更少见的惯例，有时在同一文本中出现重建形式和不合语法形式时使用。 ^[107]

⟨?⟩

A doubtfully grammatical form.
一个语法上存疑的形式。

⟨%⟩

A generalized form, such as a typical shape of a wanderwort that has not actually been reconstructed.^[108]
一种广义形式，例如尚未实际重建的 wanderwort 的典型形态。 ^[108]

⟨#⟩

A word boundary – e.g. ⟨#V⟩ for a word-initial vowel.
一个词边界——例如， ⟨#V⟩ 表示词首元音。

⟨$⟩

A phonological word boundary; e.g. ⟨H$⟩ for a high tone that occurs in such a position.
音位词边界；例如， ⟨H$⟩ 表示出现在此类位置的高音调。

⟨+⟩

A morpheme boundary; e.g. ⫽ˈnɛl+t⫽ for English knelt.
词素边界；例如，英语 knelt 中的 ⫽ˈnɛl+t⫽ 。

⟨_⟩

The location of a segment – e.g. ⟨V_V⟩ for an intervocalic position, or ⟨_#⟩ for word-final position.
音段的位置——例如， ⟨V_V⟩ 表示元音间位置， ⟨_#⟩ 表示词尾位置。

⟨~⟩

Alternation or contrast – e.g. [f] ~ [v] or [f ~ v] for variation between [f] and [v], noting that a /uː/ ~ /ʊ/ contrast is maintained or lost, or indicating the change of a root in e.g. ⫽ˈniːl ~ ˈnɛl+t⫽ for English kneel ~ knelt.
交替或对比——例如 [f] ~ [v] 或 [f ~ v] 用于表示 [f] 和 [v] 之间的变化，注意 /uː/ ~ /ʊ/ 对比是保持还是丢失，或表示词根的变化，例如 ⫽ˈniːl ~ ˈnɛl+t⫽ 用于英语 kneel ~ knelt。

⟨∅⟩

A null segment or morpheme. This may indicate the absence of an affix, e.g. ⟨kæt-∅⟩ for where an affix might appear but does not (cat instead of cats), or a deleted segment that leaves a feature behind, such as ⟨∅ʷ⟩ for an theoretical labialized segment that is only realized as labialization on adjacent segments.^[98]
空段或语素。这可能表示词缀的缺失，例如 ⟨ kæt-∅ ⟩ 表示词缀可能出现但未出现的情况（如 cat 而非 cats），或者表示删除的音段留下的特征，例如 ⟨ ∅ʷ ⟩ 表示一个理论上的唇化音段，仅作为相邻音段的唇化实现。 ^[98]

Full capital letters are not used as IPA symbols, except as typewriter substitutes (e.g. N for ⟨ŋ⟩, S for ⟨ ʃ ⟩, O for ⟨ɔ⟩ – see SAMPA). They are, however, often used in conjunction with the IPA in two cases:
除了作为打字机替代符号（例如 N 代表 ⟨ ŋ ⟩，S 代表 ⟨  ʃ  ⟩，O 代表 ⟨ ɔ ⟩ —— 参见 SAMPA）外，IPA 符号中不使用全大写字母。然而，在两种情况下，它们经常与 IPA 一起使用：

1. for (archi)phonemes and for natural classes of sounds (that is, as wildcards). The extIPA chart, for example, uses capital letters as wildcards in its illustrations.
   用于（古）音位和还原号类别的声音（即作为通配符）。例如，extIPA 图表在其插图中使用大写字母作为通配符。
2. as carrying letters for the Voice Quality Symbols.
   作为语音质量符号的承载字母。

Wildcards are commonly used in phonology to summarize syllable or word shapes, or to show the evolution of classes of sounds. For example, the possible syllable shapes of Mandarin can be abstracted as ranging from /V/ (an atonic vowel) to /CGVNᵀ/ (a consonant-glide-vowel-nasal syllable with tone), and word-final devoicing may be schematized as C → C̥/_#. They are also used in historical linguistics for a sound that is posited but whose nature has not been determined beyond some generic category such as {nasal} or {uvular}. In speech pathology, capital letters represent indeterminate sounds, and may be superscripted to indicate they are weakly articulated: e.g. [ᴰ] is a weak indeterminate alveolar, [ᴷ] a weak indeterminate velar.^[109]
通配符在音系学中常用于总结音节或词形，或展示声音类别的演变。例如，普通话的可能音节形态可以抽象为从 /V/ （无重音元音）到 /CGVNᵀ/ （带声调的辅音-滑音-元音-鼻音音节），词尾失声可示意为 C → C̥ /_#。它们也用于历史语言学中表示假设存在但性质尚未确定的声音，超出某些通用类别如{鼻音}或{小舌音}。在言语病理学中，大写字母代表不确定的声音，并可加上上标以表示其发音较弱：例如 [ᴰ] 是弱不确定的齿龈音， [ᴷ] 是弱不确定的软腭音。 ^[109]

There is a degree of variation between authors as to the capital letters used, but these are ubiquitous in English-language material:
作者之间在使用的大写字母上存在一定的学位差异，但这些字母在英语材料中无处不在：

• ⟨C⟩ for {consonant}
  ⟨ C ⟩ 表示 {辅音}
• ⟨V⟩ for {vowel}
  ⟨ V ⟩ 表示 {元音}
• ⟨N⟩ for {nasal}
  ⟨ N ⟩ 表示 {鼻音}

Other common conventions are:
其他常见的约定有：

• ⟨T⟩ for {tone/accent} (tonicity)
  ⟨ T ⟩ 表示 {声调/重音}（音调）
• ⟨P⟩ for {plosive}
  ⟨ P ⟩ 表示 {爆破音}
• ⟨F⟩ for {fricative}
  ⟨ F ⟩ 表示 {摩擦音}
• ⟨S⟩ for {sibilant}^{[note 40]}
  ⟨ S ⟩ 表示 {齿龈擦音} ^{[note 40]}
• ⟨G⟩ for {glide/semivowel}
  ⟨ G ⟩ 表示 {滑音/半元音}
• ⟨L⟩ for {lateral} or {liquid}
  ⟨ L ⟩ 表示 {边音} 或 {液体}
• ⟨R⟩ for {rhotic} or {resonant/sonorant}^{[note 41]}
  ⟨ R ⟩ 表示 {卷舌音} 或 {共鸣音/响音} ^{[note 41]}
• ⟨₵⟩ for {obstruent}
  ⟨ ₵ ⟩ 表示 {阻碍音}
• ⟨Ʞ⟩ for {click}
  ⟨ Ʞ ⟩ 表示 {舌击音}
• ⟨A, E, O, Ɨ, U⟩ for {open, front, back, close, rounded vowel}^{[note 42]} and ⟨B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H⟩ for {labial, alveolar, post-alveolar/palatal, velar, uvular, pharyngeal, glottal^{[note 43]} consonant}, respectively
  ⟨ A, E, O, Ɨ, U ⟩ 表示 {开口、前部、背部、闭合、圆唇元音} ^{[note 42]} ，⟨ B, D, Ɉ, K, Q, Φ, H ⟩ 分别表示 {唇音、齿龈音、后齿龈/硬腭音、软腭音、小舌音、咽音、声门音 ^{[note 43]} 辅音}
• ⟨X⟩ for {any sound}, as in ⟨CVX⟩ for a heavy syllable {CVC, CVV̯, CVː}
  ⟨ X ⟩ 表示 {任何声音}，如在 ⟨ CVX ⟩ 中表示重音节 { CVC , CVV̯ , CVː }

The letters can be modified with IPA diacritics, for example:
这些字母可以用 IPA 变音符号修饰，例如：

• ⟨Cʼ⟩ for {ejective}
  ⟨ Cʼ ⟩ 表示 {送气音}
• ⟨Ƈ ⟩ for {implosive}
  ⟨ Ƈ  ⟩ 表示 {爆破音}
• ⟨N͡C⟩ or ⟨ᴺC⟩ for {prenasalized consonant}
  ⟨ N͡C ⟩ 或 ⟨ ᴺC ⟩ 表示 {前鼻音辅音}
• ⟨Ṽ⟩ for {nasal vowel}
  ⟨ Ṽ ⟩ 表示 {鼻元音}
• ⟨CʰV́⟩ for {aspirated CV syllable with high tone}
  ⟨ CʰV́ ⟩ 表示 {带高调的送气辅音音节}
• ⟨S̬⟩ for {voiced sibilant}
  ⟨ S̬ ⟩ 表示 {浊齿擦音}
• ⟨N̥⟩ for {voiceless nasal}
  ⟨ N̥ ⟩ 表示 {清鼻音}
• ⟨P͡F⟩ or ⟨Pꟳ⟩ for {affricate}
  ⟨ P͡F ⟩ 或 ⟨ Pꟳ ⟩ 表示 {塞擦音}
• ⟨Cᴳ⟩ for a consonant with a glide as secondary articulation (e.g. ⟨Cʲ⟩ for {palatalized consonant} and
  ⟨ Cᴳ ⟩ 表示带有滑音作为次要发音的辅音（例如 ⟨ Cʲ ⟩ 表示 {软腭化辅音} 和
• ⟨Cʷ⟩ for {labialized consonant})
  ⟨ Cʷ ⟩ 表示【圆唇辅音】
• ⟨D̪⟩ for {dental consonant}
  ⟨ D̪ ⟩ 表示【齿音】

⟨H⟩, ⟨M⟩, ⟨L⟩ are also commonly used for high, mid and low tone, with ⟨LH⟩ for rising tone and ⟨HL⟩ for falling tone, rather than transcribing them overly precisely with IPA tone letters or with ambiguous digits.^{[note 44]}
⟨ H ⟩、⟨ M ⟩、⟨ L ⟩ 也常用于表示高、中、低调，⟨ LH ⟩ 表示升调，⟨ HL ⟩ 表示降调，而不是用 IPA 音调符号或模糊的数字过于精确地转录它们。 ^{[note 44]}

Typical examples of archiphonemic use of capital letters are:
大写字母的典型音位使用示例有：

• ⟨I⟩ for the Turkish harmonic vowel set {i y ɯ u}^{[note 45]}
  ⟨ I ⟩ 表示土耳其语的和谐元音片场 {i y ɯ u} ^{[note 45]}
• ⟨D⟩ for the conflated flapped middle consonant of American English writer and rider
  ⟨ D ⟩ 表示美式英语中 writer 和 rider 的合并闪音中间辅音
• ⟨N⟩ for the homorganic syllable-coda nasal of languages such as Spanish and Japanese (essentially equivalent to the wild-card usage of the letter)
  ⟨ N ⟩ 用于西班牙语和日语等语言中同音节韵尾鼻音（本质上相当于字母的通配符用法）
• ⟨R⟩ in cases where a phonemic distinction between trill /r/ and flap /ɾ/ is conflated, as in Spanish enrejar /eNreˈxaR/ (the n is homorganic and the first r is a trill, but the second r is variable).^[110]
  ⟨ R ⟩ 用于音位区分颤音 /r/ 和弹音 /ɾ/ 混淆的情况，如西班牙语 enrejar /eNreˈxaR/ （n 是同音节的，第一个 r 是颤音，但第二个 r 是变量）。 ^[110]

Similar usage is found for phonemic analysis, where a language does not distinguish sounds that have separate letters in the IPA. For instance, Castillian Spanish has been analyzed as having phonemes /Θ/ and /S/, which surface as [θ] and [s] in voiceless environments and as [ð] and [z] in voiced environments (e.g. hazte /ˈaΘte/ → [ˈaθte], vs hazme /ˈaΘme/ → [ˈaðme], or las manos /laS ˈmanoS/ → [lazˈmanos]).^[111]
类似的用法也见于音位分析中，当一种语言不区分 IPA 中有独立字母的声音时。例如，卡斯蒂利亚西班牙语被分析为具有音位 /Θ/ 和 /S/ ，在无声环境中表现为 [θ] 和 [s] ，在有声环境中表现为 [ð] 和 [z] （例如 hazte /ˈaΘte/ → [ˈaθte] ，与 hazme /ˈaΘme/ → [ˈaðme] ，或 las manos /laS ˈmanoS/ → [lazˈmanos] ）。 ^[111]

⟨V⟩, ⟨F⟩ and ⟨C⟩ have completely different meanings as Voice Quality Symbols, where they stand for "voice" (VoQS jargon for secondary articulation),^{[note 46]} "falsetto" and "creak". These three letters may take diacritics to indicate what kind of voice quality an utterance has, and may be used as carrier letters to extract a suprasegmental feature that occurs on all susceptible segments in a stretch of IPA. For instance, the transcription of Scottish Gaelic [kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ] 'cat' and [kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ] 'cats' (Islay dialect) can be made more economical by extracting the suprasegmental labialization of the words: Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟] and Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ].^[112] The conventional wildcards ⟨X⟩ or ⟨C⟩ might be used instead of VoQS ⟨V⟩ so that the reader does not misinterpret ⟨Vʷ⟩ as meaning that only vowels are labialized (i.e. Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟] for all segments labialized, Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟] for all consonants labialized), or the carrier letter may be omitted altogether (e.g. ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟], [ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟] or [kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ). (See § Suprasegmentals for other transcription conventions.)
⟨ V ⟩、⟨ F ⟩ 和 ⟨ C ⟩ 作为语音质量符号具有完全不同的含义，分别代表“voice”（VoQS 术语中的次级发音）、 ^{[note 46]} “假声”和“喉音”。这三个字母可以带有变音符号以指示发音的语音质量类型，并且可以用作载体字母，以提取在一段 IPA 中所有易受影响音段上出现的超音段特征。例如，苏格兰盖尔语 [kʷʰuˣʷt̪ʷs̟ʷ] cat 和 [kʷʰʉˣʷt͜ʃʷ] cats（Islay 方言）的转录可以通过提取单词的超音段唇音化来更简洁地表示： Vʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟] 和 Vʷ[kʰʉˣt͜ʃ] 。 ^[112] 传统的通配符 ⟨ X ⟩ 或 ⟨ C ⟩ 可能会代替 VoQS ⟨ V ⟩，以免读者误解 ⟨ Vʷ ⟩ 仅表示元音唇音化（即 Xʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟] 表示所有音段唇音化， Cʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟] 表示所有辅音唇音化），或者载体字母可以完全省略（例如 ʷ[kʰuˣt̪s̟] 、 [ʷkʰuˣt̪s̟] 或 [kʰuˣt̪s̟]ʷ ）。 （参见 § 超音段以了解其他转录惯例。）

This summary is to some extent valid internationally, but linguistic material written in other languages may have different associations with capital letters used as wildcards. For example, in German ⟨K⟩ and ⟨V⟩ are used for Konsonant 'consonant' and Vokal 'vowel'; in Russian, ⟨С⟩ and ⟨Г⟩ are used for согласный (soglasnyj, 'consonant') and гласный (glasnyj, 'vowel'). In French, tone may be transcribed with ⟨H⟩ and ⟨B⟩ for haut 'high' and bas 'low'.^[113]
这个总结在某种程度上在国际上是有效的，但用其他语言书写的语言材料可能对用作通配符的大写字母有不同的关联。例如，在德语中，⟨ K ⟩ 和 ⟨ V ⟩ 用于表示辅音和元音；在俄语中，⟨ С ⟩ 和 ⟨ Г ⟩ 用于表示 согласный（辅音）和 гласный（元音）。在法语中，音调可以用 ⟨ H ⟩ 和 ⟨ B ⟩ 来转录，分别表示高音和低音。 ^[113]

The blank cells on the summary IPA chart can be filled without much difficulty if the need arises.
如果有需要，IPA 总结表中的空白单元格可以较容易地填充。

The missing retroflex letters, namely ⟨ᶑ ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 𝼊 ⟩, are "implicit" in the alphabet, and the IPA supported their adoption into Unicode.^[44] Attested in the literature are the retroflex implosive ⟨ᶑ ⟩, the voiceless retroflex lateral fricative ⟨ꞎ ⟩, the retroflex lateral flap ⟨𝼈 ⟩ and the retroflex click ⟨𝼊 ⟩; the first is also mentioned in the IPA Handbook, and the lateral fricatives are provided for by the extIPA.
缺失的卷舌字母，即 ⟨ ᶑ ꞎ 𝼅 𝼈 𝼊  ⟩，在字母表中是“隐含的”，国际音标支持它们被纳入 Unicode。 ^[44] 文献中有记载的卷舌爆破音 ⟨ ᶑ  ⟩、无声卷舌侧擦音 ⟨ ꞎ  ⟩、卷舌侧弹音 ⟨ 𝼈  ⟩ 和卷舌击音 ⟨ 𝼊  ⟩；其中第一个也在国际音标手册中提及，侧擦音则由 extIPA 提供。

The epiglottal trill is arguably covered by the generally trilled epiglottal "fricatives" ⟨ʜ ʢ⟩. Ad hoc letters for near-close central vowels, ⟨ᵻ ᵿ⟩, are used in some descriptions of English, though those are specifically reduced vowels – forming a set with the IPA reduced vowels ⟨ə ɐ⟩ – and the simple points in vowel space are easily transcribed with diacritics: ⟨ɪ̈ ʊ̈⟩ or ⟨ɨ̞ ʉ̞⟩. Diacritics are able to fill in most of the remainder of the charts.^{[note 47]} If a sound cannot be transcribed, an asterisk ⟨*⟩ may be used, either as a letter or as a diacritic (as in ⟨k*⟩ sometimes seen for the Korean "fortis" velar).
会厌颤音可以说包含在通常颤动的会厌“擦音” ⟨ ʜ ʢ ⟩ 中。用于描述英语的近闭中央元音的临时字母 ⟨ ᵻ ᵿ ⟩，虽然它们是特指的弱化元音——与国际音标的弱化元音 ⟨ ə ɐ ⟩ 形成一个片场——且元音空间中的简单点可以用变音符轻松转写：⟨ ɪ̈ ʊ̈ ⟩ 或 ⟨ ɨ̞ ʉ̞ ⟩。变音符能够补充图表中大部分剩余部分。 ^{[note 47]} 如果某个音无法转写，可以使用星号 ⟨ * ⟩，既可以作为字母，也可以作为变音符（如有时在韩语“强音”软腭音中见到的 ⟨ k* ⟩）。

Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, [β̞] and [ð̞] respectively.^{[note 48]} Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives can be written as raised lateral approximants, [ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝], though the extIPA also provides ⟨𝼅⟩ for the first of these. A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, [ⱱ̟].^[115] Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written [ʙ̪] (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and the labiodental plosives are now universally ⟨p̪ b̪⟩ rather than the ad hoc letters ⟨ȹ ȸ⟩ once found in Bantuist literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. [ ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆], though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted [r̠], just as non-subapical retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining pulmonic consonants – the uvular laterals ([ʟ̠ 𝼄̠ ʟ̠˔]) and the palatal trill – while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
核心片场之外的辅音音素表示是通过在具有相似音值的字母上添加变音符号来创建的。西班牙语的双唇近音和齿音近音通常分别写作降低的擦音， [β̞] 和 [ð̞] 。 ^{[note 48]} 类似地，浊侧擦音可以写作升高的侧近音， [ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝] ，尽管 extIPA 也为前者提供了⟨ 𝼅 ⟩。一些语言如 Banda 将双唇弹音作为其他地方唇齿弹音的首选同位异音。有人建议用唇齿弹音字母加前移变音符号 [ⱱ̟] 来表示。 ^[115] 类似地，唇齿颤音写作 [ʙ̪] （双唇颤音和齿音符号），唇齿爆破音现在普遍用⟨ p̪ b̪ ⟩表示，而不是曾在班图学文献中出现的临时字母⟨ ȹ ȸ ⟩。其他弹音可以写作超短爆破音或侧音，例如 [ ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆] ，尽管在某些情况下变音符号需要写在字母下方。卷舌颤音可以写作缩回的 [r̠] ，正如非舌尖卷舌擦音有时的写法一样。 剩余的肺音辅音——小舌侧音（ [ʟ̠ 𝼄̠ ʟ̠˔] ）和腭颤音——虽然并非绝对不可能，但发音非常困难，甚至作为世界语言中的同位异音也不太可能出现。

The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.^{[note 49]} For example, the unrounded equivalent of [ʊ] can be transcribed as mid-centered [ɯ̽], and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised [ɶ̝] or lowered [œ̞] (though for those who conceive of vowel space as a triangle, simple [ɶ] already is the rounded equivalent of [æ]). True mid vowels are lowered [e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞] or raised [ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝], while centered [ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä] (or, less commonly, [ɑ̈]) are near-close and open central vowels, respectively.
元音同样可以通过使用变音符号来实现升高、降低、前移、后移、居中和中间居中。例如， [ʊ] 的非圆唇对应音可以转写为中间居中的 [ɯ̽] ，而 [æ] 的圆唇对应音可以转写为升高的 [ɶ̝] 或降低的 [œ̞] （尽管对于将元音空间视为三角形的人来说，简单的 [ɶ] 已经是 [æ] 的圆唇对应音）。真正的中元音是降低的 [e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞] 或升高的 [ɛ̝ œ̝ ɜ̝ ɞ̝ ʌ̝ ɔ̝] ，而居中的 [ɪ̈ ʊ̈] 和 [ä] （或较少见的 [ɑ̈] ）分别是近闭和开中央元音。

The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected roundedness. For unambiguous transcription, such sounds would require dedicated diacritics. Possibilities include ⟨ʏʷ⟩ or ⟨ɪʷ⟩ for protrusion and ⟨uᵝ⟩ (or VoQS ⟨ɯᶹ⟩) for compression. However, these transcriptions suggest that the sounds are diphthongs, and so while they may be clear for a language like Swedish where they are diphthongs, they may be misleading for languages such as Japanese where they are monophthongs. The extIPA 'spread' diacritic ⟨◌͍⟩ is sometimes seen for compressed ⟨u͍⟩, ⟨o͍⟩, ⟨ɔ͍⟩, ⟨ɒ͍⟩, though again the intended meaning would need to be explained or they would be interpreted as being spread the way that cardinal ⟦i⟧ is. For protrusion (w-like labialization without velarization), Ladefoged & Maddieson use the old IPA omega diacritic for labialization, ⟨◌̫⟩, for protruded ⟨y᫇⟩, ⟨ʏ̫⟩, ⟨ø̫⟩, ⟨œ̫⟩. This is an adaptation of an old IPA convention of rounding an unrounded vowel letter like i with a subscript omega (⟨◌̫⟩) and unrounding a rounded letter like u with a subscript turned omega.^[117] As of 2024^[update], the turned omega diacritic is in the pipeline for Unicode, and is under consideration for compression in extIPA.^[118] Kelly & Local use a combining w diacritic ⟨◌ᪿ⟩ for protrusion (e.g. ⟨yᷱ øᪿ⟩) and a combining ʍ diacritic ⟨◌ᫀ⟩ for compression (e.g. ⟨uᫀ oᫀ⟩).^[119] Because their transcriptions are manuscript, these are effectively the same symbols as the old IPA diacritics, which indeed are historically cursive w and ʍ. However, the more angular ⟨◌ᫀ⟩ of typescript might misleadingly suggest the vowel is protruded and voiceless (like [ʍ]) rather than compressed and voiced.
唯一已知无法用此方案表示的元音是具有意外圆唇度的元音。为了明确转写，这类声音需要专用的变音符号。可能的符号包括表示突出唇形的⟨ ʏʷ ⟩或⟨ ɪʷ ⟩，以及表示压缩唇形的⟨ uᵝ ⟩（或 VoQS 的⟨ ɯᶹ ⟩）。然而，这些转写暗示这些声音是双元音，因此虽然对于像瑞典语这样双元音的语言来说可能清晰，但对于像日语这样单元音的语言则可能产生误导。extIPA 的“spread”变音符号⟨ ◌͍ ⟩有时用于表示压缩的⟨ u͍ ⟩、⟨ o͍ ⟩、⟨ ɔ͍ ⟩、⟨ ɒ͍ ⟩，但同样需要解释其意图，否则会被理解为类似基准 ⟦i⟧ 的扩展唇形。对于突出唇形（类似 w 的唇化但无软腭化），Ladefoged 和 Maddieson 使用旧 IPA 的欧米茄变音符号⟨ ◌̫ ⟩表示唇化，用于突出唇形的⟨ y᫇ ⟩、⟨ ʏ̫ ⟩、⟨ ø̫ ⟩、⟨ œ̫ ⟩。这是对旧 IPA 惯例的改编，即用下标欧米茄（⟨ ◌̫ ⟩）表示对非圆唇元音字母的圆唇化，用下标倒转欧米茄表示对圆唇字母如 u 的去圆唇化。 截至 2024 年，翻转的欧米茄变音符号正在申请加入 Unicode，并且正在考虑在 extIPA 中用于压缩。Kelly 和 Local 使用组合 w 变音符号⟨ ⟩表示突出（例如⟨ ⟩），使用组合ʍ变音符号⟨ ⟩表示压缩（例如⟨ ⟩）。由于他们的转录是手稿形式，这些实际上与旧 IPA 变音符号相同，旧符号历史上确实是草写的 w 和ʍ。然而，更具角度的 TypeScript 中的⟨ ⟩可能会误导地暗示元音是突出且无声的（如 [ʍ] ），而非压缩且有声。

In both print and speech, an IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it transcribes because IPA letters very often do not have their cardinal IPA values in practice. This is commonly the case in phonemic and broad phonetic transcription, making articulatory descriptions of IPA letters, such as "mid front rounded vowel" or "voiced velar stop", inappropriate as names for those letters. While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.^[120] The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In many cases, the names in Unicode and the IPA Handbook differ. For example, the Handbook calls ⟨ɛ⟩ "epsilon", while Unicode calls it "small letter open e".
在印刷和语音中，IPA 符号通常与其所转录的声音区分开来，因为 IPA 字母在实际中往往不具有其基本的 IPA 值。这在音位和宽泛语音转录中尤为常见，使得将 IPA 字母描述为“中前圆唇元音”或“浊软腭塞音”等发音描述作为这些字母的名称变得不合适。虽然《国际语音学协会手册》声明其符号没有官方名称，但承认每个符号存在一两个常用名称。 ^[120] 这些符号在 Unicode 标准中也有临时名称。在许多情况下，Unicode 和 IPA 手册中的名称不同。例如，手册称⟨ ɛ ⟩为“epsilon”，而 Unicode 称其为“小写开放 e 字母”。

The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.^{[note 50]} Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as ⟨ʕ⟩, may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol or on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the characters from the Greek block.
拉丁音乐和希腊字母的传统名称通常用于未修改的字母。 ^{[note 50]} 不是直接源自这些字母表的字母，例如 ⟨ ʕ ⟩，可能有多种名称，有时基于符号的外观或其代表的声音。在 Unicode 中，一些希腊起源的字母有用于 IPA 的拉丁音乐形式；其他则使用希腊区块中的字符。

For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, ⟨é⟩ is "e-acute", based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so ⟨d̪⟩ is called "d-bridge".
对于变音符号，有两种命名方法。对于传统变音符号，IPA 使用一种众所周知的语言来标注名称；例如，⟨ é ⟩ 被称为“e-acute”，基于英语和法语中变音符号的名称。非传统变音符号通常以其形似的物体命名，因此 ⟨ d̪ ⟩ 被称为“d-跨链桥”。

Geoffrey Pullum and William Ladusaw ^[d] list a variety of names in use for both current and retired IPA symbols in their Phonetic Symbol Guide. Many of them found their way into Unicode.^[9]
Geoffrey Pullum 和 William Ladusaw 在他们的《Phonetic Symbol Guide》中列出了当前和已废止的 IPA 符号的各种名称。其中许多名称被收录进了 Unicode。

Unicode supports nearly all of the IPA. Apart from basic Latin and Greek and general punctuation, the primary blocks are IPA Extensions, Spacing Modifier Letters and Combining Diacritical Marks, with lesser support from Phonetic Extensions, Phonetic Extensions Supplement, Combining Diacritical Marks Supplement, and scattered characters elsewhere. The extended IPA is supported primarily by those blocks and Latin Extended-G.
Unicode 支持几乎所有的 IPA。除了基本的拉丁音乐和希腊语以及全年龄标点符号外，主要的区块是 IPA 扩展、间距修饰字母和组合变音符号，辅以语音扩展、语音扩展补充、组合变音符号补充以及其他零散字符的较少支持。扩展 IPA 主要由这些区块和拉丁音乐扩展-G 支持。

After the Kiel Convention in 1989, most IPA symbols were assigned an identifying number to prevent confusion between similar characters during the printing of manuscripts. The codes were never much used and have been superseded by Unicode.
1989 年基尔公约后，大多数 IPA 符号被分配了一个识别编号，以防止在手稿印刷过程中相似字符之间的混淆。这些代码很少被使用，现已被 Unicode 取代。

Many typefaces have support for IPA characters, but good diacritic rendering remains rare.^[122] Web browsers generally do not need any configuration to display IPA characters, provided that a typeface capable of doing so is available to the operating system.
许多字体支持 IPA 角色，但良好的变音符号渲染仍然罕见。 ^[122] 网络浏览器通常不需要任何配置即可显示 IPA 角色，前提是操作系统中有能够支持的字体。

Typefaces that provide full IPA and nearly full extIPA support, including properly rendering the diacritics, include Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, and Andika developed by SIL International. Indeed, the IPA chose Doulos to publish their chart in Unicode format. In addition to the level of support found in commercial and system fonts, these fonts support the full range of old-style (pre-Kiel) staveless tone letters, through a character variant option that suppresses the stave of the Chao tone letters. They also have an option to maintain the [a] ~ [ɑ] vowel distinction in italics. The only notable gaps are with the extIPA: the combining parentheses, which enclose diacritics, are not supported, nor is the enclosing circle that marks unidentified sounds, and which Unicode considers to be a copy-edit mark and thus not eligible for Unicode support.
提供完整 IPA 和几乎完整 extIPA 支持的字体，包括正确渲染变音符号的字体，有 Gentium Plus、Charis SIL、Doulos SIL 和由 SIL International 开发的 Andika。实际上，IPA 选择了 Doulos 以 Unicode 格式发布他们的图表。除了商业和系统字体中提供的支持水平外，这些字体还支持旧式（基尔之前）无谱号声调字母的全范围，通过一个字符变体选项来抑制赵氏声调字母的谱号。它们还有一个选项可以在斜体中保持 [a] ~ [ɑ] 元音区分。唯一显著的缺口是 extIPA：不支持包围变音符号的组合括号，也不支持标记未识别声音的包围圆圈，而 Unicode 将其视为校对标记，因此不符合 Unicode 支持的条件。

The basic Latin Noto fonts commissioned by Google also have significant IPA support, including diacritic placement, only failing with the more obscure IPA and extIPA characters and superscripts of the Latin Extended-F and Latin Extended-G blocks. The extIPA parentheses are included, but they do not enclose diacritics as they are supposed to.
由谷歌委托的基本拉丁音乐 Noto 字体也具有显著的 IPA 支持，包括变音符号的位置，仅在较为晦涩的 IPA 和 extIPA 字符以及拉丁音乐扩展-F 和拉丁音乐扩展-G 区块的上标方面存在不足。extIPA 括号包含在内，但它们并未像预期那样包围变音符号。

DejaVu is the second free Unicode font chosen by the IPA to publish their chart. It was last updated in 2016 and so does not support the Latin F or G blocks. Stacked diacritics tend to overstrike each other.
DejaVu 是 IPA 选择的第二个免费 Unicode 字体用于发布其图表。它最后更新于 2016 年，因此不支持拉丁音乐 F 或 G 区块。堆叠的变音符号往往会相互覆盖。

As of 2018^[update], the IPA was developing their own font, unitipa, based on TIPA.^[123]
截至 2018 年，IPA 正在基于 TIPA 开发自己的字体 unitipa。 ^[123]

Calibri, the default font of Microsoft Office, has nearly complete IPA support with good diacritic rendering, though it is not as complete as some free fonts (see image at right). Other widespread Microsoft fonts, such as Arial and Times New Roman, have poor support.
Calibri，微软 Office 的默认字体，几乎已完成对国际音标的支持，并且具有良好的变音符号渲染，尽管它不如一些免费字体那样完整（见右侧图片）。其他广泛使用的微软字体，如 Arial 和 Times New Roman，支持较差。

The Apple system fonts Geneva, Lucida Grande and Hiragino (certain weights) have only basic IPA support.
苹果系统字体 Geneva、Lucida Grande 和 Hiragino（某些字重）仅具有基本的国际音标支持。

Brill has complete IPA and extIPA coverage of characters added to Unicode by 2020, with good diacritic and tone-letter support. It is a commercial font but is freely available for non-commercial use.^[124]
Brill 已完成对 2020 年前添加到 Unicode 的 IPA 和 extIPA 角色的覆盖，具有良好的变音符号和音调符号支持。它是一个商业字体，但可免费用于非商业用途。 ^[124]

Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include SAMPA and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.
已开发出多种系统，将 IPA 符号映射到 ASCII 角色。著名系统包括 SAMPA 和 X-SAMPA。在在线文本中使用映射系统在一定程度上已被输入法上下文采用，允许方便地输入标准键盘布局上 otherwise 无法使用的 IPA 角色。

IETF language tags have registered fonipa as a variant subtag identifying text as written in IPA.^[125] Thus, an IPA transcription of English could be tagged as en-fonipa. For the use of IPA without attribution to a concrete language, und-fonipa is available.
IETF 语言标签已注册 fonipa 作为一个变体子标签，用于标识以国际音标书写的文本。 ^[125] 因此，英语的国际音标转录可以标记为 en-fonipa。对于不特指具体语言的国际音标使用，可以使用 und-fonipa。

Online IPA keyboard utilities are available, though none of them cover the complete range of IPA symbols and diacritics. Examples are the IPA 2018 i-charts hosted by the IPA,^[126] IPA character picker by Richard Ishida at GitHub,^[127] Type IPA phonetic symbols at TypeIt.org,^[128] and an IPA Chart keyboard by Weston Ruter also at GitHub.^[129] In April 2019, Google's Gboard for Android added an IPA keyboard to its platform.^[130][131] For iOS there are multiple free keyboard layouts available, such as the IPA Phonetic Keyboard.^[132]
在线 IPA 键盘工具可用，尽管它们都未涵盖 IPA 符号和变音符号的完整范围。示例包括由 IPA 托管的 IPA 2018 i-图表， ^[126] Richard Ishida 在 GitHub 上的 IPA 角色选择器， ^[127] TypeIt.org 上的 Type IPA 语音符号， ^[128] 以及 Weston Ruter 同样在 GitHub 上的 IPA 图表键盘。 ^[129] 2019 年 4 月，谷歌为 Android 的 Gboard 添加了 IPA 键盘到其平台。 ^{[130] [131]} 对于 iOS，有多个免费的键盘布局可用，例如 IPA 语音键盘。 ^[132]

• Official website  官方网站
• Interactive IPA chart  交互式 IPA 图表