沉浸式翻译长安都柏林国际交通学院
乡村和景观规划
讲师：助理教授 Ana Peric Momcilovic 博士
中国乡村规划体系
姓名：沈开元
UCD编号：20206902
字数：2170
6月 1， 2023
内容
4. 参考文献 13
介绍
农村、农业和农民一直是中国历史上统治者关注的焦点。尽管每个历史时期的农村治理主题和内容各不相同，但它始终遵循中国统治者的基本逻辑（Liu，2019）。在当代中国， 随着1980年代以来的经济繁荣，城市化水平迅速提高，而农村地区的发展滞后。为促进农村发展，中国政府在农村开展政治经济结构调整，促进农村发展。此外，近年来，针对以《乡村振兴战略》（国家发展和改革委，2021）和《中 华人民共和国宪法》（国家发展和改革委，2016）为代表的农村问题，中国政府提出了一系列政策，以解决困扰中国农村近2000年的贫困问题。
本文在详细考察中国农村规划体系的基础上，认为研究中国乡村规划体系有利于探索中国乡村规划建设的有效性，发现中国乡村规划体系面临的挑战，为世界乡村规划提供参考。
中国农村发展：全面概述
中国乡村规划的主要特点
上下文功能
具体的政治经济环境深刻地影响了中国的农村计划体系。在社会主义制度下，中国共产党的领导是一切工作的前提，对农村治理者有效。 吴（2019）指出，党和国家在改变中国农村治理方面发挥着至关重要的作用。在政治方面，自1980年代以来，村民自治在中国农村广泛实行，使村民自治成为农村政治生活的主体，标志着农村治理进入了法制、民主和现代化的轨道（Liu，2019）。因此，以市场为导向的改革和村民自治的实施使利益相关者能够获得争夺利益的权力。另一方面，中国政府直接推动了农村治理改革。例如，村民自治的农村治理改革的实施是由政府推动的，代表政府在农村规划体系中的主导作用达到了极致（Yu & Xu，2018）。
在 经济方面，中国农村最显著的变化是生产力和生产关系的转变。家庭土地管理与农村经济活动多样化，为农村放松管制和民主改革奠定了经济基础（Tilt，2008）。此外，中国在经济体系中实行市场社会主义，这意味着政府在经济建设中发挥主导作用，而市场在资源配置和服务中负责（Zhao & L ü，2019）。 这保证了农村经济在国家领导下的健康发展，进一步使农村地区在全球市场上竞争。
农村政策的历史概况
根据Zhang（2008）的研究，中国农村政策可分为三个阶段。根据 历史因素和社会环境的不同影响，中国农村政策呈现出“自治-集体化-政府主导自治”的变化趋势。表1显示了 中国农村政策随时间推移的显著变化。
表 1. 中国农村政策的不同阶段和特点. 资料来源：Zhang et al.， 2008
农村规划的主导方法
中国农村规划的主要方法是政治经济学方法，其中“后生产主义”和“差异化农村”方法占主导地位（Lowe，2005）。换言之，政治经济学方法不是只考虑景观和农业的功能方法，而是强调地方政治和地方权力斗争来研究农村的变化。在中国，随着1980年代开始的市场动荡，新的多样性和差异化模式正在农村空间中出现。由于生产性农业的衰落，农村被视为一种资产。在不断变化的形势下， 中国利用了通勤集水区之外的“有争议的”农村，这意味着政府在调整农村作为唯一土地所有者的现有功能方面发挥主导政治作用，旨在使 农村有利于国民经济增长。
农村政策中强调的具体方面
中国农村政策中强调的特别方面是经济。改革开放前，高度集中的农村治理模式抑制了农村生产力的发展，使我国农村经济濒临崩溃。为了解决这些问题，政府在1978年后将重点转向经济建设，主要关注农村地区的经济体制改革，旨在促进农村经济发展和解放农村生产力（Zhao & L ü，2019）。如图1所示，改革开放以来，中国农业总产值稳步增长。
Figure 1. The total agricultural output value of China (from 1978 to 2022). Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2023
图 1.中国农业总产值（1978-2022年）。资料来源：中国国家统计局，2023
In addition, China abolished the agricultural tax in place for over 2,000 years in 2006, meaning farmers no longer have to pay agriculture-related taxes to the state. This reduces the heavy burden on farmers and indicates that the Chinese government puts rural economic development in a higher position.
此外，中国在2006年废除了实施了2000多年的农业税，这意味着农民不再需要向国家缴纳与农业有关的税款。这减轻了农民的沉重负担，表明中国政府把农村经济发展放在了更高的位置。
Contemporary rural development in China
中国当代乡村发展
Institutional framework
体制框架
After the reform in the 1980s, the institutional framework of rural planning in China became a ternary structure represented by the grassroots organization of the Communist Party of China, the government and the villagers, Table 2 indicates the specific institutional framework in rural China.
1980年代改革后，我国乡村规划制度框架成为以中国共产党、政府、村民为代表的三元结构，表2显示了中国农村的具体制度框架。
表 2. The institutional
机构 framework of rural planning system in China.
中国农村规划体系框架. Source: Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 1988
资料来源：全国人民代表大会常务委员会，1988年
Under the ternary authority structure, the grassroots organization of the Communist Party of China plays a core role in rural planning. The Organic Law of the Villagers' Committees of the People's Republic of China (Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, 1988) points out that grassroots organizations of the CPC should follow the Constitution, support villagers in carrying out self-governance activities and play core roles in leadership.
在三元权威结构下，中国共产党的基层组织在农村规划中发挥着核心作用。《中华人民共和国村民委员会组织法》（全国人民代表大会常务委员会，1988年）指出，中国共产党基层组织要遵守宪法，支持村民开展自治活动，发挥领导核心作用。
At the national level, the government of rural planning system consists of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA) and the National Rural Revitalization Bureau (NRRB), which regulate the process and direction of rural governance reform through political, economic and legal means. At the local level, the township party committees and township governments mainly oversee rural planning. In practice, as there are no government agencies in villages, the local government usually sends party and government officials to villages to guide village planning and governance, aiming to manage and supervise villages on behalf of the higher government (Yu & Xu, 2018).
在国家层面，农村计划系统政府由农业农村事务部（MARA）和国家乡村振兴局（NRRB）组成，它们通过政治、经济和法律手段规范农村治理改革的进程和方向。在地方一级，乡镇党委和乡政府主要监督农村规划。在实践中，由于村庄没有政府机构，地方政府通常派党政府官员到村庄指导村庄规划和治理，旨在代表上级政府管理和监督村庄（Yu & Xu，2018）。
Besides, villagers have played an essential role in China's rural planning system. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China (National People's Congress, 1982) defines the legal status of villagers' autonomy. Overall, the ternary authority structure lays the institutional foundation for the modernization and democratization of China's rural planning system.
此外，村民在中国农村规划体系中发挥了重要作用。中华人民共和国宪法（1982年全国人民代表大会）规定了村民自治的法律地位。总的说来，三元权力结构为我国农村计划体制的现代化和民主化奠定了制度基础。
Under the ternary authority structure, the authorities to govern the rural area are the Village Committee and the Village Party Branch. The Village Committee is responsible for managing village-level affairs and protecting villagers' fundamental rights and interests. All villagers elect its members, and the director of the Village Committee is the leader of this department. The Village Party Branch is the grassroots organization of the CPC in rural areas, responsible for implementing the Party's policies. Its members are drawn from all party members in the specific rural area, and the Village Branch's Secretary is the department's leader. In practice, the joint meeting of the two is the highest authority of the village and they often work together to achieve the effectiveness of rural governance (Wu, 2019).
在三元权力结构下，管理农村的机构是村委会和村党支部。村委会负责管理村级事务，保护村民基本权益。所有村民选举其成员，村委会主任是该部门的领导。村党支部是中国共产党在农村的基层组织，负责贯彻党的政策。其成员从特定农村地区的所有党员中选拔，村支部书记是部门负责人。在实践中，两者的联席会议是村庄的最高权力机构，他们经常共同努力实现农村治理的有效性（Wu，2019）。
Regulative framework
监管框架
As Figure 2 shows, the regulative framework of the contemporary rural system in China mainly consists of land use regulations, rural development policies, environmental regulations and rural welfare policies, aiming to promote sustainable development in rural areas (State Council of the People's Republic of China, 2018). Among them, rural development policies are the most critical.
如图2所示，中国当代农村制度的规范框架主要由土地使用法规、农村发展政策、环境法规和农村福利政策组成，旨在促进农村地区的可持续发展（中华人民共和国国务院，2018）。其中，农村发展政策最为关键。
Figure 2. The regulative framework of the rural planning system in China. Source: State Council of the People's Republic of China, 2018
图2.中国农村计划体系的规范框架。资料来源：中华人民共和国国务院，2018年
As mentioned earlier, economics is the focus when it comes to Chinese rural development. The Chinese government has introduced a series of rural development policies, aiming at promoting rural modernization, improving farmers' living standards and easing social contradictions. Among these policies, the most important strategic instruments are Rural Revitalization Strategy (National Development and Reform Commission, 2021) and Constitution of the People's Republic of China (National Development and Reform Commission, 2016).
如前所述，经济是中国农村发展的重点。中国政府出台了一系列农村发展政策，旨在推进农村现代化建设，提高农民生活水平，缓解社会矛盾。在这些政策中，最重要的战略工具是《乡村振兴战略》（国家发展和改革委员会，2021年）和《中华人民共和国宪法》（国家发展和改革委员会，2016年）。
To solve the problems of backward agricultural production and poor living standards of villagers, the Chinese government proposed Rural Revitalization Strategy (National Development and Reform Commission, 2021) in 2018. The strategy mainly includes promoting structural reform on the supply side of agriculture, pushing agricultural modernization, strengthening rural infrastructure construction, facilitating industrial poverty alleviation and talent leadership. In addition, the main focus of the policy is improving the quality and efficiency of agricultural development, building a modern agricultural industrial system and promoting an industrial revolution in rural areas (State Council of the People's Republic of China, 2018). The strategy could accelerate the modernization process of the countryside through policy instruments, promote the upgrading of the agricultural industrial structure, and facilitate the development of the rural economy and the integration of urban and rural areas (National Development and Reform Commission, 2018).
为解决农业生产落后、村民生活水平低下的问题，中国政府于2018年提出了《乡村振兴战略》（国家发展和改革委，2021）。该战略主要包括推进农业供给侧结构性改革、推进农业现代化、加强农村基础设施建设、促进工业扶贫和人才引领等。此外，该政策的主要重点是提高农业发展的质量和效率，构建现代农业产业体系，促进农村地区的工业革命（中华人民共和国国务院，2018）。该战略可以通过政策工具加速农村现代化进程，促进农业产业结构升级，促进农村经济发展和城乡融合（国家发展和改革委员会，2018）。
Poverty Eradication Strategy (National Development and Reform Commission, 2016) is dedicated to eradicating the poverty that has plagued rural China for thousands of years. Launched in 2015, the strategy's main components include the implementation of precise poverty alleviation, the development of special industries and the provision of basic public services. The core of the strategy is the precise alleviation of poverty in rural areas (National Development and Reform Commission, 2016). The strategy aims to improve the living standards and well-being of rural residents through policy instruments and incentives to achieve common prosperity.
《消除贫困战略》（国家发展和改革委，2016年）致力于消除困扰中国农村数千年的贫困。该战略于2015年启动，主要内容包括实施精准扶贫、发展特色产业和提供基本公共服务。该战略的核心是精准扶贫农村（国家发展和改革委员会，2016）。该战略旨在通过政策手段和激励措施提高农村居民的生活水平和福祉，以实现共同富裕。
Discussion
讨论
Factors Influencing the evolution of rural policy creation in China
影响中国农村政策制定演变的因素
3.1.1 Global factors
3.1.1 全球因素
The international situation profoundly influences contemporary Chinese rural policy creation. On the economic front, the easing of relations between China and the Western countries after the 1980s has expanded the Chinese international market, especially after China acceded to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001. The changes in international markets gave Chinese agricultural exports and the rural economy more development opportunities, shifting the Chinese planned economic system to market-oriented (Liu, 2019). In addition, the wave of economic glocalization has led to an influx of investment into China's rural areas, and the establishment of many township enterprises has shifted the rural from the single agricultural function to the diversified one. The resulting competition between different stakeholders in the countryside has contributed to democratizing policies in rural areas (Wu, 2019).
国际形势深刻影响着当代中国农村政策的制定。在经济方面，1980年代后中国与西方国家关系的缓和扩大了中国的国际市场，特别是在2001年中国加入世界贸易组织（WTO）之后。国际市场的变化为中国农产品出口和农村经济提供了更多的发展机会，使中国的计划经济体系向市场化转变（Liu，2019）。此外，经济全球本土化浪潮带动投资涌入中国农村，许多乡镇企业的建立使农村从单一的农业功能向多元化的农业功能转变。由此产生的农村不同利益攸关方之间的竞争促进了农村地区政策的民主化（Wu，2019）。
On the political front, the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe in the 1990s prompted China to abandon the Soviet model and shift towards market economy (Zhang, 2008), which promotes the gradual relaxation of strict government control over the countryside. Most recently, the Chinese government has created a series of rural development policies to maintain the stability of the rural economy in response to the deteriorating global economic situation caused by the trade friction between the US and China and the new epidemic in recent years.
在政治方面，1990年代东欧的剧变促使中国放弃苏联模式，转向市场经济（Zhang，2008），这促进了政府对农村的严格控制的逐步放松。最近，中国政府制定了一系列农村发展政策，以维护农村经济的稳定，以应对近年来中美贸易摩擦和新冠疫情导致的全球经济形势恶化。
Domestic factors
国内因素
The urgent need for economic development is the critical domestic factor for contemporary rural policy creation. Chang (2021) points out that long-standing political movements and the oppression of peasant production incentives by high levels of collectivization before the 1980s caused inadequate supply of agricultural products and no guarantee for peasants’ subsistence, which seriously affected social stability. As a result, Chinese rural policy has been overhauled, with official policy shifting from directive to guiding and no longer directly interfering in rural activities, aiming to liberate and develop rural productivity. Nowadays, the reformed rural governance model and planning strategy play positive roles in promoting the development of China's rural areas.
经济发展的迫切需求是制定当代农村政策的关键国内因素。Chang（2021）指出，1980年代之前长期的政治运动和高度集体化对农民生产激励的压制，导致农产品供应不足，农民生存无保障，严重影响了社会稳定。因此，中国的农村政策进行了全面改革，官方政策由指令性转向指导性，不再直接干预农村活动，旨在解放和发展农村生产力。如今，改革后的农村治理模式和规划战略对促进我国农村发展发挥了积极作用。
In addition, the market-oriented reform promoted the change of content of Chinese rural policy. After the 1980s, as the market economy replaced the planned economy and the boom of township enterprise, the content of Chinese rural policies shifted from only focusing on agricultural production to promoting comprehensive economic development in rural areas, aiming to improve the living standards of rural areas and realize rural revitalization (Zhao & Lü, 2019).
此外，市场化改革促进了我国农村政策内容的转变。1980年代以后，随着市场经济取代计划经济和乡镇企业的繁荣，中国农村政策的内容从只关注农业生产转向促进农村地区经济综合发展，旨在提高农村生活水平，实现乡村振兴（Zhao & Lü，2019）。
Challenges of rural policy implementation in China
中国农村政策实施面临的挑战
The existing Chinese rural policy has contributed to the economic development of rural areas, improved the living standards of people in rural areas and safeguarded the political rights of peasants. However, there are challenges to the current rural policy in China.
中国现行的农村政策促进了农村经济发展，提高了农村人民的生活水平，保障了农民的政治权利。然而，中国目前的农村政策也存在挑战。
On the political front, firstly, there is difficult to reconcile the relationship between the Village Party Branch and the Villagers' Committee. They often constrain each other in dealing with village affairs because of their similar functions and equal status. The relationship between the two committees in rural areas has become a key factor seriously affecting the stability and development of rural society. In a few places, conflicts between the two committees have led to financial chaos and rural affairs' desolation which even evolved into confrontation and conflict between villagers and the government (Yu & Xu, 2018). Secondly, villagers' autonomy lacks support in rural areas. Zhang (2008) points out that villagers' autonomy in China is not endogenous but rather the result of state forces driving it under the national legal system. In other words, there is an inertia in Chinese rural areas to implement villagers' autonomy policies, making the rural democratic system just a formality and a few elites the monopoly of power in some places.
在政治方面，首先，村党支部和村民委员会的关系难以调和。他们在处理村务时往往相互制约，因为他们的职能相似，地位平等。两委在农村的关系，已成为严重影响农村社会稳定与发展的关键因素。在一些地方，两个委员会之间的冲突导致了财政混乱和农村事务的荒凉，甚至演变成村民与政府之间的对抗和冲突（Yu & Xu，2018）。其次，农村缺乏村民自治支持。Zhang（2008）指出，中国村民的自治不是内生的，而是国家力量在国家法律制度下推动的结果。换言之，中国农村地区在实施村民自治政策方面存在惯性，使农村民主制度成为一种形式，少数精英在一些地方垄断了权力。
In economic terms, the loss of population in rural areas is another challenge of implementing the rural policy. As Figure 3 shows, the large number of opportunities generated by China's rapid urban economic development has led to a massive labor exodus from rural areas (Zhao & Lü, 2019). The lack of labor is a serious constraint to the development of rural areas, even though the country has implemented policies to attract talent to help rural development such as Rural Revitalization Strategy. However, current policies cannot reverse this trend of population mobility. In other words, the rapid growth of the urban economy has constrained the implementation of rural development policy.
从经济角度来看，农村地区人口的流失是实施农村政策的另一个挑战。如图3所示，中国城市经济的快速发展带来了大量机会，导致大量劳动力从农村地区外流（Zhao & Lü，2019）。劳动力匮乏严重制约了农村地区的发展，尽管该国实施了农村振兴战略等吸引人才帮助农村发展的政策。然而，目前的政策无法扭转这种人口流动的趋势。换言之，城市经济的快速增长制约了农村发展政策的实施。
Figure 3. Chinese Rural Population and Outflow Rate (from 1978 to 2017). Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2018
图3.中国农村人口和流出率（1978-2017）。资料来源：中国国家统计局，2018
Overall, through significant political and economic restructuring, Chinese rural is moving in a freer and more prosperous direction. Although economic and political challenges struggle Chinese rural system, by deepening the reform of the rural governance system, implementing the existing rural development strategies and adhering to the market-oriented direction of rural areas, China will eventually establish a nationwide modern rural governance system.
总体而言，通过重大的政治和经济结构调整，中国农村正朝着更自由、更繁荣的方向发展。尽管经济和政治挑战困扰着中国农村制度，但通过深化农村治理体制改革，落实现有农村发展战略，坚持农村市场化方向，中国最终将建立起全国性的现代农村治理体系。
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