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Increased Number of Spikelets per Panicle Is the Main Factor in Higher Yield of Transplanted vs. Direct-Seeded Rice
每穗小穗數量的增加是移植水稻與直播水稻產量較高的主要因素

by 1,*,
作者: 1,* ,
2 and
1,* 2
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2 1
1
State Key Laboratory of Desert and Oasis Ecology, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China
中國科學院新疆生態與地理研究所沙漠與綠洲生態國家重點實驗室, 烏魯木齊 830011
2
Institute of Nuclear Technology and Biotechnology, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi 830091, China
新疆農業科學院核子技術與生物技術研究所, 烏魯木齊 830091
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Agronomy 2021, 11(12), 2479; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479
農業2021 , 11 (12), 2479; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479
Submission received: 25 October 2021 / Revised: 26 November 2021 / Accepted: 29 November 2021 / Published: 6 December 2021
收到提交資料:2021年10月25日/修訂:2021年11月26日/接受:2021年11月29日/發布:2021年12月6日
(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)
(本文屬於創新種植系統部分)

Abstract 抽象的

With increasing water shortages and labor costs, rice planting is gradually undergoing a transformation from traditional transplanting to direct seeding. However, the yield of direct-seeded rice is unstable and the reasons for this instability are disputed. Therefore, we established a field experiment conducted over 3 years to investigate the reasons for the difference in rice yield under different planting methods. The planting methods compared were transplanting (TR), broadcast sowing (BS), and sowing in line (SL). The yield of rice under TR was higher (10,390 kg ha−1) than that of BS (7790.7 kg ha−1) and SL (9105.2 kg ha−1). Given that the harvest index showed little variation among the three planting methods, the yield differences reflected that shoot dry matter production under TR was higher. Two reasons for the latter observation are suggested: (1) the planting density under TR was lower than that under BS and SL, thus competition for nutrient resources would have been reduced; (2) the growth period of TR was longer. The higher shoot dry matter accumulation under TR contributed to enhanced panicle number per m2 and number of spikelets per panicle than under BS. A significant correlation between number of spikelets per panicle and yield was observed. Although yield was highest under TR, the costs under TR were the highest among the three planting methods. In contrast, the benefit-to-cost ratio under SL was higher than that of TR and BS. The higher yield under TR reflected the production of larger spikelets per panicle than those produced under direct-seeding methods. However, the benefits of SL are conducive to enhanced profitability of rice production.
隨著水資源短缺和勞動成本的日益增加,水稻種植正逐漸從傳統移植轉向直播。然而,直播水稻的產量不穩定,其不穩定的原因也存在爭議。為此,我們進行了歷時3年的田間試驗,探討不同種植方式下稻米產量差異的原因。比較的種植方法為移植(TR)、撒播(BS)和行播(SL)。 TR下的水稻產量(10,390 kg ha -1 )高於BS(7790.7 kg ha -1 )和SL(9105.2 kg ha -1 )。鑑於三種種植方法之間的收穫指數變化不大,產量差異反映出 TR 下的地上部乾物質產量較高。造成後一種現象的原因有兩個:(1)TR 下的種植密度低於 BS 和 SL 下的種植密度,因此減少了對養分資源的競爭; (2)TR的生長期較長。 TR 下較高的地上部乾物質累積導致每 m 2的穗數和每穗的小穗數比 BS 下增加。觀察到每穗的小穗數與產量之間有顯著相關性。雖然 TR 的產量最高,但 TR 的成本是三種種植方法中最高的。相較之下,SL下的效益成本比高於TR和BS。 TR 較高的產量反映了每穗產量比直播方法生產的小穗更大。然而,SL的好處有利於提高水稻生產的獲利能力。

1. Introduction 一、簡介

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important grain crops in the world, accounting for 27% of the global grain yield [1]. Rapid population growth and economic development are escalating the demand for increased food production. Global rice production must increase by more than 1.2% annually to meet the growing demand for food [2]. In Asia, rice production is required to increase by 43% over the next 30 years to meet the food requirements of an increasing population [3]. The possibility of future expansion of the rice production area is limited. To meet the increasing demand for grains as a result of population growth, increasing the rice yield per unit area remains a critical problem to be addressed [4].
水稻( Oryza sativa L.)是世界上最重要的糧食作物之一,佔全球糧食產量的27%[ 1 ]。人口的快速成長和經濟發展正在增加對增加糧食產量的需求。全球稻米產量每年必須成長 1.2% 以上才能滿足日益增長的糧食需求 [ 2 ]。在亞洲,未來 30 年稻米產量需要增加 43%,以滿足不斷增長的人口的糧食需求 [ 3 ]。未來稻米生產面積擴大的可能性有限。為了滿足人口增長對糧食日益增長的需求,提高水稻單位面積產量仍是一個需要解決的關鍵問題[ 4 ]。
In addition to breeding high-yielding rice cultivars, rice yields are also largely affected by management practices [5]. There relative contributions of breeding and crop management to rice yield increase has shifted to 0.3:0.7 [6]. Therefore, management measures or planting methods play an extremely important role in the improvement of rice yield. Technological developments have contributed to the proliferation of cultivation techniques around the world, of which there are two basic planting methods: (1) direct seeding, which includes broadcast sowing (BS) and sowing in line (SL), and (2) transplanting of seedlings (TR; manually or mechanically). Traditionally, rice is planted by TR, but the planting method differs among regions, with a larger area of direct seeding apparent in developing areas. In recent years, owing to the continuous increase in labor costs, rice planting has gradually shifted from TR to direct seeding because of the reduced labor requirements and lower costs [7,8,9]. Taking Zhejiang Province, China as an example, in 2017, the rice planting area was 828,500 hm2, of which the transplanting area and direct seeding area accounted for 60% and 40%, respectively, while the direct seeding was mainly BS (81.6%) and SL accounted for only 18.4% [10].
除了選育高產量稻米品種外,稻米產量也大幅度受到管理措施的影響[ 5 ]。育種和作物管理對水稻增產的相對貢獻已轉變為0.3:0.7[ 6 ]。因此,管理措施或種植方法對水稻產量的提高起著極為重要的作用。技術的發展促進了世界各地栽培技術的普及,其中有兩種基本的種植方法:(1)直播,包括撒播(BS)和行播(SL),以及(2)移植幼苗(TR;手動或機械)。傳統上,水稻採用TR種植,但不同地區的種植方式有所不同,發展中地區直播面積較大。近年來,由於勞動成本不斷增加,水稻種植逐漸從直播轉向直播,因為勞動力需求減少,成本降低[7,8,9 ] 以中國浙江省為例,2017年水稻種植面積82.85萬hm 2 ,其中移植面積和直播面積分別佔比60%和40%,直播以直播為主(81.6%) )而SL僅佔18.4%[ 10 ]。
Distinct differences in rice yield are observed under different planting methods. Some research shows that the rice yield under BS is higher than that of TR [11,12]. Enhanced shoot dry matter production and a high spikelet number per panicle are considered to be associated with high grain yield under BS, but results are inconsistent [13,14]. Direct-seeded rice shows favorable changes in parameters that improve yield in comparison with those under TR, including earlier seedling emergence [15], stronger root activity, higher percentage seed set, and enhanced dry matter production at early developmental stages [14]. However, some studies show that the yield of TR is higher than that of BS rice [16,17,18,19]. Chen suggested that the lower grain yield of BS relative to TR rice is attributable to an excessive number of tillers formed during early development, lower leaf dry matter, and the photosynthetic rate at advanced developmental stages [16].
不同種植方式下水稻產量有明顯差異。有研究表明,BS處理下的稻米產量高於TR處理下的稻米產量[ 11 , 12 ]。提高的地上部乾物質產量和每穗的高小穗數被認為與 BS 下的高籽粒產量相關,但結果不一致 [ 13 , 14 ]。與TR相比,直播水稻在提高產量的參數方面表現出有利的變化,包括出苗更早[ 15 ]、根系活性更強、結實率更高以及早期發育階段乾物質產量提高[ 14 ]。然而一些研究顯示TR的產量高於BS水稻[ 16,17,18,19 ] 。 Chen認為,BS相對於TR水稻產量較低的原因是早期發育過程中形成的分蘗數量過多、葉片乾物質較低以及發育後期的光合速率[ 16 ]。
Rice yield is determined by sink size, namely the number of spikelets per m2, percentage seed set, and 1000-grain weight. Sink size is considered to be the primary determinant of grain yield in rice because of the stability in percentage seed set and 1000-grain weight of modern rice cultivars [20]. Sink size can be enhanced either by increasing the panicle number per m2 or the number of spikelets per panicle, or both. However, achieving an increase in both of these yield components is not easy because of a strong compensatory mechanism between the two yield components [21]. Therefore, a higher yield is generally achieved either by increasing panicle number per m2 or spikelet number per panicle. In addition, the performance of yield components varies across environments [22,23]. Different planting methods alter the growth environment of rice. A series of experiments have proved that yield component performance can be affected by planting method [16,17]. Therefore, we hypothesized that higher rice yield can be attained under TR compared with direct seeding primarily because the number of spikes per m2 or the spikelet number per panicle are higher under TR.
水稻產量由庫大小決定,即每m 2的小穗數、結實率和千粒重。由於現代水稻品種的結實率和千粒重的穩定性,庫大小被認為是水稻籽粒產量的主要決定因素[ 20 ]。可以透過增加每平方公尺的圓錐花序數或每圓錐花序的小穗數或兩者來增加庫尺寸。然而,由於這兩個產量組成部分之間存在著強烈的補償機制,因此要實現這兩個產量組成部分的增加並不容易[ 21 ]。因此,通常透過增加每m 2的穗數或每穗的小穗數來實現更高的產量。此外,產量組件的性能因環境而異[22,23 ] 。不同的種植方式會改變水稻的生長環境。一系列試驗證明,種植方式會影響產量構成性能[ 16 , 17 ]。因此,我們假設與直接播種相比,TR 下可以獲得更高的水稻產量,主要是因為 TR 下每 m 2的穗數或每穗的小穗數較高。
The rate of grain growth of field crops is initially slow, then enters a linear phase of rapid growth, and ultimately declines with approaching maturity. Grain filling, the final process associated with yield performance, is a crucial determinant of grain yield in cereal crops [24]. In this study, we established a 3-year field experiment that included three different rice planting methods, namely BS, SL, and TR. We focused on monitoring the growth and development of rice after the heading stage under the different planting methods. The main objectives were (1) to compare grain yield under the different planting methods, (2) to determine reasons for differences in grain yield under the different planting methods, and (3) to evaluate the income achieved under the different planting methods.
大田作物的籽粒生長速度最初緩慢,然後進入線性快速生長階段,最終隨著成熟的臨近而下降。籽粒灌漿是與產量表現相關的最後一個過程,也是穀類作物籽粒產量的關鍵決定因素[ 24 ]。在這項研究中,我們建立了為期 3 年的田間試驗,包括三種不同的水稻種植方法,即 BS、SL 和 TR。我們著重監測不同種植方式下抽穗期後水稻的生長發育情形。主要目標是(1)比較不同種植方法下的糧食產量,(2)確定不同種植方法下糧食產量差異的原因,以及(3)評估不同種植方法下實現的收入。

2. Materials and Methods 2. 材料與方法

The field experiment was carried out in Moyu County, the main irrigated rice-producing area in Xinjiang, China, during the 2015, 2016, and 2017 cropping seasons. The site has an arid climate typical of the area, with average annual rainfall of 37 mm, annual evaporation of 2239 mm, and 2655 annual sunshine hours. The annual average temperature is 11.3 °C, the highest temperature is recorded in July (average for July 24.8 °C), the accumulated temperature ≥10 °C is 4130 °C, and there are 210 frost-free days per year (Figure 1).
本田間試驗於2015年、2016年及2017年種植季節在中國新疆稻米主產區墨玉縣進行。該地區氣候典型乾旱,年平均降雨量37毫米,年蒸發量2,239毫米,年日照時數2655小時。年平均氣溫11.3℃,有紀錄以來最高氣溫7月(7月平均24.8℃),≥10℃積溫4130℃,年無霜期210天(圖1) )。
Figure 1. Average daily mean temperature and duration of monthly sunshine during the crop growth period at Moyu County. Data are the averages for 2015, 2016, and 2017 (source: China Meteorological Administration).
圖1墨玉縣農作物生長期日平均氣溫和月日照時數。數據為2015年、2016年及2017年的平均值(資料來源:中國氣象局)。
The soil type at the study site is a gray desert soil typical of the region. The soil was analyzed before sowing. The chemical properties of the 0–30 cm soil layer were as follows: extracted mineral nitrogen 11.09 mg kg−1, pH (H2O) 7.73, soil density 1.39 g cm−3, Olsen P 16.97 mg kg−1, NH4OAc-extracted potassium 76.33 mg kg−1, and organic matter 12.7 g kg−1.
研究地點的土壤類型是該地區典型的灰色沙漠土壤。播種前先對土壤進行分析。 0~30 cm土壤層化學性質如下:萃取礦質氮11.09 mg kg -1 ,pH(H 2 O)7.73,土壤密度1.39 g cm -3 ,Olsen P 16.97 mg kg -1 ,NH 4 OAc萃取鉀76.33 mg kg -1 ,有機物12.7 g kg -1

2.1. Experimental Design 2.1.實驗設計

The experiment applied three rice planting methods during three cropping seasons (2015, 2016, and 2017), namely transplanting (TR), broadcast sowing (BS), and sowing in line (SL). A randomized block design with three replicates was used. There were nine plots in total, and the area of each plot was 10 m × 8 m.
試驗在3個種植季節(2015年、2016年和2017年)採用了三種水稻種植方式,即移植(TR)、撒播(BS)和行播(SL)。使用具有三個重複的隨機區組設計。共9塊地塊,每塊地面積為10 m×8 m。
Seeds of rice ‘XD11’ (Japonica) were obtained from the Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. The seedlings for the TR treatment were raised in early April in each year of the experiment. Transplanting of seedlings in the TR treatment and sowing of seeds in the SL and BS treatments were carried out from 6–8 May of each year.
稻米種子「XD11」(粳稻)獲自中國新疆農業科學院。 TR處理的幼苗在實驗每年的4月初進行培育。每年5月6日至8日進行TR處理中的秧苗移植以及SL和BS處理的種子播種。
The seeding quantity for TR in the nursery and for SL and BS in the field were 90, 225, and 375 kg ha1, respectively (Table 1). In the TR treatment, seedlings were transplanted with spacing of 25 cm × 10 cm. Seeding in the SL treatment was carried out using small tractors, with a row spacing of 14 cm. In the BS treatment, artificial sowing was used.
苗圃中 TR 以及田間 SL 和 BS 的播種量分別為 90、225 和 375 kg ha - 1表 1 )。 TR處理時,以25公分×10公分的株距移植。 SL處理中的播種使用小型曳引機進行,行距為14公分。 BS處理採用人工播種。
Table 1. Details of the treatments applied in the experiment.
表 1.實驗中應用的處理的詳細資訊。
Fertilizer application referred to common practice by farmers. As base fertilizer, 250 kg ha1 of diammonium phosphate and 200 kg ha1 of potassium sulfate were applied before transplanting in TR and before sowing in SL and BS. In June, four doses of nitrogen fertilizer were applied at 90 kg urea ha−1, and 120 and 60 kg urea ha−1 were applied in July and mid-August, respectively, for all three planting methods. In each treatment, weeds were removed by hand.
肥料施用參考農民的普遍做法。作為基肥,TR 移植前以及 SL 和 BS 播種前施用 250 kg ha - 1磷酸二銨和 200 kg ha - 1硫酸鉀。 6月份,三種種植方法均施用4劑氮肥,施用量為90 kg尿素 ha -1 ,7月和8月中旬分別施用120 kg尿素 ha -1 和60 kg尿素 ha -1 。在每次處理中,雜草都被手工清除。

2.2. Plant Harvest 2.2.植物收穫

Given that the middle and late developmental stages of rice have the greatest impact on rice yield [21], we conducted three samplings of rice plants in mid-August, early September, and late September, respectively.
鑑於水稻中後期發育階段對水稻產量影響最大[ 21 ],我們分別在8月中旬、9月初和9月下旬對水稻植株進行了3次採樣。
At each sampling time point, 1 m2 of rice samples per plot were collected and the leaf area index was measured. The sampled plants were divided into leaves, stems, reproductive organs, and roots. All samples were killed at 90 °C for 30 min, then dried at 70 °C until a constant weight was attained.
在每個採樣時間點,每小區採集1m 2水稻樣本並測量葉面積指數。取樣植物分為葉、莖、生殖器官和根。所有樣品在90℃下滅活30分鐘,然後在70℃下乾燥至恆重。
Before harvesting, plants within a 1 m2 area per plot were sampled randomly and the number of plants, number of panicles, number of spikelets per panicle, and 1000-grain weight were determined. Theoretical grain yield was calculated on the basis of all harvested plants in each plot. Then the plants within a 2 m2 area per plot were harvested, the grains were weighed, and the harvest index (HI) and actual yield per unit area (kg ha1) was calculated.
收成前,每塊地1m 2面積內的植株進行隨機取樣,測定植株數、穗數、每穗小穗數及千粒重。理論穀物產量是根據每個地塊中所有收穫的植物計算的。然後收穫每小區2 m 2面積內的植株,稱重籽粒,計算收穫指數(HI)和單位面積實際產量(kg ha - 1 )。

2.3. Data Analysis 2.3.數據分析

The data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance using SAS version 8.0 software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA, 1998). Means among the planting methods were compared based on the least significant difference at the 0.05 level of significance. A correlation analysis between rice yield and its components was performed. All data were the averages of the results for the 3 years of the experiment.
使用 SAS 8.0 版軟體(SAS Institute,Cary,NC,USA,1998)對資料進行單因子變異數分析。不同種植方法的平均值是根據0.05顯著水準的最小顯著差異進行比較。對水稻產量及其構成因素進行相關分析。所有數據均為3年實驗結果的平均值。

3. Results 3. 結果

3.1. Yield and Its Components
3.1.產量及其組成部分

Significant differences in grain yield under the three planting methods were observed (Table 2). Grain yield was highest under TR (10,390.0 kg ha−1), followed by SL (9105.2 kg ha−1), and lowest under BS (7790.7 kg ha−1). Among the four yield components measured, the effective panicle number per m2 was highest under SL, but the difference from that of TR was not significant. The number of spikelets per panicle under TR was significantly higher (203) than that of SL (160) and BS (146). The 1000-grain weight was lowest under TR among the three planting methods, whereas the percentage seed set was highest under BS.
三種種植方式下糧食產量差異顯著(表2 )。 TR下的穀物產量最高(10,390.0 kg ha -1 ),其次是SL(9105.2 kg ha -1 ),BS下最低(7790.7 kg ha -1 )。測得的4個產量構成中,SL處理下每m 2有效穗數最高,但與TR處理差異不顯著。 TR 下每穗的小穗數 (203) 顯著高於 SL (160) 和 BS (146)。三種種植方式中,TR 下的千粒重最低,而 BS 下的結實率最高。
Table 2. Yield and yield components of rice plants under three planting methods.
表2三種種植方式下稻米產量及產量組成。
Correlation analysis showed that yield was negatively correlated with percentage seed set and 1000-grain weight (Table 3), but was positively correlated with the number of effective panicles per m2 and number of spikelets per panicle. The correlation of yield with number of spikelets per panicle was statistically significant (p < 0.05).
相關分析表明,產量與結實率、千粒重呈負相關(表3 ),與每m 2有效穗數、每穗花穗數呈正相關。產量與每穗小穗數的相關性具有統計意義( p <0.05)。
Table 3. Correlation coefficients between yield and yield components.
表 3.產量和產量組成部分之間的相關係數。
The number of plants per unit area under BS and SL was higher than that under TR (Figure 2). However, the number of effective plants that formed a spike was highest under TR among the three planting methods; therefore, the ratio of effective plants to total plants was higher under TR. Thus, under BS and SL (especially under BS), plants formed a higher number of ineffective tillers than those under TR.
BS和SL下的單位面積植株數高於TR下(圖2 )。然而,三種種植方法中TR下形成穗的有效植株數量最高;因此,TR下有效植株佔總植株的比例較高。因此,在 BS 和 SL 條件下(特別是在 BS 條件下),植物形成的無效分蘗數量比 TR 條件下的植物更多。
Figure 2. Total number of plants and number of effective plants per hectare of rice plants under three planting methods. The value above the columns represents the ratio of effective plants to total plants. BS, broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
圖2三種種植方式下水稻總株數及每公頃有效株數。柱上方的數值代表有效植物與總植物的比率。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。

3.2. Growth 3.2.生長

At three growth stages, the plant dry matter under TR was higher than that of SL, and that under BS was the lowest at each stage (Figure 3). With progression of the growing season, the shoot dry matter increased gradually in all three treatments, whereas the increase in root dry matter differed among the three planting methods. The increase in root dry matter was greater under BS than that under SL, whereas root dry matter under TR showed little change after mid-August.
三個生育時期,TR處理下的植株乾物質均高於SL處理,BS處理下的各階段植株乾物質含量最低(圖3 )。隨著生長季節的進展,三種處理的地上部乾物質逐漸增加,而三種種植方法中根乾物質的增加則有所不同。 8月中旬以後,BS處理下的根乾物質增加幅度大於SL處理,而TR處理下的根乾物質變化不大。
Figure 3. Dry matter weight of rice plants under three planting methods at three growth stages. Plants were sampled in (A) mid-August, (B) early September, and (C) late September. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting. For each plant organ, means with a different lower-case letter were significantly different between the planting methods at the same sampling time at p < 0.05 (n = 9).
圖3.三種種植方式、三個生育階段水稻植株的乾物質重量。植物採樣時間為 ( A ) 八月中旬、( B ) 九月初及 ( C ) 九月下旬。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。對於每個植物器官,不同小寫字母的平均值在同一採樣時間的種植方法之間存在顯著差異, p < 0.05 ( n = 9)。
Given the differences in distribution of shoot and root dry matter under the different planting methods (Figure 3), the ratio of shoot dry matter to root dry matter differed notably among the treatments; the ratio was greater under TR than that under SL, and the ratio under BS was the lowest. The differences were most distinct at advanced stages of development (Figure 4).
鑑於不同種植方式下地上部和根乾物質分佈的差異(圖3 ),各處理間地上部乾物質與根乾物質的比例有顯著差異; TR下的比率大於SL下的比率,BS下的比率最低。差異在開發的後期最為明顯(圖 4 )。
Figure 4. Ratio of shoot dry matter to root dry matter of rice plants under three planting methods at three growth stages. Plants were sampled in (A) mid-August, (B) early September, and (C) late September. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
圖4三種種植方式、三個生育階段水稻地上部乾物質與根乾物質的比值。植物採樣時間為 ( A ) 八月中旬、( B ) 九月初及 ( C ) 九月下旬。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。
From the heading stage, the leaf area index of rice plants showed a decreasing trend with progression of the growing season (Figure 5). In general, the leaf area index under BS and TR was higher than that under SL. In mid-August and early September, the leaf area index under TR was higher than that under BS, especially in early September, but thereafter decreased rapidly.
從抽穗期開始,隨著生長季的進展,水稻植株的葉面積指數呈現下降趨勢(圖5 )。整體而言,BS和TR處理下的葉面積指數高於SL處理。 8月中旬和9月初,TR處理下的葉面積指數高於BS處理,特別是9月上旬,但此後迅速下降。
Figure 5. Leaf area index of rice plants under three planting methods at three growth stages. Plants were sampled in (A) mid-August, (B) early September, and (C) late September. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
圖5三種種植方式下水稻植株三個生育期的葉面積指數。植物採樣時間為 (A) 八月中旬、(B) 九月初和 (C) 九月下旬。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。
Little difference in harvest index (HI) was observed among rice plants under the different planting methods (Figure 6).
不同種植方式下水稻植株的收穫指數(HI)差異不大(圖6 )。
Figure 6. Harvest index of rice plants under three planting methods. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
圖6三種種植方式下水稻植株的收穫指數。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。
Given that TR requires the raising of seedlings, the vegetative growth period under this planting method was longer at 107 days, whereas those under BS and SL were 97 and 89 days, respectively (Figure 7). The TR treatment also showed the longest reproductive phase of 60 days, followed by SL (54 days), whereas the reproductive phase was shortest under BS (49 days). Therefore, with regard to the total growth period, the maximum length was 167 days under TR, whereas those under BS and SL were 146 and 143 days, respectively. Within each of the vegetative and reproductive phases, plant growth and development under TR was accelerated compared with that under SL, and that under BS was the slowest. For example, in mid-August, when grain filling was initiated in the TR treatment, plants in the BS treatment were at the heading stage.
由於TR需要育苗,因此該種植方式的營養生長期較長,為107天,而BS和SL的營養生長期分別為97天和89天(圖7 )。 TR 處理也顯示最長的繁殖期,為 60 天,其次是 SL(54 天),而 BS 處理下的繁殖期最短(49 天)。因此,就總生育期而言,TR條件下的最大長度為167天,而BS和SL條件下的最大長度分別為146天和143天。在營養和生殖各階段中,TR處理下的植物生長發育較SL處理加快,BS處理最慢。例如,8月中旬,當TR處理中籽粒灌漿開始時,BS處理中的植物正處於抽穗期。
Figure 7. The growth period and panicle morphology of rice plants under three planting methods. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
圖7三種種植方式下水稻植株的生育期和穗部形態。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。

3.3. Cost and Income 3.3.成本與收入

In rice production, the largest input cost is labor. Differences in labor cost were pronounced among the three planting methods. The labor input under TR was distinctly higher than that under BS, whereas that under SL was the lowest (Table 4). In addition, marked differences were observed in the cost of seed input, which followed the rank order BS > SL > TR. Other inputs, including fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, and irrigation, showed little difference among the three planting methods.
在稻米生產中,最大的投入成本是勞力。三種種植方法的勞動成本差異明顯。 TR條件下的勞動投入明顯高於BS條件下的勞動投入,而SL條件下的勞動投入最低(表4 )。此外,種子投入成本也存在顯著差異,其排序順序為 BS > SL > TR。其他投入,包括化學肥料、農藥、機械和灌溉,在三種種植方法中幾乎沒有差異。
Table 4. Production cost of rice under three planting methods.
表4三種種植方式下水稻的生產成本。
The total production cost was highest under TR, which was 1795.8 US dollars ha−1, followed by BS (1627.4 US dollars ha−1), and the lowest was under SL (1518.3 US dollars ha−1) (Table 5). The income under TR was greater than that under SL and BS, and net income showed the same trend, whereas the cost under TR and BS was higher than that under SL. The benefit-to-cost ratio was highest under SL, followed by TR, and that under BS was the lowest.
TR條件下總生產成本最高,為1795.8美元ha -1 ,其次是BS條件下(1627.4美元ha -1 ),SL條件下最低(1518.3美元ha -1 )(表5 )。 TR下的收入高於SL和BS下的收入,淨利潤也呈現相同的趨勢,而TR和BS下的成本高於SL下的。 SL下的效益成本比最高,TR次之,BS下的效益成本比最低。
Table 5. Cost of production, income, and benefit-to-cost ratio of rice production under three planting methods.
表5三種種植方式下水稻生產的生產成本、收入及效益成本比。

4. Discussion 4. 討論

4.1. The Increased Number of Spikelets per Panicle Is the Most Important Factor in the High Yield of Transplanted Rice
4.1.每穗小穗數增加是插秧水稻高產量的最重要因素

Crop yield formation is the process of accumulation and distribution of dry matter. In rice, grain yield is the product of shoot dry matter and HI. The increase in shoot dry matter or HI or both parameters can theoretically increase yield [24]. In terms of growth conditions, Peng believed that under favorable light, temperature, water, and fertilizer conditions, hybrid rice increased yield by increasing the photosynthetic rate and the accumulation of shoot dry matter in the population, and under unfavorable conditions, yield could be maintained by achieving high shoot dry matter transport efficiency and high HI [21]. In the present study, we observed that the HI showed almost no difference under the three planting methods (Figure 6), whereas shoot dry matter (Figure 3) and yield (Table 2) were highest under TR. Yield increased with the increase in shoot dry matter accumulation, which supported the above-mentioned conclusion.
作物產量的形成是乾物質累積和分配的過程。在稻米中,籽粒產量是地上部乾物質和 HI 的乘積。增加地上部乾物質或HI或兩者參數理論上可以提高產量[ 24 ]。在生長條件方面,彭認為,在有利的光、溫、水、肥條件下,雜交水稻透過提高群體光合速率和地上部乾物質累積來提高產量,在不利條件下也能保持產量。芽乾物質運輸效率與高HI [ 21 ]。在本研究中,我們觀察到三種種植方法下的HI幾乎沒有差異(圖6 ),而TR下的地上部乾物質(圖3 )和產量(表2 )最高。產量隨著地上部乾物質累積量的增加而增加,支持了上述結論。
The high yield of hybrid rice is attained mainly from the accumulation of photosynthate after heading, but shows no significant correlation with accumulation of dry matter at the jointing stage and is essentially attributable to increased leaf area and prolonged leaf function [25]. In the present study, using the same rice cultivar, different planting methods essentially created different growth conditions. Compared with BS and SL, the leaf area index of TR remained higher for the majority of the growth period (Figure 5), which provided a guarantee for accumulation of dry matter. In general, we consider that there are two main reasons for the greater shoot dry matter production under TR compared with that under BS or SL (Figure 8). (1) Compared with TR, the BS and SL treatments (especially BS) were more densely planted (Figure 2). The high plant density results in enhanced competition for nutrient resources [26]. Therefore, to obtain greater amounts of nutrient resources, plants growing under BS and SL, especially the former, will allocate higher quantities of photosynthates to the roots, increasing root dry matter production, and thus affecting shoot growth (Figure 3). The lower shoot to root ratio and effective plants to total plants ratio under BS support this inference (Figure 2 and Figure 4). (2) The growth period under TR is longer than that under BS or SL (for the vegetative and reproductive growth phases; Figure 7). Therefore, photosynthetic activity is prolonged, which is beneficial for the accumulation of dry matter products. The duration of grain filling is considered to be an important factor in determination of grain yield. It is generally believed that high yield in temperate environments is mainly due to longer growth duration and greater solar radiation [27,28]. The longer growth period will result in enhanced dry matter production, thereby contributing to improved grain filling and higher grain yield. Yoshida considered that the increase in grain weight showed a linear relationship to the increase in effective grain filling duration [24]. A previous study on the contribution to yield of grain filling period and grain yield showed that the grain yield of different genotypes was mainly determined by grain filling rate [29].
雜交水稻的高產量主要來自抽穗後光合產物的積累,而與拔節期乾物質的積累沒有顯著相關性,本質上歸因於葉面積的增加和葉功能的延長[ 25 ]。在本研究中,使用相同的水稻品種,不同的種植方法本質上創造了不同的生長條件。與BS和SL相比,TR的葉面積指數在大部分生育期都保持較高的水平(圖5 ),為乾物質的累積提供了保證。總的來說,我們認為 TR 下的地上部乾物質產量高於 BS 或 SL 下的主要原因有兩個(圖 8 )。 (1)與TR相比,BS和SL處理(尤其是BS)種植密度更高(圖2 )。高植物密度導致對養分資源的競爭加劇[ 26 ]。因此,為了獲得更多的養分資源,在BS和SL下生長的植物,特別是前者,會將更多的光合產物分配給根部,增加根部乾物質的產生,從而影響地上部的生長(圖3 )。 BS下較低的芽根比和有效植株與總植株的比例支持了這個推論(圖2圖4 )。 (2)TR下的生長期比BS或SL下的生長期長(對於營養生長期和生殖生長期;圖7 )。因此,光合活動延長,有利於乾物質產物的累積。灌漿期長短被認為是決定糧食產量的重要因素。 一般認為,溫帶環境下的高產量主要是由於生長持續時間較長和太陽輻射較大[ 27 , 28 ]。較長的生長期將導致乾物質產量增加,有助於改善穀物灌漿和提高穀物產量。 Yoshida認為粒重的增加與有效灌漿期的增加呈線性關係[ 24 ]。先前關於灌漿期和籽粒產量對產量貢獻的研究表明,不同基因型的籽粒產量主要由籽粒灌漿速率決定[ 29 ]。
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of differences in rice yield attained under different cultivation methods. Compared with the broadcast sowing (BS) method, the planting density of transplanted (TR) rice is lower, the growth period is longer, and the competition from roots for photosynthetic products and soil nutrients is weak. Therefore, under TR, root growth is reduced, but accumulation of shoot dry matter is increased, the number of spikelets per panicle is enhanced, and yield is improved.
圖8不同栽培方式下水稻產量差異示意圖。與撒播(BS)法相比,移植(TR)水稻的種植密度較低,生育期較長,根系對光合產物和土壤養分的競爭較弱。因此,TR下根系生長減少,但地上部乾物質累積增加,每穗小穗數增加,產量增加。
With regard to yield components, it is difficult to increase the percentage seed set and 1000-grain weight owing to their stability [21]. Therefore, the number of spikelets per m2, which represents the sink size, is the most important factor that determines the yield of a cereal crop [30]. When growing in a high-yield, stress-free environment, the sink size can be increased by increasing the number of panicles or number of spikelets per panicle or both parameters [31]. In the present study, no significant difference in the 1000-grain weight of rice under the three planting methods was observed, but the percentage seed set was higher under TR than under BS or SL (Table 2). Correlation analysis indicated that the higher yield under TR reflected the higher number of effective panicles and number of spikelets per panicle (which was strongly correlated with yield; Table 3). Panicle number per m2 and number of spikelets per panicle are negatively correlated [24]; therefore, their balance is important for obtaining the largest sink and only when the panicle number remains unchanged can a higher number of spikelets per panicle be selected to increase the sink size [23]. In rice, the number of panicles per m2 and the number of spikelets per panicle are strongly correlated with accumulation of dry matter at the beginning of heading [31], and grain filling to a large extent depends on accumulation of dry matter from flowering to maturity [24]. These observations indicate that the higher yield attained under TR stems from the increase in dry matter production and thus the enhanced number of spikelets per panicle.
就產量組成而言,結實率和千粒重由於其穩定性而難以提高[ 21 ]。因此,每m 2 的小穗數量(代表庫的大小)是決定穀類作物產量的最重要因素[ 30 ]。當在高產量、無壓力的環境中生長時,可以透過增加圓錐花序數或每圓錐花序的小穗數或同時增加這兩個參數來增加庫大小[ 31 ]。在本研究中,三種種植方式下水稻的千粒重沒有觀察到顯著差異,但TR下的結實率高於BS或SL下(表2 )。相關分析表明,TR下較高的產量反映了較高的有效穗數和每穗的小穗數(與產量強相關;表3 )。每m 2 的穗數與每穗的小穗數呈負相關[ 24 ];因此,它們的平衡對於獲得最大的庫非常重要,只有在穗數不變的情況下,才能選擇更多的每穗小穗數來增加庫的大小[ 23 ]。在水稻中,每m 2的穗數和每穗的小穗數與抽穗初期乾物質的積累密切相關[ 31 ],籽粒灌漿很大程度上取決於從開花到開花期間乾物質的積累。 [ 24 ]。這些觀察結果表明,TR 下獲得的較高產量源自於乾物質產量的增加,增加了每穗的小穗數量。

4.2. SL Can Achieve Higher Returns in Rice Production
4.2. SL可以在水稻生產中獲得更高的回報

The traditional rice planting method based on artificial transplanting has failed to meet the needs of social and economic development. There are two main reasons for this. (1) In the traditional transplanting system, the demand for water resources is high. In many areas, surface water and groundwater resources are shrinking, and water has become a limiting factor in rice production [32]. (2) The traditional rice transplanting method carries a higher labor cost because of the need for raising seedlings and artificial transplanting. Therefore, although the yield is often higher, the acquisition of substantial water resources and the greater labor cost reduce the profitability of rice production under TR [33]. It is therefore imperative to develop efficient and labor-saving rice planting methods. Direct seeding can significantly reduce rice production costs [34]. Since the 1950s, direct seeding has been one of the main methods of rice planting [35]. In recent years, in several countries of Southeast Asia, the transformation of rice planting method from transplanting to direct seeding has begun [15]. In the present study, we compared the BS and SL direct-seeding methods. The present results suggested that SL is a more advantageous method for rice production: (1) although yield was lower under SL than that under TR, the difference was relatively small (Table 2), whereas the SL yield was significantly higher than that under BS; (2) the cost of SL is significantly lower (compared with BS, the seeding quantity was reduced; compared with TR, labor input was reduced (Table 4)); and (3) the benefit-to-cost ratio was higher under SL than under BS and TR (Table 5).
以人工插秧為主的傳統水稻種植方式已無法滿足社會經濟發展的需要。造成這種情況的主要原因有二。 (1)傳統移植系統對水資源的需求量較高。在許多地區,地表水和地下水資源正在萎縮,水已成為水稻生產的限制因素[ 32 ]。 (2)傳統插秧方式需育苗、人工插秧,人工成本較高。因此,雖然產量往往較高,但大量水資源的取得和較高的勞動成本降低了TR下水稻生產的獲利能力[ 33 ]。因此,開發高效率、省力的水稻種植方法勢在必行。直播可以顯著降低水稻生產成本[ 34 ]。自1950年代以來,直播一直是水稻種植的主要方法之一[ 35 ]。近年來,東南亞多個國家開始將水稻種植方式從移植到直播轉變[ 15 ]。在本研究中,我們比較了 BS 和 SL 直播方法。目前的結果表明,SL是一種更有利於水稻生產的方法:(1)儘管SL下的產量低於TR下的產量,但差異相對較小(表2 ),而SL產量顯著高於BS下的產量; (2)SL成本明顯較低(與BS相比,播種量減少;與TR相比,勞動投入減少(表4 )); (3) SL 下的效益成本比高於 BS 和 TR 下(表 5 )。
Additional factors other than yield also determine the optimal rice planting method, such as factors linked to the local economy and labor resources. Worldwide, it is beneficial to use TR in areas with low labor costs and sufficient water resources, whereas direct seeding is more suitable in areas with high labor costs and insufficient water resources [35]. In economically developed rice-producing countries, rice planting methods have undergone transformation from artificial transplanting to mechanical direct seeding or mechanical transplanting. In China, the area of artificial transplanting is declining, but presently accounts for 50% of the rice production area. Artificial transplanting is mainly practiced in areas with high population density, low per capita cultivated land area, small-scale farmers, and sufficient labor force. The area of direct-seeding rice production increased from 2% in 2000 to about 11% in 2009 [9].
除產量之外的其他因素也決定了最佳的水稻種植方法,例如與當地經濟和勞動力資源相關的因素。在世界範圍內,在勞動成本低、水資源充足的地區採用TR是有利的,而直播則更適合在勞動成本高、水資源不足的地區[ 35 ]。在經濟發達的水稻生產國家,水稻種植方式已從人工插秧向機械直播或機插秧轉變。在中國,人工插秧面積正在下降,但目前已佔水稻生產面積的50%。人工移植主要在人口密度大、人均耕地面積少、農民規模小、勞動力充足的地區進行。直播水稻生產面積由2000年的2%增加到2009年的11%左右[ 9 ]。
Although many studies have shown that direct seeding of rice is superior to transplanting in many aspects, direct seeding has been practiced for an extended period in many areas, but has not been popularized [36,37]. In 2007, about only 23% of the world’s rice is produced using a direct-seeding method [38]. This is because direct seeding still faces a number of challenges. Farooq et al. provide a detailed summary of these challenges, including the invasion of weeds, relatively low yield, the cultivation of specialized cultivars, low ripening rate, nutrient resource management, disease and insect pests, and water management [8]. The present results suggest that under the conditions of SL, compared with TR, management of nutrient resources may be the most important factor compared with other challenges. As already mentioned, compared with TR, low shoot dry matter production and number of spikelets per panicle are the main factors responsible for the low yield of direct-seeded rice. These factors are closely associated with the higher planting density and reduced capacity to meet nutrient demands (consequently, root growth is promoted by the reduction in shoot growth). Determination of the appropriate planting density and formulation of an effective strategy for management of nutrient resources compatible with the local climatic conditions of the region are crucial requirements to improve the yield and income of direct-seeded rice, especially when using the SL planting method.
儘管許多研究顯示水稻直播在許多方面優於移植,但直播在許多地區已經實行了較長時間,但尚未普及[ 36 , 37 ]。 2007 年,全球大約只有 23% 的稻米是採用直播法生產的 [ 38 ]。這是因為直播仍面臨許多挑戰。法魯克等人。詳細總結了這些挑戰,包括雜草入侵、產量相對較低、專業品種的種植、成熟率低、養分資源管理、病蟲害和水管理等[ 8 ]。目前的結果表明,在 SL 條件下,與 TR 相比,與其他挑戰相比,養分資源的管理可能是最重要的因素。如前所述,與TR相比,地上部乾物質產量和每穗小穗數低是造成直播稻產量低的主要原因。這些因素與較高的種植密度和滿足養分需求的能力降低密切相關(因此,根部生長透過芽生長的減少而促進)。確定適當的種植密度並制定與當地氣候條件相適應的有效養分資源管理策略是提高直播水稻產量和收入的關鍵要求,特別是採用SL種植方法時。

5. Conclusions 5. 結論

In this study, rice yield was highest under TR. The yield of rice depends on shoot dry matter production and the HI. Given that the three planting methods showed almost no differences in HI, the differences in yield reflected the shoot dry matter production. The three planting methods showed greatest divergence in planting density and growth period. The planting density under TR was the lowest, so competition for soil nutrient resources was relatively weak. The TR method included 1 month for raising seedlings; thus, the growth period was longer and the duration of grain filling was prolonged compared with those under SL and BS. These two factors contributed to the significantly higher number of spikelets per panicle under TR than that under SL and BS, and ultimately to the higher yield. However, given the substantial investment in labor required, the benefit-to-cost ratio under TR was not the highest. The yield of SL was lower than that under TR, but was distinctly higher than that under BS, and costs were the lowest under SL among the three planting methods; thus, the benefit-to-cost ratio of SL was the highest. Therefore, with increasing labor costs worldwide, SL represents a more profitable method of rice planting.
在這項研究中,TR 下的稻米產量最高。稻米的產量取決於地上部乾物質產量和HI。鑑於三種種植方法的 HI 幾乎沒有差異,產量的差異反映了地上部乾物質的產量。三種種植方式在種植密度和生長期差異最大。 TR下的種植密度最低,對土壤養分資源的競爭相對較弱。 TR法育苗1個月;與SL和BS相比,生育期更長,灌漿持續時間更長。這兩個因素導致 TR 下每穗的小穗數量顯著高於 SL 和 BS 下,最終導致更高的產量。然而,考慮到所需的大量勞動投資,TR 下的效益成本比並不是最高的。 SL產量低於TR,但明顯高於BS,且成本是三種種植方式中最低的;因此,SL 的成本效益比最高。因此,隨著全球勞動成本的增加,SL 代表了一種更有利可圖的水稻種植方法。

Author Contributions 作者貢獻

W.M. have contributed in developing the research ideas, analyzing the data, conducting the research and writing the manuscript; B.A. have contributed in investigation; X.X. have contributed in analyzing the data and writing the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
WM 在發展研究思路、分析數據、進行研究和撰寫手稿方面做出了貢獻; BA對調查做出了貢獻; XX 為分析數據和撰寫手稿做出了貢獻。所有作者均已閱讀並同意稿件的出版版本。

Funding 資金

This research was funded by the “Western young scholars” project of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant NO. 2019-XBQNXZ-A-006), and the basic research funding of non-profit scientific research institutes in the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Grant NO. KY2019007).
本研究獲得中國科學院「西部青年學者」計畫(批准號:2019-XBQNXZ-A-006)、新疆維吾爾自治區非營利科研院所基本科研業務費(授權號 KY2019007)。

Data Availability Statement
數據可用性聲明

Data is contained within the article.
數據包含在文章中。

Conflicts of Interest 利益衝突

The authors declare no conflict of interest.
作者聲明不存在利益衝突。

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Figure 1. Average daily mean temperature and duration of monthly sunshine during the crop growth period at Moyu County. Data are the averages for 2015, 2016, and 2017 (source: China Meteorological Administration).
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Figure 2. Total number of plants and number of effective plants per hectare of rice plants under three planting methods. The value above the columns represents the ratio of effective plants to total plants. BS, broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
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Figure 3. Dry matter weight of rice plants under three planting methods at three growth stages. Plants were sampled in (A) mid-August, (B) early September, and (C) late September. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting. For each plant organ, means with a different lower-case letter were significantly different between the planting methods at the same sampling time at p < 0.05 (n = 9).
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Figure 4. Ratio of shoot dry matter to root dry matter of rice plants under three planting methods at three growth stages. Plants were sampled in (A) mid-August, (B) early September, and (C) late September. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
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Figure 5. Leaf area index of rice plants under three planting methods at three growth stages. Plants were sampled in (A) mid-August, (B) early September, and (C) late September. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
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Figure 6. Harvest index of rice plants under three planting methods. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
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Figure 7. The growth period and panicle morphology of rice plants under three planting methods. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
圖 7. 三種種植方式下水稻植株的生育期和穗部形態。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。
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Figure 8. Schematic diagram of differences in rice yield attained under different cultivation methods. Compared with the broadcast sowing (BS) method, the planting density of transplanted (TR) rice is lower, the growth period is longer, and the competition from roots for photosynthetic products and soil nutrients is weak. Therefore, under TR, root growth is reduced, but accumulation of shoot dry matter is increased, the number of spikelets per panicle is enhanced, and yield is improved.
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Table 1. Details of the treatments applied in the experiment.
Planting MethodsSeeding Quantity (kg ha−1)Planting Spacing (cm)
BS375-
SL22514
TR9025 × 10
Note: BS, broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
Table 2. Yield and yield components of rice plants under three planting methods.
Planting MethodsYield ComponentsYield (kg ha−1)
Effective Panicle Number per m2Spikelets per PaniclePercentage Seed Set (%)1000-Grain Weight (g)TheoreticalActual
BS295 b146 b95.5 a23.8 ab8251.5 c7790.7 c
SL332 a160 b89.6 b25.4 a10,278.0 b9105.2 b
TR324 a203 a91.0 b22.7 b11,538.0 a10,390.0 a
Note: In the ‘Effective panicle number’ column, ‘Effective’ indicates the number of panicles per m2 that contained rice seeds at harvest. BS, broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting. Means in rows followed by different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05 (n = 9).
Table 3. Correlation coefficients between yield and yield components.
Yield ComponentsCorrelation Coefficient
x2x3x4y
Effective panicle number per m2 (x1)−0.02060.6226−0.16960.5572
Spikelets per panicle (x2) 0.7674−0.43380.7952 *
Seed setting rate (x3) −0.5645
1000-grain weight (x4) −0.4365
* p < 0.05.
Table 4. Production cost of rice under three planting methods.
Planting MethodsCost of Production (US Dollars ha−1)
SeedsLaborFertilizerPesticidesMechanicsIrrigationOthers
BS338.35517.29293.23186.02180.45100.0012.03
SL203.01460.90293.23186.02263.16100.0012.03
TR81.20827.07315.79186.02190.98129.3265.41
Note: BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting. Seeds: the quantity of TR, SL and BS is 90, 225, and 375 kg/ha respectively. Labor: compared with SL and BS, TR requires more labor to transplant seedlings. Fertilizer: under TR, fertilizer also needs to be applied when raising seedlings and the cost is slightly higher than the SL and BS. Mechanics: there is little difference between BS and TR, while SL requires machinery for sowing. Irrigation: TR needs irrigation in the process of seedling raising, so it is higher than the BS and SL. Others: TR has more investment in the process of seedling raising (mainly the construction of seedling-raising sheds).
Table 5. Cost of production, income, and benefit-to-cost ratio of rice production under three planting methods.
表 5. 三種種植方式下水稻生產的生產成本、收入及效益成本比。
Planting Methods 種植方法Cost and Income (US Dollars ha−1)
成本和收入(美元 ha −1
Benefit-Cost Ratio 效益成本比
Cost of Production 生產成本Income 收入Net Income 淨利
BS1627.43280.31652.92.02
SL1518.33833.82315.42.52
TR1795.84374.72578.92.44
Note: ‘Benefit-to-cost ratio’ indicates the ratio of ‘income’ to ‘cost of production’. BS, Broadcast sowing; SL, sowing in line; TR, transplanting.
註:「成本效益比」表示「收入」與「生產成本」的比率。 BS,撒播; SL,行播; TR,移植。
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MDPI and ACS Style MDPI 和 ACS 風格

Mai, W.; Abliz, B.; Xue, X. Increased Number of Spikelets per Panicle Is the Main Factor in Higher Yield of Transplanted vs. Direct-Seeded Rice. Agronomy 2021, 11, 2479. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479
麥,W.;阿布利茲,B.;薛,X。農業學2021 , 11 , 2479. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479

AMA Style AMA風格

Mai W, Abliz B, Xue X. Increased Number of Spikelets per Panicle Is the Main Factor in Higher Yield of Transplanted vs. Direct-Seeded Rice. Agronomy. 2021; 11(12):2479. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479
Mai W,Abliz B,Xue X。農學。 2021 年; 11(12):2479。 https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479

Chicago/Turabian Style 芝加哥/圖拉比安風格

Mai, Wenxuan, Buhailiqem Abliz, and Xiangrong Xue. 2021. "Increased Number of Spikelets per Panicle Is the Main Factor in Higher Yield of Transplanted vs. Direct-Seeded Rice" Agronomy 11, no. 12: 2479. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11122479
麥文軒、Buhailiqem Abliz、薛向榮。 2021.「每穗小穗數量的增加是移植水稻與直播水稻產量較高的主要因素」農學11,第 1 期。 12:2479。

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