Failure of Consideration Map
对价落空图

1. D's enrichment is unjust if P has enriched D on the basis of a consideration that fails.
   如果 P 基于落空的对价而使 D 受益，则 D 所获得的利益是不公正的。

2. The consideration that fails may have been-
   落空的对价可能是-

1. a promised counter-performance, whether under a valid contract or not, or
   承诺的对等履行，无论是否在有效合同下，或

1. contract valid but terminated for breach [Stocznia Gdanska v Latvia Shipping/ Mann v Paterson] (focus of FOC I)
   合同有效但因违约而终止 [Stocznia Gdanska v Latvia Shipping/ Mann v Paterson]（FOC I 的重点）
2. contract valid but terminated for frustration [Fibrosa v Fairbairn]
   合同有效但因受挫而终止 [Fibrosa v Fairbairn]

1. event occurred makes performance (i) physically or legally impossible or (ii) radically different
   发生的事件导致履行 (i) 在物理上或法律上不可能，或 (ii) 发生根本性改变
2. performance more onerous or expensive does not constitute frustration
   履行义务变得更加繁重或昂贵并不构成受挫
3. event neither provided for nor foreseen by parties
   双方未规定也未预见到的事件
4. event was not result of fault of either party
   事件并非任何一方的过错所致

3. contract void [Guinness Mahon v Kensington (swaps fully performed but void for illegality) vs Sharma v Simposh (option to purchase void due to lack of formalities)] Westdeutsche LandesBank v Islington]
   合同无效[Guinness Mahon v Kensington 案（互换交易已完全履行但因非法而无效）与 Sharma v Simposh 案（购买选择权因缺乏手续而无效）Westdeutsche LandesBank v Islington 案]
4. contract failed for want of certainty [British Steel v Cleveland Bridge]
   合同因缺乏确定性而失败[British Steel v Cleveland Bridge]

1. D request P to perform
   D 要求 P 履行
2. Both parties expected there will be a formal contract
   双方都期望会有一份正式合同

5. contract unenforceable [Cobb v Yeoman's Row]
   合同不可执行[Cobb v Yeoman's Row]

2. an event or a state of affairs that was not promised. [Roxborough v Rothsmans]
   一项未承诺的事件或事态。[Roxborough v Rothsmans]

3. It is a question of construction (objectively) whether the consideration fails; and, in deciding this question, if the consideration was a promised counter-performance [Sharma v Simposh]
   这属于解释（客观地）对价是否失败的问题；并且，在决定这个问题时，如果对价是承诺的对待给付[Sharma v Simposh]

1. failure of consideration does not require that none of the promised counter-performance has been rendered;
   对价失败并不要求没有提供任何承诺的对待给付；

1. failure must be total [Stocznia Gdanska v Latvia Shipping], BUT
   失败必须是完全的[Stocznia Gdanska v Latvia Shipping]，但是
2. not bargained for – incidental benefit [Rowland v Divall]
   非议价所得 – 附带利益 [Rowland v Divall]
3. P could exercise legal right to reject
   P 可以行使拒绝的合法权利
4. Construe obligations as severable [Roxborough v Rothsman / Mann v Paterson]
   将义务解释为可分割的 [Roxborough v Rothsman / Mann v Paterson]

2. the consideration is not normally regarded as failing if the promisor has been, and is, ready, able and willing to perform the promise.
   如果承诺人已经并且愿意、能够履行承诺，通常不认为对价已失败。
3. Contracts can be construed as:
   合同可以被解释为：

1. Obligations infinitely divisible
   义务无限可分
2. Obligation entire  义务完整
3. Obligation divisible into several entire stages
   义务可分为几个完整的阶段

4. If the consideration was a promised counter-performance under a valid contract and the contract has been terminated (for example, by acceptance of a breach or by frustration)-
   如果对价是有效合同项下承诺的对向履行，并且该合同已被终止（例如，通过接受违约或因合同受挫）-

1. restitution for failure of consideration may enable a party to escape from a bad bargain; [Bush v Canfield – yes /// Mann v Paterson – yes but in effect no advantage]
   因对价缺失而进行的返还可能使一方摆脱不利的交易；[Bush v Canfield – 是 /// Mann v Paterson – 是，但实际上没有优势]

1. Mann v Paterson

1. Completed stages – only contract claim
   已完成的阶段 - 仅合同索赔
2. Uncompleted stages – could chose restitution
   未完成阶段 - 可以选择返还
3. Safe for exceptional circumstances – contract cap applies
   在特殊情况下是安全的 - 合同上限适用

2. a person who breaks a contract may rely on failure of consideration as an unjust factor. [Dies v British International Mining]
   违反合同的人可以依赖对价失效作为不公正因素。[Dies v British International Mining]

5. Where a contract has been terminated (for example, by acceptance of a breach or by frustration), failure of consideration may render the enrichment unjust even though the benefit was owed to D by P under a contractual obligation that remains valid because termination invalidates obligations prospectively and not retrospectively.
   如果合同已经终止（例如，通过接受违约或因合同受挫），即使利益是 P 根据仍然有效的合同义务欠 D 的，对价失效也可能导致不公正的得利，因为终止使义务在未来无效，而不是追溯无效。

6. Where a contract has been terminated by frustration, the right to restitution for failure of consideration is governed by the Law Reform (Frustrated Contracts) Act 1943, unless section 2(5) of that Act prevents that Act from applying to the contract.
   如果合同因受挫而终止，则因对价失败而获得补偿的权利受《1943 年法律改革（受挫合同）法案》管辖，除非该法案第 2(5)条阻止该法案适用于该合同。