Introduction  导言

Questions of authenticity in relation to art have greatly exercised the public imagination in recent years both within the art world and, more broadly, within the popular press. This interest has been demonstrated by higher-than-expected attendance at a number of exhibitions (some of which have been highly contentious) addressing material, as well as conceptual, authenticity and privileging connoisseurship and the processes of attribution and authentication.
近年来，无论是在艺术界，还是在更广泛的大众媒体中，与艺术相关的真实性问题都极大地激发了公众的想象力。许多展览（其中一些极具争议性）都涉及物质和概念上的真实性问题，并将鉴赏家身份和归属与鉴定过程置于优先地位，这些展览的入场人数超出预期，就证明了公众的这种兴趣。

At a fundamental level, understanding the concept of material authenticity when applied to art involves acquiring knowledge of the physical condition of art objects. Beginning with empirical observations about the materials, techniques, condition and configuration of an artwork, to establishing a date and an attribution by means of such observations in conjunction with available documentation, the art expert, researcher or connoisseur aims to attribute works of art to specific periods and regions of production, and to suggest an artist, designer or maker. This process can be fraught with difficulties. Provenance can be extremely helpful, as can other forms of contextual information, along with a knowledge of how objects were restored, altered and reproduced over time, as well as when they came into and went out of fashion. Understanding conceptual authenticity is a more subtle and complex process. Some of the chapters in this book lead the reader toward a consideration of more abstract questions: what is the relationship between authenticity and originality; can the notion of authenticity be applied to subject matter and/or style; what constitutes either inauthentic or authentic presentation and display of artworks; is the copy or replica less authentic than the original; and, finally, can an object be materially authentic but conceptually inauthentic?
从根本上说，要理解艺术品的材料真实性概念，就必须了解艺术品的实际状况。艺术专家、研究人员或鉴赏家首先要对艺术品的材料、技术、状况和构造进行实证观察，然后结合现有文献资料，通过这些观察来确定日期和归属，目的是将艺术品归属于特定的生产时期和地区，并提出艺术家、设计者或制作者。这一过程可能充满困难。出处和其他形式的背景信息，以及关于文物随着时间的推移是如何修复、改动和复制的知识，还有它们何时进入和退出时尚舞台的知识，都会非常有帮助。理解概念上的真实性是一个更加微妙和复杂的过程。本书的一些章节引导读者思考一些更为抽象的问题：真实性与原创性之间的关系是什么；真实性的概念是否可以应用于主题和/或风格；什么构成了艺术品的非真实性或真实性的展示和陈列；复制品或仿制品是否不如原件真实；最后，一件物品是否可以是物质上真实但概念上不真实的？

The intense levels of debate surrounding certain attributions can arouse much public interest since they may involve enormous sums of money and, on occasion, lawsuits. This debate has been showcased in recent exhibitions at the National Gallery, London in 2010 and 2011, and in an exhibition of 2010 held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and curated by the art and antiques unit of Scotland Yard, who deal with art fraud in Britain. This exhibition generated so much public interest that it had to be extended. In France, examples of a more conceptual approach to authenticity include 'Seconde Main' (or, 'Second Hand') at the Musée d'Art Moderne in Paris in 2010, which focused on the reappropriation of copying by modern and contemporary artists.
围绕某些作品归属的激烈争论可能会引起公众的极大兴趣，因为它们可能涉及巨额资金，有时还会引发诉讼。2010 年和 2011 年在伦敦国家美术馆举办的展览，以及 2010 年在伦敦维多利亚与艾尔伯特博物馆举办的由苏格兰场艺术品和古董部门策划的展览都展示了这一争论。这次展览引起了公众的极大兴趣，不得不延长展览时间。在法国，2010 年在巴黎现代艺术博物馆举办的 "Seconde Main"（或 "Second Hand"）展览就采用了更加概念化的方法来处理真伪问题，该展览重点关注现代和当代艺术家对临摹作品的再利用。

In the press, interest and excitement around such exhibitions tends to relate to the detection of fraud and echoes the public fascination with market forces and the frequently large sums of money at stake in the reattribution of an artwork. Media perception of the public's interest in such matters centres around the notion that people take a certain satisfaction in seeing experts fooled. Arguably, this fascination is heightened by museums' own traditional coyness about such matters. The exhibitions mentioned above, therefore, make a refreshing change and offer a glimpse behind the façade of cultural authority. Added to the 'whodunit?' focus of the exhibitions might be the public's interest in the aesthetic qualities of the 'inauthentic' work. This phenomenon posits value as a function of aesthetic success as, for example, with respect to the Etruscan Warrior, a famous fake owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York; it applies equally to the Amarna Princess by Shaun Greenhalgh, the so-called Bolton Forger, which was exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 2010. Therefore, if the art establishment does not authenticate a work, or, worse still, declares it a fake, does it then also appear to withhold permission for the public to derive enjoyment from the work? In other words, to what extent does the construction of authenticity by a recognised authority determine public enjoyment of an artwork?
在新闻界，人们对此类展览的兴趣和兴奋点往往与欺诈行为的侦破有关，并与公众对市场力量的迷恋以及在艺术品重新归属过程中经常涉及的巨额资金相呼应。 媒体认为公众对此类事件的兴趣主要集中在这样一种观念上，即人们看到专家被愚弄会感到某种满足。可以说，博物馆自身对此类问题的传统讳莫如深，更加剧了这种迷恋。因此，上述展览给人耳目一新的感觉，让人们得以一窥文化权威表象背后的真相。除了展览的 "悬疑 "焦点之外，公众可能还对 "非真品 "的美学品质感兴趣。例如，纽约大都会艺术博物馆拥有的著名赝品《伊特鲁里亚勇士》；这一现象同样适用于 2010 年在维多利亚与阿尔伯特博物馆展出的被称为博尔顿伪造者的肖恩-格林哈尔的《阿玛尔纳公主》。因此，如果艺术机构不鉴定一件作品的真伪，或者更糟糕的是宣布其为赝品，那么它是否也似乎不允许公众欣赏这件作品呢？换句话说，一个公认的权威机构对艺术品真伪的判定在多大程度上决定了公众对艺术品的欣赏？

In the 'academy' - a term which, in this context, denotes tertiary institutions of learning and cultural institutions such as museums - interest is located around issues of quality and the task of determining the authenticity of an artwork via the processes of connoisseurship and ascertained provenance, contextual understanding and, more recently, technical and scientific testing. One chapter in this book, by Morgan Wesley, explores the way in which scientific materialism in the modern age - that is, since the late nineteenth century - has sought proof of authenticity via the most up-to-date technical and scientific processes. Most recently, IT specialists have begun to develop computer programmes intended to authenticate artworks, although it remains to be seel whether such methods will stand the test of time. Moreover, such
在 "学院"--在这里指高等学府和博物馆等文化机构--中，人们的兴趣围绕着艺术品的质量问题，以及通过鉴赏和确定出处、背景理解以及最近的技术和科学测试来确定艺术品真伪的任务。本书中有一章由摩根-韦斯利（Morgan Wesley）撰写，探讨了现代--即十九世纪末以来--科学唯物主义如何通过最新的技术和科学程序来证明艺术品的真实性。最近，信息技术专家开始开发用于鉴定艺术品真伪的计算机程序，尽管这些方法是否经得起时间的考验还有待观察。此外，这些
processes need to work in concert with connoisseurship in order to achieve meaningful results. These are all means by which the cultural authority of a work of art may be constructed. However, this approach has been challenged by contemporary artists who understand the concept of authenticity in a different way, as demonstrated in Anthony Downey's chapter on the postmodern artist Elaine Sturtevant.
这些过程需要与鉴赏力协同工作，才能取得有意义的结果。这些都是构建艺术品文化权威的手段。然而，正如安东尼-多尼（Anthony Downey）在介绍后现代艺术家伊莱恩-斯特万特（Elaine Sturtevant）的章节中所展示的那样，这种方法受到了当代艺术家的挑战，他们以不同的方式理解真实性的概念。

This book, then, will explore themes and definitions of authenticity as applied to a wide range of artworks drawn from different historical periods. Beginning with connoisseurship as a cornerstone for assessing material authenticity, we then move on to consider empirical and quasi-scientific analysis, before finally engaging with more philosophical and theoretical understandings. The essays quickly move beyond the question of 'What is a fake?' towards more subtle and nuanced understandings of authenticity. This book ultimately suggests that there are many kinds of authenticity, given the complex circumstances surrounding the creation and afterlife of works of art.
因此，本书将探讨适用于不同历史时期的各种艺术品的真实性的主题和定义。首先，鉴赏家精神是评估材料真伪的基石，然后，我们将考虑实证分析和准科学分析，最后，我们将探讨更具哲学和理论意义的理解。这些文章很快就超越了 "什么是赝品 "的问题，转向对真伪的更微妙、更细致的理解。本书最终提出，鉴于艺术品的创作和来世所处的复杂环境，真伪有很多种。

The Oxford English Dictionary defines a connoisseur as 'a person with a thorough knowledge and critical understanding of a subject'. Connoisseurship, 'with its suggestion of interiorised understanding', had by the 1970 s become associated with the dilettante and also, perhaps, with the notion that, being subjective, it cannot easily be taught. Much art history over the last forty years has reacted against this tradition of connoisseurship. Since the 1950s a number of scholars, including Edgar Wind and Erwin Panofsky, have engaged in a critique of some of the approaches associated with authenticating artworks - namely, connoisseurship and attribution. From the 1970s academic interest in this subject waned, but more recently there has been renewed interest in the field both within the academy as well as in the public sphere, as we shall see in the following case studies.
牛津英语词典》将 "鉴赏家 "定义为 "对某一主题有透彻了解和批判性理解的人"。 1970年代，"鉴赏家精神"{{1}"带有内化理解的意味"，{{2}已经与 "业余爱好者 "联系在一起，或许还与 "鉴赏家精神是主观的，不容易传授 "的观念联系在一起。过去四十年来，许多艺术史都对这种鉴赏传统做出了反击。自 20 世纪 50 年代以来，包括埃德加-温德（Edgar Wind）和埃尔温-帕诺夫斯基（Erwin Panofsky）在内的许多学者都参与了对与鉴定艺术品相关的一些方法--即鉴赏和归属--的批判。从 20 世纪 70 年代起，学术界对这一主题的兴趣逐渐减弱，但最近，无论是在学术界还是在公共领域，人们对这一领域的兴趣又重新燃起，我们将在以下案例研究中看到这一点。

Connoisseurship, then, is one long-established way of validating the material authenticity of an artwork. Embedded within the idea of connoisseurship are the vital processes of attribution and authentication which are an integral part of the work of museum curators and dealers. These processes can have a profound impact on the art market, as seen in the chapter by David Bellingham on the connoisseurial debate surrounding works attributed to the Dutch artist Frans Hals. The role of the connoisseur is to attribute authorship, validate authenticity and appraise quality. The strengths of this approach, as well as its pitfalls, were demonstrated in the exhibition 'Close Examination: Fakes, Mistakes and Discoveries' at the National Gallery in London in 2010. In the accompanying publication, A Closer Look: Deceptions and Discoveries, Marjorie E. Wieseman outlined the manner in which contemporary connoisseurship works in conjunction with art historical, contextual and technical research. Together they can be extraordinarily effective in determining authenticity. This was a courageous exhibition, for the National Gallery reattributed works, in some cases de-authenticating them - and, by implication, devaluing them. What is now considered an 'ambitious attribution' of a portrait acquired in 1845 and attributed to Hans Holbein the Younger was, after a close formal and technical examination, thought to be a misattribution; surprisingly, this ultimately led to the resignation of the gallery's curator at the time, Charles Lock Eastlake. Subsequent archival information and scientific testing confirmed the nineteenthcentury mistake.
因此，鉴赏家身份是验证艺术品物质真实性的一种历史悠久的方式。蕴含在鉴赏家概念中的是重要的归属和鉴定过程，这是博物馆馆长和经销商工作中不可或缺的一部分。这些过程会对艺术市场产生深远影响，正如大卫-贝林厄姆（David Bellingham）围绕荷兰艺术家弗兰斯-哈尔斯（Frans Hals）作品的鉴赏辩论所撰写的章节所述。鉴赏家的职责是确定作者身份、验证真伪和评估质量。近距离审视 "展览展示了这种方法的优势及其缺陷：2010年在伦敦国家美术馆举办的 "赝品、错误和发现 "展览中，这种方法的优势和缺陷都得到了展示。在随附的出版物《近距离观察：赝品、错误和发现》中，杰弗里-斯图尔特（Jeff S. St：威斯曼（Marjorie E. Wieseman）概述了当代鉴赏与艺术史、背景和技术研究相结合的方式。这三者结合在一起，可以非常有效地确定真伪。这是一次勇敢的展览，因为国家美术馆对作品进行了重新归属，在某些情况下取消了作品的真实性--这意味着贬低了作品的价值。1845年购入的一幅肖像画被认为是小汉斯-霍尔拜因（Hans Holbein the Younger）的作品，现在被认为是 "野心勃勃的归属"，但经过严密的形式和技术审查后，人们认为这是一个错误的归属；令人惊讶的是，这最终导致了当时的美术馆馆长查尔斯-洛克-伊斯特莱克（Charles Lock Eastlake）辞职。 随后的档案信息和科学检测证实了这一十九世纪的错误。

Various understandings of what it means for an artwork to be authentic affect both cultural and monetary appraisal systems of artworks, particularly with respect to Old Master paintings. Art market professionals and collectors together with, on occasion, museum curators are frequently intent on validating art objects not only as autographic but also as prototypal works by the artist. A case in point is the art market, which particularly values works that are autographic and thus can be securely attributed to a particular artist, as well as works that are prototypal - that is, both typical and considered primary examples of that artist's oeuvre. The National Gallery's exhibition, then, reminded us that museums are both the bastions and the gatekeepers of authenticity. Replications, whether by studio apprentices or copies made at a later date, are currently considered of fractional market value, although the issue is more complex in relation to contemporary art, as we shall see.
对艺术品真迹含义的各种理解影响着艺术品的文化和货币评估体系，尤其是对古代大师画作的评估。艺术品市场的专业人士和收藏家，有时还有博物馆的馆长，往往不仅要确认艺术品的真伪，还要确认其是否为艺术家的原型作品。艺术市场就是一个很好的例子，它特别看重那些具有亲笔签名的作品，因为这些作品可以确定是某位艺术家的作品，同时也看重那些具有原型的作品--也就是说，这些作品既典型又被认为是该艺术家作品的主要范例。因此，国家美术馆的展览提醒我们，博物馆既是真实性的堡垒，也是真实性的守门人。复制品，无论是工作室学徒的作品，还是后来制作的复制品，目前都被认为市场价值不高，尽管这个问题在当代艺术中更为复杂，我们将会看到这一点。

[On] visiting a friend in Switzerland, he opened a drawer and found himself looking at an unframed drawing of a young girl in profile, wearing Renaissance costume; 'my heart started to beat a million times a minute. I immediately thought this could be a Florentine artist. The idea of Leonardo came to me in a flash ... but I dared not speak the L-word.' 6
[在]拜访瑞士的一位朋友时，他打开抽屉，发现自己正在看一幅未装裱的画，画中是一位身着文艺复兴时期服装的少女侧面。我立刻想到这可能是一位佛罗伦萨艺术家的作品。莱昂纳多的想法瞬间涌上心头......但我不敢说L这个词。6

Is it wishful thinking 'to attribute an unsigned drawing with no signature or substantial provenance to one of the greatest masters of the Renaissance'?
将一幅没有署名或实质性出处的绘画归功于文艺复兴时期最伟大的大师之一"，这是一厢情愿的想法吗？

The drawing referred to is of a young woman with her hair and clothing in a style fashionable in Renaissance Milan, where Leonardo da Vinci was based during the 1490s (fig. 1). It first came to light in a Christie's sale in New York of January 1998, where it was catalogued as 'German school early 19th century' and sold as the 'property of a lady' for , a high price for an unknown drawing of the German school. It was bought by a New York dealer who exhibited it in 2007 with a label stating that it was based on paintings by Leonardo da Vinci and may have been made by a German artist. The dealer, Peter Silverman, who purchased it in 2007 , followed a conventional process of authentication once he had formed his own view of the drawing. The process typically evolves in three stages. In the first stage the owner (or dealer) shows the work to a restorer in order to assess the degree to which restoration has obscured the original work. In other words, stage one involves establishing its physical authenticity. In the case of this drawing, it emerged that it had undergone little subsequent restoration.
图中画的是一位年轻女性，她的发型和服装在文艺复兴时期的米兰很流行，达芬奇在 1490 年代曾在米兰工作（图 1）。 这幅作品首次曝光是在 1998 年 1 月纽约佳士得拍卖会上，当时它被编入 "19 世纪早期德国画派 "目录，并作为 "一位女士的财产 "以 {{1} 的价格售出。｝作为 "一位女士的财产"，该作品以 {{1} 的高价拍出，这对于一幅德国画派的无名画作来说是一个高价。 这幅画被纽约的一位画商买走，并在 2007 年展出，标签上写着这幅画是根据达芬奇的画作创作的，可能是一位德国艺术家的作品。彼得-西尔弗曼（Peter Silverman）于 2007 年购买了这幅画，他对这幅画形成自己的看法后，便按照传统的程序进行鉴定。鉴定过程通常分为三个阶段。在第一阶段，作品所有者（或经销商）向修复师展示作品，以评估修复在多大程度上掩盖了原作。 换句话说，第一阶段是确定作品的实物真实性。就这幅画而言，它后来几乎没有经过修复。

The second step in the process of authentication is to ensure the support of a recognised expert - generally a member of the 'academy' - in order to endorse the work. One expert became convinced that the drawing was by Leonardo and advised Silverman to progress to the next, or third, step of having a detailed technical analysis made of the work. In the event, Silverman had both the pigments and the vellum analysed. Both were dated between 1440 and 1650, thereby confirming that the drawing could have been made during Leonardo's
鉴定过程的第二步是确保得到一位公认的专家--通常是 "学院 "的成员--的支持，以认可该作品。一位专家确信这幅画出自莱昂纳多之手，并建议西尔弗曼进入下一步，也就是第三步，对作品进行详细的技术分析。最终，西尔弗曼对颜料和牛皮纸都进行了分析。这两样东西的年代都在 1440 年至 1650 年之间，从而证实了这幅画可能是莱昂纳多在 1440 年至 1650 年期间创作的。
lifetime, although a forger could certainly have reused piece of vellum. The drawing lacks a provenance, or estald history of ownership, which is usually helpful in supporting authenticity. In March 2008 it was shown to Martin Kemp, Emeritus Professor of the History of Art at the University of Oxford, and a distinguished Leonardo da Vinci scholar. After a thorough examination of the work and an analysis of the drawing, composition, iconography and pigments, Kemp gradually became convinced that the work was an authentic drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. This was potentially a tremendously exciting discovery since it was the first major work by this artist to emerge for over a century. Kemp then spent a year researching the drawing and establishing further contextual evidence, most notably the identity of the sitter. In the autumn 2009 he announced to colleagues and the press that he considere the drawing authentic. He named the portrait La Bella Principes (or, the Beautiful Princess) and identified her as a member of the Sforza, the ruling family of Milan for whom Leonardo worked during part of his career.
虽然伪造者肯定会重新使用牛皮纸，但这幅画的作者是有生之年。这幅画缺乏出处或所有权历史，而这通常有助于证明其真实性。2008 年 3 月，牛津大学艺术史名誉教授、著名的达芬奇学者马丁-坎普（Martin Kemp）看到了这幅画。在对这幅作品进行了全面检查，并对绘画、构图、图标和颜料进行分析后，坎普逐渐确信这幅作品是达芬奇的真迹。这可能是一个非常令人兴奋的发现，因为这是一个多世纪以来出现的第一件这位艺术家的重要作品。随后，肯普花了一年时间研究这幅画，并进一步确定了背景证据，其中最重要的是确定了画中人物的身份。2009 年秋天，他向同事和媒体宣布，他认为这幅画是真实的。他将这幅肖像画命名为《美丽的公主》（La Bella Principes），并确认她是斯福尔扎家族的成员，斯福尔扎家族是米兰的统治家族，莱昂纳多曾为该家族工作过一段时间。

Kemp acknowledged that there was no single piece of evidence to prove conclusively that the drawing is by Leonardo, but he cited a number of factors to support his conclusions. A key part of his analysis was the left-handed hatching evident on the drawing (Leonardo, of course, was left-handed). Multispectral imaging was done in Paris in the laboratory of Lumière Technology by Pascal Cotte (fig. 2). This analysis revealed pentimenti (changes) and made it possible to look more closely at the pigments and the left-handed hatching around the face. Other kinds of evidence for the drawing's authenticity were put forward. A fingerprint identified by a forensic scientist was said to be a very close match to one found on Leonardo's painting of St Jerome in the Vatican. Such a fingerprint analysis might appear to be the ultimate test of authenticity, confirming in a 'forensic' manner that an artist was present at the moment of manufacture. However, this part of the process has recently come into question and is the subject of a current debate.
坎普承认，没有任何一项证据能最终证明这幅画出自莱昂纳多之手，但他列举了一些因素来支持他的结论。 他的分析的一个关键部分是这幅画上明显的左手镂空（当然，莱昂纳多是左撇子）。帕斯卡尔-科特（Pascal Cotte）在巴黎卢米埃技术实验室完成了多光谱成像（图 2）。 这项分析揭示了五色变化（pentimenti），使我们能够更仔细地观察颜料和脸部周围的左撇子皴法。还有其他证据证明了这幅画的真实性。据说，法医鉴定出的一枚指纹与梵蒂冈的莱昂纳多画作《圣杰罗姆》上的指纹非常吻合。这种指纹分析似乎是对真伪的终极检验，它以 "法医 "的方式确认了艺术家在创作时在场。然而，这部分工作最近受到质疑，成为当前辩论的主题。

To further fuel the intense media interest in this unfolding narrative, the owner of the work prior to 1998 filed papers in
为了进一步激发媒体对这一事件的浓厚兴趣，1998 年之前该作品的所有者向美国联邦法院提交了文件。

Fig. 1: La Bella Principessa, late 15th century, chalk, pen, ink and wash tint on vellum, . Private Collection
图 1：《美丽的公主》，15 世纪晚期，牛皮纸上的粉笔、钢笔、墨水和水墨色调， 。.私人收藏

Attributed in 1988 to an unnamed artist of the early 19th-century German school, the drawing was subject to intense media interest in 2009 when it was declared an authentic Leonardo. The attribution remains controversial.
1988 年，这幅画被认为是 19 世纪早期德国画派的一位无名艺术家所作，2009 年，当这幅画被宣布为莱昂纳多的真迹时，引起了媒体的强烈关注。这幅画的归属仍存在争议。
a New York federal court accusing Christie's auction house of failing to 'exercise due care', failing to utilise appropriate scientific technology to determine the true identity of the drawing, failing to recognise the drawing as genuine, and selling it for 'a small fraction of its actual value', citing as evidence the discovery of the fingerprint. Christie's responded by pointing out that the attribution had still not been established and was questioned by a number of Leonardo experts. In other words, the opinion of the academy about this drawing is far from unanimous. Ultimately, connoisseurship relies upon a body of expert opinion and a consensus from the majority of experts. At the time of writing, the authentication of La Bella Principessa has not achieved this consensus from the majority of Leonardo experts. A great deal of material evidence surrounding this drawing has been generated by technical and scientific examinations, but the majority of experts remain unconvinced that there is sufficient established context with which to conclusively establish its authenticity.
纽约联邦法院以发现指纹为证据，指控佳士得拍卖行未能 "尽到应有的注意义务"，未能利用适当的科学技术确定画作的真实身份，未能识别画作的真伪，并以 "实际价值的一小部分 "的价格出售画作。 佳士得拍卖行在回应中指出，这幅画的归属仍未确定，并受到了多位莱昂纳多专家的质疑。换句话说，学术界对这幅画的看法远非一致。归根结底，鉴赏依靠的是专家意见和大多数专家的共识。在撰写本报告时，《美丽的公主》的鉴定尚未取得大多数莱昂纳多专家的共识。围绕这幅画的大量物证已通过技术和科学检查获得，但大多数专家仍不相信有足够的既定背景来最终确定其真实性。

In the foreword to their book on this subject, Martin Kemp and Pascal Cotte confurmed that, in spite of initial interest from major museums and galleries, all declined to exhibit the drawing for fear of being compromised. That is, the inclusion of La Bella Principessa in a major exhibition would serve to legitimise the authorship of the drawing and lend weight to a process of sale. It was not included in the National Gallery of London's major exhibition, Leonardo da Vinci: Painter at the Court of Milan, in 2011-12. The gallery's director, Nicholas Penny, when introducing Martin Kemp's lecture on this painting at the National Gallery in June 2010, formally disassociated the National Gallery or its trustees from any views expressed in the lecture and went on to dispute the authenticity of the painting while also acknowledging that he had not, in fact, seen the work. Klaus Schröder, director of the Albertina Museum in Vienna, refused to exhibit the drawing, telling the American publication Art News: 'We are not convinced that it is an authentic drawing by Leonardo. It was examined by our own research centre, our curators, our restoration department, and the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts. No one is convinced it is a Leonardo.' Therefore, there appears to be no consensus among established experts for authenticating the drawing.
马丁-坎普（Martin Kemp）和帕斯卡尔-科特（Pascal Cotte）在其相关著作的前言中坦言，尽管各大博物馆和美术馆最初对这幅画很感兴趣，但都因担心画作受损而拒绝展出。也就是说，在大型展览中展出《美丽的公主》会使这幅画的作者身份合法化，并为出售过程增加砝码。在伦敦国家美术馆于 2011-12 年举办的大型展览 "达芬奇：米兰宫廷画家 "中，这幅画没有被展出。2010 年 6 月，国家美术馆馆长尼古拉斯-彭尼（Nicholas Penny）在国家美术馆介绍马丁-坎普（Martin Kemp）关于这幅画的讲座时，正式表示国家美术馆或其受托人与讲座中表达的任何观点无关，并继续质疑这幅画的真实性，同时也承认他事实上并未见过这幅作品。维也纳阿尔贝蒂娜博物馆馆长克劳斯-施罗德（Klaus Schröder）拒绝展出这幅画，并告诉美国出版物《艺术新闻》："我们不相信这幅画是真的：我们不相信这是莱昂纳多的真迹。我们自己的研究中心、我们的策展人、我们的修复部门以及维也纳美术学院都对这幅画进行了研究。没有人相信它是莱昂纳多的作品。因此，在鉴定这幅画的真伪方面，专家们似乎没有达成共识。
The considerable media excitement over the 'discovery' of this drawing, possibly by Leonardo da Vinci, illuminates some of the issues involved in authenticating artworks, especially those by major artists who command spectacular prices on the art market. The unfolding narrative regarding the authentication of the drawing referred to above has included the academy, the museum and gallery world, the marketplace, including art dealers and auction houses, and the law courts (especially in the United States). It reminds us that, traditionally, both the academy and the museum world have been uncomfortable with discussions about the monetary value of art and the art market, in general. If the authentication of La Bella Principessa should be accepted as secure, dealers in the United States estimate that the valuation of the drawing could be as high as million (approximately million).
媒体对这幅可能出自达芬奇之手的绘画的 "发现 "相当兴奋，这说明了在鉴定艺术品，特别是那些在艺术市场上价格惊人的大艺术家的作品时所涉及的一些问题。关于上述绘画作品的鉴定问题，学术界、博物馆和画廊界、市场（包括艺术品经销商和拍卖行）以及法院（尤其是美国的法院）都在争论不休。这提醒我们，传统上，学术界和博物馆界对艺术品的货币价值和艺术品市场的讨论都感到不自在。如果《La Bella Principessa》的鉴定被认为是可靠的，那么美国的交易商估计这幅画的估价可能高达 万（约 万）。

The role of the museums in the process of authentication is an interesting one, for museums play a vital role in promoting the acceptance of artworks as authentic. Experts tend to avoid liability not by stating a work is inauthentic, but rather by confirming that a work will (or will not) be included in the forthcoming catalogue of a major exhibition of an artist's work. The striking comparison here is with the oil painting, Salvator Mundi, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci and included in the 2011-12 exhibition at the National Gallery in London. This painting had been over-painted in the nineteenth century, with the face and background particularly badly done, and there had been some later surface abrasion. It was, according to The Art Newspaper in November 2011, the quality of the painting which led to its reassessment as a genuine Leonardo. The consensus among experts is that this painting is by the master, making it the sixteenth extant painting by Leonardo, and carrying an astonishing potential value of million. The reasons for this consensus are integrally associated with connoisseurship, provenance, and scientific and technical examinations. The current owners have assured the National Gallery that it will not come onto the market in the shorter term. This is an important
博物馆在鉴定过程中的作用很有意思，因为博物馆在促使人们接受艺术品为真品方面起着至关重要的作用。专家们往往不是通过声明某件作品为非真品来避免责任，而是通过确认某件作品将（或不将）被收录在某位艺术家作品大型展览的即将出版的目录中来避免责任。 与此形成鲜明对比的是油画《救世主》，这幅画被认为是达芬奇的作品，并被列入伦敦国家美术馆 2011-12 年的展览。这幅油画在十九世纪被涂抹过多颜料，面部和背景尤其严重，而且后来表面出现了一些磨损。据《艺术报》2011 年 11 月报道，正是这幅画的质量使其被重新评估为莱昂纳多的真迹。 专家们一致认为，这幅画出自莱昂纳多之手，是现存莱昂纳多的第 16 幅画作，其潜在价值高达惊人的 百万美元。达成这一共识的原因与鉴赏力、出处以及科学和技术检验密不可分。目前的所有者已向国家美术馆保证，该作品短期内不会流入市场。这是一个重要的

Fig. 2: La Bella Principessa, late 15th century, chalk, pen, ink and wash tint on vellum, . Private Collection, Lumière Technology labs This multispectral image made it possible to closely examine the pigments, left-handed hatching and pentimenti.
图 2：《美丽的公主》，15 世纪晚期，牛皮纸上的粉笔、钢笔、墨水和水墨色调， 。.私人收藏，卢米埃技术实验室 这幅多光谱图像使我们能够仔细观察颜料、左手划线和五线谱。

commitment to make as a public institution such as the National Gallery cannot be seen to be lending weight to a process of sale and, in effect, manipulating market value.
作为像国家美术馆这样的公共机构，我们不能将其承诺视为对销售过程的支持，实际上是对市场价值的操纵。

In his assessment of La Bella Principessa, Martin Kemp has brought into play scientific testing, alongside his own connoisseurship and scholarship, in order to establish the authenticity of the drawing. However, in his lecture at the National Gallery in 2010, Kemp acknowledged that, even if the drawing were not by the hand of the master, it remains a beautiful object in its own right, affording great visual pleasure to the viewer. Therefore, it could be argued that the drawing retains an authentic aesthetic integrity, regardless of the yet to be established facts of its authorship and dating.
马丁-肯普在对《美丽的公主》进行评估时，除了运用自己的鉴赏力和学识外，还进行了科学测试，以确定这幅画的真实性。不过，坎普在 2010 年国家美术馆的演讲中承认，即使这幅画不是出自大师之手，它本身也是一件精美的艺术品，能给观众带来极大的视觉享受。因此，可以说这幅画保留了真实的美学完整性，无论其作者和年代如何，都是有待确定的事实。

In July 2010 the entire issue of the Burlington Magazine was devoted to 'Attributions, Copies and Fakes'- in other words, to the pursuit of authenticity, a reminder that the academy is once again becoming more interested in this arena. On the cover of the magazine was a 1930s photograph of a notorious forgery of Christ and the Disciples at Emmaus, supposedly by the Dutch artist Jan Vermeer, but in actuality the work of the now-famous forger, Han van Meegeren (fig. 3). To the right of the photograph sits the Dutch connoisseur and museum director Dirk Hannema, who bought this work, with the restorer H. G. Luitwieler on the left. Abraham Bredius, the renowned curator, collector and scholar of seventeenth-century Dutch art, exclaimed at the perfect condition of this work when he saw it, opining that it appeared 'just as if it had left the painter's studio!' This unintended irony was in fact extremely accurate, given the painting had just left the forger, van Meegeren's, studio. The forgery was uncovered through a combination of scientific and technical evidence, together with van Meegeren's confession. It is known as one of the great blunders of twentieth-century art historical scholarship. Intertwined in a discussion of the creation of fakes in relation to authenticity is another imperative: the need to distinguish between the authentic and the original. That is, a work may not be authentic in terms of its authorship and period, but it may be an original artwork or a copy by another (generally later) artist which gives genuine pleasure to its viewers. Therefore one can still have an authentic aesthetic response to a work, as Bredius did, regardless of questions of authorship, dating and circumstance.
2010年7月，《伯灵顿杂志》以 "归属、复制品和赝品 "为主题，换句话说，就是对真伪的追求，这提醒人们，学院派再次对这一领域产生了浓厚的兴趣。杂志封面上是一张 20 世纪 30 年代的照片，照片上是一幅臭名昭著的伪作《基督与门徒在以马忤斯》，据说是荷兰艺术家扬-维米尔（Jan Vermeer）的作品，但实际上是现在臭名昭著的伪造者 Han van Meegeren 的作品（图 3）。照片右侧坐着荷兰鉴赏家兼博物馆馆长德克-汉内马（Dirk Hannema），他买下了这幅作品，左侧是修复师 H. G. Luitwieler。著名策展人、收藏家和十七世纪荷兰艺术学者亚伯拉罕-布雷迪乌斯（Abraham Bredius）在看到这件作品时，对其完美的状态赞叹不已，认为它 "就像刚从画家的工作室里出来一样！" 。{{0}"这种无心的讽刺实际上是非常准确的，因为这幅画刚刚离开伪造者凡-米格伦（van Meegeren）的工作室。通过科学和技术证据的结合，再加上范-米热伦的供词，这幅伪作被揭露了出来。这幅画被称为二十世纪艺术史研究的一大失误。在讨论赝品的创作与真伪的关系时，还必须考虑到另一个问题：区分真品与原作的必要性。也就是说，一件作品在作者和时代方面可能不是真迹，但它可能是一件原作，也可能是另一位（一般是后来的）艺术家的摹本，给观众带来了真正的愉悦。因此，无论作品的作者、年代和环境如何，人们仍然可以像布雷迪厄斯那样对作品产生真实的审美反应。

The six authors within the first section of this book all address aspects of material authenticity in various ways, and by means of a range of tools that include illustrations and copies, documentary and technical evidence, and historical context. One question researchers have grappled with is whether illustrations of artworks which no longer survive can be relied upon for accuracy, and therefore, as sources of knowledge about lost material.
本书第一部分的六位作者都以不同的方式探讨了材料真实性的各个方面，并使用了一系列工具，包括插图和复制品、文献和技术证据以及历史背景。研究人员一直在努力解决的一个问题是，已不复存在的艺术品的插图在准确性方面是否值得信赖，因此是否可以作为失传材料的知识来源。

In Chapter 1 David Bellingham examines the complex interrelationship between understandings of authenticity and the art market. Via a case study of the re-attribution and authentication of a painting by the Dutch artist Frans Hals, Bellingham explores the dialogue between connoisseurship and science which is crucial to our understanding of authenticity. Bellingham takes us through the process of authentication by experts in different countries and of differing opinions, and he demonstrates how this process of debate, in the absence of a firm consensus among the 'academy', has a direct impact on the market's response to such works.
在第一章中，大卫-贝林厄姆探讨了对真实性的理解与艺术市场之间复杂的相互关系。贝林厄姆通过对荷兰艺术家弗兰斯-哈尔斯（Frans Hals）的一幅画作重新归属和鉴定的案例研究，探讨了鉴赏与科学之间的对话，这对我们理解真伪至关重要。贝林厄姆带领我们了解了不同国家和不同观点的专家进行鉴定的过程，并展示了在 "学术界 "没有达成坚定共识的情况下，这一辩论过程是如何对市场对此类作品的反应产生直接影响的。

Morgan Wesley picks up the dialogue between connoisseurship and science in Chapter 2 with respect to the formerly unattributed and little-known 'Buckingham jars' at Burghley House in Lincolnshire. The field of historic ceramics is full of puzzles and previously misattributed works. While using these small, highly decorated jars as a case study, Wesley leads us through an examination of the history and development of the processes of attribution and authentication over time. In considering the intersection of a variety of empirical, technical, and contextual sources of information, Wesley sheds light on how new knowledge is established in the field of decorative art.
摩根-韦斯利（Morgan Wesley）在第二章中继续探讨鉴赏与科学之间的对话，涉及林肯郡伯格利宅邸以前未曾归属且鲜为人知的 "白金汉罐"。历史陶瓷领域充满了谜团和以前错误归属的作品。韦斯利以这些装饰精美的小罐为案例，带领我们考察了归属和鉴定过程的历史和发展。通过考虑各种经验、技术和背景信息来源的交叉，韦斯利揭示了装饰艺术领域新知识的建立过程。

Sophie von der Goltz's chapter is more narrowly focused on a particular example: it is a case study of how multiple approaches can be applied to the process of establishing whether illustrations
索菲-冯-德-戈尔茨（Sophie von der Goltz）的这一章更狭隘地聚焦于一个特定的例子：它是一个案例研究，说明如何将多种方法应用于确定插图是否
represent documentary evidence for lost material culture. Her discussion begins with an examination of a sixteenth-century book of fashion plates published in Venice. As surviving costumes from this period are extremely rare, von der Goltz tests the accuracy of the engraved plates by reconstructing a garment based directly on these illustrations. She then goes on to examine other forms of evidence for their authenticity, including the clothing depicted in contemporary Venetian paintings by leading artists like Titian, and the context of contemporary Venetian society.
是失落的物质文化的文献证据。她的讨论从研究一本十六世纪威尼斯出版的时装图版书开始。由于现存的这一时期的服装极为罕见，von der Goltz 直接根据这些插图重建了一件服装，以检验雕版的准确性。然后，她又研究了其他形式的证据，包括提香等著名艺术家在当代威尼斯绘画中描绘的服装，以及当代威尼斯社会的背景，以证明这些服装的真实性。

In the next chapter, Noël Riley addresses the phenomenon of practitioners continuing to use well-established forms and ornament over time, even when they are no longer new or cutting edge. This characterises many traditional forms of art and design which often run in parallel with avant-garde movements. In considering the career of the little-known woodcarver Ernest Beckwith, working in rural England during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Riley argues for the authenticity of traditional design and materials, a theme of great interest to figures such as John Ruskin and William Morris during the nineteenth century and an alternative to the relentless search for the 'new'.
在下一章中，诺埃尔-莱利谈到了这样一种现象，即从业者长期以来一直在继续使用已确立的形式和装饰，即使这些形式和装饰已不再新颖或前沿。这是许多传统艺术和设计形式的特点，它们往往与前卫运动并行不悖。19 世纪末和 20 世纪初，欧内斯特-贝克维斯（Ernest Beckwith）在英格兰乡村从事木雕工作，他的职业生涯鲜为人知。莱利认为，传统设计和材料的真实性是约翰-罗斯金和威廉-莫里斯等人在 19 世纪非常感兴趣的主题，也是对 "新 "的不懈追求的一种替代。

There are multiple viewpoints from which the phenomenon of authenticity can be addressed. Chapter 5, by Barbara Lasic, moves us into the realm of replication and reproduction of artworks, although none of the material she discusses was created with the intent to deceive. Can it, therefore, be considered as 'authentic'? She looks at the deliberate commissioning of replicas as a way in which the South Kensington Museum (now the Victoria and Albert Museum) extended its didactic reach as a centre for the teaching of good design. Lasic explains the ways in which the museum displayed replicas alongside 'genuine' art objects, thereby blurring the boundaries between the authentic and the inauthentic, and describes how the museum deployed photography as a critical tool for investigating authenticity.
我们可以从多个角度来探讨真实性现象。芭芭拉-拉西奇（Barbara Lasic）撰写的第 5 章将我们带入了艺术品的复制和再现领域，尽管她所讨论的材料都不是以欺骗为目的而创作的。因此，这些作品能被视为 "真品 "吗？她研究了南肯辛顿博物馆（现为维多利亚与艾尔伯特博物馆）作为优秀设计教学中心而故意委托制作复制品的方式，以此扩大其说教范围。拉西奇解释了博物馆如何将复制品与 "真正的 "艺术品放在一起展示，从而模糊了真品与非真品之间的界限，并描述了博物馆如何将摄影作为研究真伪的重要工具。

Bernard Vere continues the discussion of replication and recreation in his chapter on reconstructed artists' studios, an increasingly common museum phenomenon in recent years. In recreating the studios of Francis Bacon and Edward Paolozzi, for example, within museum settings, these institutions are following a modernist attitude towards authenticity and the genius of the artist, whereby the process of inspiration and creation of the artwork is emphasised. These meticulously reconstructed studios contain the artist's authentic physical objects, but they are located in an inauthentic setting and are frozen in time, injecting an inauthentic note into these museum interiors, no matter how exact their recreation. Vere's chapter on the seeming paradox of inauthentic authenticity closes the first section of the book.
Bernard Vere 在他关于重建艺术家工作室的章节中继续讨论了复制和再现问题，这是近年来越来越常见的博物馆现象。例如，在博物馆内重建弗朗西斯-培根（Francis Bacon）和爱德华-保罗齐（Edward Paolozzi）的工作室，这些机构遵循的是现代主义对真实性和艺术家天才的态度，即强调艺术作品的灵感和创作过程。这些经过精心重建的工作室包含了艺术家的真实实物，但它们所处的环境并不真实，时间也凝固了，这就为这些博物馆的内部装饰注入了不真实的气息，无论它们的再现多么精确。Vere 关于 "不真实的真实性 "这一貌似悖论的章节结束了本书的第一部分。

Therefore, during the writing of this book, it became apparent that authenticity is a multilayered phenomenon. Questions which at first may seem straightforward lead the researcher into more complex territory. For example, in order to determine that the 'Buckingham jars' may be important early examples of European porcelain, it is first necessary to determine what constitutes 'authentic' porcelain. Some questions lead immediately into more abstract terrain. As Bernard Vere argues, what might seem initially to be a straightforward and authentic recreation of an artist's studio becomes either inauthentic, or a reconstruction which is represented as authentic. Vere conceptually dismantles this reconstruction process in order to demonstrate its multivalent interpretations, as we move from material authenticity to authenticity of a more conceptual nature.
因此，在本书的写作过程中，我们发现真实性是一个多层次的现象。起初看似简单明了的问题会将研究者带入更为复杂的领域。例如，为了确定 "白金汉宫罐 "可能是欧洲早期瓷器的重要典范，首先必须确定什么是 "正宗 "瓷器。有些问题会立即引向更为抽象的领域。正如伯纳德-维尔（Bernard Vere）所言，最初看似直接、真实地再现艺术家工作室的作品，要么变得不真实，要么被重建为真实的作品。当我们从物质的真实性转向更具概念性质的真实性时，Vere 从概念上拆解了这一重建过程，以展示其多面性的解释。

The advent of new media such as photography, film, or more recently the Internet has had an enormous impact on contemporary understandings of the work of art. In the 19600 an 1970s a number of artists challenged the definitions of authors and originality within an economy of mass production. One of the most notable groups was Art and Language, a group of arbuge writers and academics formed in the late 1960 s. Art and Lang the adopted a conceptual approach and 'created works identical in originals which would come to embody postm particular, appropriationism in the eighties. act in a
摄影、电影或最近的互联网等新媒体的出现，对当代人理解艺术作品产生了巨大影响。在 19600 年和 1970 年代，一些艺术家对大规模生产经济中的作者和原创性的定义提出了挑战。其中最著名的团体之一是 "艺术与语言"（Art and Language），这是一个由作家和学者组成的团体，成立于20世纪60年代末。"艺术与语言 "采用一种概念化的方法，"创作出与原作完全相同的作品，这些作品在80年代体现了后特殊主义和挪用主义。 }的行为

In the twenty-first century, the remake may act the origin subversive manner to undermine the authenticity of notions of work. This 'disturbance' raises questions about not's chapter 'authenticity' and 'masterpiece'. Anthony Downey's chap
在 21 世纪，翻拍可能会以颠覆性的方式破坏作品概念的真实性。这种 "干扰 "引发了对 "真实性 "和 "杰作 "的质疑。安东尼-多尼的作品
reminds us that many artists, notably Elaine Sturtevant, reproduced and reinterpreted artists such as Marcel Duchamp and Andy Warhol, and separated the notion of authenticity from originality. Sturtevant deconstructs for us the idea that a copy is necessarily a paler imitation. Her work is, as Downey makes clear, a rigorous investigation into the limits of terms such as authenticity and reminds us that the idealisation of authenticity in the twentieth century should be questioned. Perhaps the comparison might be with the cinematic remake or the interpretation of a musical score, neither of which are regarded as inauthentic in contemporary culture.
提醒我们，许多艺术家，尤其是伊莱恩-斯图尔特万特（Elaine Sturtevant），对马塞尔-杜尚（Marcel Duchamp）和安迪-沃霍尔（Andy Warhol）等艺术家进行了复制和重新诠释，并将真实性与原创性的概念区分开来。Sturtevant 为我们解构了 "复制品必然是更苍白的仿制品 "这一观点。正如多尼明确指出的那样，她的作品对真实性等术语的局限性进行了严格的研究，并提醒我们二十世纪对真实性的理想化应该受到质疑。或许可以将其与电影翻拍或乐谱诠释进行比较，在当代文化中，这两者都不被认为是不真实的。

As the director of the Whitechapel Art Gallery, Iwona Blazwick, has remarked, in the twenty-first century authenticity is perceived by avant-garde artists to reside in the 'archive'. Here Blazwick refers to the archive as that body of information wherein reside key reference points and historical information which armies, political juntas, regimes and individuals may have attempted to obliterate. The archive can exist both literally, in visual and literary form such as in film, photography and documentation or, in a more abstract sense, via memory and oral tradition. For artists born and brought up in places as diverse as Chile, Lebanon, Russia, Afghanistan, China and the former Yugoslavia, the only authenticity they feel they can rely on is that which resides in the archive.
正如白教堂艺术馆馆长 Iwona Blazwick 所说，在二十一世纪，前卫艺术家认为真实性存在于 "档案 "中。在这里，Blazwick 指的 "档案 "是指那些被军队、政治团体、政权和个人试图抹去的关键参考点和历史信息。档案既可以以电影、摄影和文献等视觉和文学形式存在，也可以通过记忆和口述传统等更抽象的方式存在。对于在智利、黎巴嫩、俄罗斯、阿富汗、中国和前南斯拉夫等不同地方出生和长大的艺术家来说，他们认为唯一可以依赖的真实性就是档案中的内容。

In Chapter 8, Lis Darby addresses issues of authorship, authenticity and originality within the field of contemporary design. Taking the Dutch designer Maarten Baas' Smoke series as a case study, she argues that, in relation to contemporary design, an object is seldom the product of one artist's creativity and imagination. In an increasingly globalised world it is accepted that a designer is subject to a multiplicity of influences. Designers frequently work with archetypes so that a work may reference the past and have a sense of cultural authenticity. However, individual authenticity may be more elusive, particularly given that contemporary designers must often work in collaboration and often do not participate in the physical production of their work. Their work may possess material authenticity and conceptual authenticity at the same time, although the designer is typically more involved with the latter. The converse situation applies to Ernest Beckwith (discussed in Chapter 4), who painstakingly produced his woodcarvings by hand in his own workshop but generally used the designs of others.
在第8章中，里斯-达比探讨了当代设计领域中的作者身份、真实性和原创性问题。她以荷兰设计师马腾-巴斯（Maarten Baas）的 "烟雾"（Smoke）系列为案例，认为就当代设计而言，一件物品很少是一位艺术家的创造力和想象力的产物。在一个日益全球化的世界里，设计师受到多重影响已成为共识。设计师经常使用原型进行创作，这样作品就可以参考过去，并具有文化的真实感。然而，个人的真实性可能更加难以捉摸，特别是考虑到当代设计师必须经常与他人合作，而且往往不参与作品的实际制作。他们的作品可能同时具有物质真实性和概念真实性，尽管设计师通常更多地参与后者。欧内斯特-贝克维斯（Ernest Beckwith）的情况恰恰相反（见第4章），他在自己的作坊里煞费苦心地手工制作木雕，但一般都使用他人的设计。

Megan Aldrich's chapter reminds us of the search for an authentic style in nineteenth-century England, where the gothic tradition could be regarded as more authentically English than the invocation of the classical. The authenticity of this style was validated by associations with past personages and historical events. Our understanding today of medieval architecture distinguishes Anglo-Saxon from gothic. However, in 1805 John Soane created a gothic library at Stowe House in Buckinghamshire which is a combination of different medieval and post-medieval styles - a conflation which occurs by virtue of the particular associations and meanings that these styles had for the owner of the house. Such a misreading of the past was exacerbated by misunderstandings about the date and origins of particular types of furniture. To this end ebony furniture from southeast Asia was authenticated as Tudor by the great connoisseur Horace Walpole. One could conclude that, physically, the furniture was inauthentic, but conceptually it was authentic. Here we have a process of authentication by historical association - the search for objects and designs which carried a particular historical resonance for the nineteenth century.
梅根-奥尔德里奇（Megan Aldrich）在这一章中提醒我们，在十九世纪的英国，人们一直在寻找一种真实的风格，在英国，哥特式传统被认为比引用古典风格更能体现真实的英国风格。这种风格的真实性通过与过去的人物和历史事件的联系得到了验证。今天，我们对中世纪建筑的理解将盎格鲁-撒克逊建筑与哥特式建筑区分开来。然而，1805 年，约翰-索恩在白金汉郡的斯托庄园建造了一座哥特式图书馆，它融合了不同的中世纪和中世纪后的风格--这种混淆是由于这些风格对于庄园主人的特殊联想和意义。对特定类型家具的年代和来源的误解加剧了这种对过去的误读。为此，来自东南亚的乌木家具被大鉴赏家霍勒斯-沃波尔（Horace Walpole）鉴定为都铎时期的家具。我们可以得出这样的结论：从实物上看，这些家具是不真实的，但从概念上看却是真实的。在这里，我们看到的是一个通过历史联想进行鉴定的过程--寻找对十九世纪具有特殊历史共鸣的物品和设计。

Both Jos Hackforth-Jones' and Jonathan Clancy's chapters engage in different ways with the relationship between works of art and reality. In Chapter 10, Hackforth-Jones considers the notion of authenticity in relation to non-European celebrity visitors to London in the eighteenth century who were painted by some of the leading portrait painters of the day, together with the various codes and conventions employed for the visual portrayal of authentic identity. This case study focuses on the seemingly authentic identity of Mai (or Omai), a Tahitian visitor to London in 1774. Mai was presented at court and proceeded to move in the first circles of society, presenting himself simultaneously (and convincingly) as both an English gentleman and a high-born Tahitian. This performance of authenticity was an extraordinary accomplishment since it was performed without words (Mai spoke little English) and was captured in Reynolds' famed portrait. The visual representations of these two identities have had an impact
乔斯-哈克福斯-琼斯（Jos Hackforth-Jones）和乔纳森-克兰西（Jonathan Clancy）的章节都以不同的方式探讨了艺术作品与现实之间的关系。在第 10 章中，Hackforth-Jones 探讨了与 18 世纪伦敦非欧洲名人游客有关的真实性概念，这些名人游客被当时一些著名的肖像画家绘制成肖像，同时还探讨了在视觉上描绘真实身份时所采用的各种规范和惯例。本案例研究的重点是 1774 年到访伦敦的大溪地游客玛伊（或奥玛伊）看似真实的身份。马伊出现在宫廷中，并开始在上流社会活动，同时（并令人信服地）以英国绅士和出身高贵的大溪地人的身份出现。这种真实的表演是一项非凡的成就，因为它是在无言的情况下完成的（迈几乎不会说英语），并被雷诺兹的著名肖像所捕捉。这两种身份的视觉呈现产生了以下影响
on the enduring popularity of this celebrated portrait. In actuality Mai came from a middling class of Raiateans and had his own agenda for visiting England. Part of the continuing appeal of this proto-Romantic portrait lies in viewers' perception of its authentic associations.
这幅著名的肖像画经久不衰的原因。实际上，麦氏出身于莱亚特的中产阶级，他访问英国有自己的目的。这幅原浪漫主义肖像画之所以持续吸引人，部分原因在于观众对其真实性的联想。

Jonathan Clancy continues this discussion of conceptual authenticity in relation to subject matter. His account of nineteenth-century American painters such as William Michael Harnett, Victor Dubreuil and John Haberle, with a focus on their visual representations of money, also engages with the issue of material authenticity. He begins by addressing the most essential questions with respect to material authenticity - that is, verism in nineteenth-century depictions of American banknotes and related issues of representation and faking. He moves on to consider broader questions being asked during this period: both 'is this real?' and 'is this art?'. Clancy also addresses the notion of conceptual authenticity in the context of the nineteenth-century debate: 'is reality a fixed truth or something merely perceived?' If there is no such thing as a fixed truth, what relevance do notions of authenticity have? Nineteenth-century anxieties over what 'authentic' might mean are, Clancy suggests, part of the spirit of the age.
乔纳森-克兰西继续讨论与主题相关的概念真实性。他对 William Michael Harnett、Victor Dubreuil 和 John Haberle 等十九世纪美国画家的描述，重点是他们对货币的视觉表现，也涉及到物质真实性的问题。他首先探讨了有关物质真实性的最基本问题--即十九世纪美国钞票描绘中的真实性以及相关的再现和伪造问题。他接着探讨了这一时期人们提出的更广泛的问题："这是真的吗？"和 "这是艺术吗？克兰西还结合十九世纪的争论探讨了概念真实性的概念："现实是固定不变的真理，还是仅仅被感知的东西？如果不存在固定的真理，那么真实性的概念又有什么意义呢？克兰西认为，十九世纪对 "真实性 "含义的焦虑是时代精神的一部分。

Finally, Natasha Degen's chapter explores the notion of conceptual authenticity vis-à-vis the art market. She argues that museums are sites of authenticity both in relation to the way in which they serve to validate the authorship of artworks and because museums also create authentic national narratives. Many museums, for example, still construct art histories in terms of national schools. With respect to contemporary art, she argues that there is now what might be called a 'new nationalism' in relation to the display of contemporary art that is part of a global corporate agenda. This relates particularly to the art of emerging countries. In their desire to forge political connections and international links, both individual nations and international corporations have the potential to compromise the ideal of the museum as a site of authenticity. In recent years, museums have been powerful agents for cultural communication between countries at a time when diplomatic and political relationships may have become strained. A case in point is the British Museum's cultural exchanges with Iran. Degen's argument is that the museum and/or the exhibition venue is further compromised by corporate sponsorship, cultural diplomacy and speculative collecting, so that inauthentic narratives in the representation of international contemporary art may emerge.
最后，娜塔莎-德根（Natasha Degen）在本章中探讨了与艺术市场相关的概念真实性概念。她认为，博物馆是真实性的场所，这一方面是因为博物馆可以确认艺术品的作者身份，另一方面是因为博物馆也创造了真实的国家叙事。例如，许多博物馆仍然以国家学校为基础构建艺术史。关于当代艺术，她认为，在展示全球企业议程中的当代艺术方面，现在可以称之为 "新民族主义"。这尤其与新兴国家的艺术有关。为了建立政治关系和国际联系，个别国家和国际公司都有可能损害博物馆作为真实性场所的理想。近年来，在外交和政治关系可能变得紧张的时候，博物馆一直是国家间文化交流的有力推动者。大英博物馆与伊朗的文化交流就是一个很好的例子。Degen 的论点是，博物馆和/或展览场所因企业赞助、文化外交和投机性收藏而进一步受到损害，因此在国际当代艺术的表现形式上可能会出现不真实的叙述。

The differing viewpoints and perspectives touched upon in this introduction arose out of a series of stimulating and enjoyable conversations not only with the various authors represented here, but also with many other interested individuals who have shared their own insights with the editors. In particular, we would like to thank our colleagues at Sotheby's Institute of Art, who enthusiastically pursued the ideas behind this project at a faculty research symposium in 2010. Whether or not they are represented in the chapters of this book, they nonetheless contributed ideas, suggestions and insights. The result is far from definitive. This remains an exploratory set of discussions which raise some interesting questions that we hope other authors will be inspired to pursue. At the time of writing, the topics of authentication of artworks, in particular, and material and conceptual authenticity, in general, continue to receive regular media attention. A recent case in point is that of the Australian artist Margaret Olley, who ney studio is being recreated hundre Tweed River Art Gallery. The archited of miles further north at the Tweed River Art Gallenstructed recently flew to Dublin to see Francis Bacon's reco blueprint for studio, which has been described in the press
本引言中涉及的不同观点和视角是在一系列令人兴奋和愉快的对话中产生的，这些对话不仅是与本文中的各位作者进行的，也是与许多其他感兴趣的人进行的，他们与编者分享了自己的见解。在此，我们要特别感谢苏富比艺术学院的同事们，他们在2010年的一次教师研究研讨会上热情地探讨了本项目背后的想法。无论本书各章节中是否有他们的身影，他们都贡献了自己的想法、建议和见解。本书的成果远非定论。这仍然是一组探索性的讨论，其中提出了一些有趣的问题，我们希望其他作者也能从中得到启发。在撰写本报告时，艺术品的鉴定，特别是材料和概念的真实性，仍然经常受到媒体的关注。最近的一个例子是澳大利亚艺术家玛格丽特-奥利（Margaret Olley）的作品，她的工作室正在特威德河艺术馆（Tweed River Art Gallery）内重建。最近，她飞往都柏林参观弗朗西斯-培根（Francis Bacon）重新设计的工作室蓝图。
the Olley reconstruction.
奥利重建。

Art authentication is, perhaps, an endlessly fascinating game, but it must be appreciated as a complex business. If there are truths that emerge from the writing and editing of the in volume, one of them would be that the notion of the a merged relation to art appears to be a cultural construct which the rise of primarily as a post-Romantic phenomenon alongside tist. Here the notion of the individual creative genius of the artist. This authenticity and originality were considered synonymous during idea of authentication as an endgame reached its heighernism and the twentieth century, particularly with regard to modernisml
艺术品鉴定也许是一场无休止的迷人游戏，但必须将其视为一项复杂的工作。如果说在本卷的写作和编辑过程中出现了一些真理的话，那么其中之一就是，与艺术的合并关系这一概念似乎是一种文化建构，它的兴起主要是作为一种后浪漫主义现象与艺术家并驾齐驱。在这里，艺术家的个人创造天才的概念。这种真实性和独创性被认为是同义词，在以鉴定为终极目标的观念达到顶峰的二十世纪，尤其是在现代主义方面。
the modernist notion of the artist as a magician/creator. Without question, the impetus to authenticate artworks in a quasi-scientific way was fuelled by the rise of the international art market. The phenomenon of twentieth-century modernism has also served to validate the notion of the superior authenticity of ritual in the process of making an artwork. With respect to African art, for example, our colleague David Levy warns against such privileging of ritual and the resultant impact of this on the value of an artwork, so that works of art perceived to have been made as part of a ritual process frequently sell for many times the price of their counterparts which are not perceived in this way. Authenticity, then, appears to be the outcome of perception.
艺术家是魔术师/创造者的现代主义观念。毫无疑问，国际艺术市场的兴起推动了以准科学的方式鉴定艺术品。二十世纪的现代主义现象也证实了艺术品制作过程中仪式的优越性。以非洲艺术为例，我们的同事戴维-利维（David Levy）对这种仪式特权及其对艺术品价值的影响提出了警告。因此，真实性似乎是感知的结果。

The twentieth century, with its emphasis on the creative hand of the individual artist, has been at odds with the Renaissance and post-Renaissance tradition, along with much non-Western and contemporary art. In these latter traditions, the replication and copying of an established model is not perceived as an inferior process but has validity in its own right. These represent very different approaches to the making of an artwork which possesses authenticity. From a traditional woodcarver in Essex, to the commissioning of copies of great works of design by the Victoria and Albert Museum in the nineteenth century, to numerous examples of contemporary art and design, many kinds of artworks continue to privilege both the copying and replication of earlier work and the notion of art as a continuous and collaborative process, albeit from very different perspectives. As editors we hope that you will find this variety of approaches to be as stimulating and rewarding as we have done, and that, far from being dismayed by the complex and multivalent nature of the field, readers of this book will be encouraged to explore further this rich and everchanging subject.
二十世纪强调艺术家个人的创造力，与文艺复兴和文艺复兴后的传统以及许多非西方和当代艺术格格不入。在后一种传统中，对既定模式的复制和抄袭并不被视为低劣的过程，而是有其自身的合理性。这些代表了制作具有真实性的艺术品的截然不同的方法。从埃塞克斯的一个传统木雕艺人，到十九世纪维多利亚与艾尔伯特博物馆（Victoria and Albert Museum）委托复制伟大的设计作品，再到众多当代艺术和设计作品，许多种类的艺术作品都在继续推崇对早期作品的临摹和复制，以及将艺术作为一个持续的合作过程的理念，尽管其视角截然不同。作为编者，我们希望您能像我们一样，发现这些不同的方法会给您带来刺激和收获，并希望本书的读者不仅不会对这一领域的复杂性和多面性感到沮丧，反而会受到鼓舞，进一步探索这一丰富而不断变化的主题。