RETRACTED: Lithuanian National Costume in the 19th Century and in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century: Cultural Pollution and Remains of Authenticity
撤回：19 世纪和 20 世纪下半叶的立陶宛民族服装：文化污染和真实性遗迹

Citation: Kumpikaitė, E.; Milašius, R. RETRACTED: Lithuanian National Costume in the 19th Century and in the 2nd Half of the 20th Century: Cultural Pollution and Remains of Authenticity. Societies 2021, 11, 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/ soc11010017
引自：Kumpikaitė， E.;Milašius， R. 撤回：19 世纪和 20 世纪下半叶的立陶宛民族服装：文化污染和真实性遗迹。社会 2021， 11， 17.https://doi.org/10.3390/ SOC11010017

Received: 10 January 2021
收稿日期： 2021-01-10
Accepted: 26 February 2021
录用日期： 2021-02-26
Published: 3 March 2021
出版日期：2021 年 3 月 3 日
Retracted: 26 July 2023
收稿日期：2023 年 7 月 26 日

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Abstract: Lithuanian authors, authors abroad, and artists have presented Lithuanian folk clothes in their works. However, the oldest examples of these representations are not very reliable, because the authors painted them according to the descriptions of other people or copied works among each other. In the 20th century, the national costume of Lithuania changed considerably. Attention was not given to ethnographic regional peculiarities; instead, similar materials were chosen without any analysis. This article performs a comparative analysis of folk (the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century) and national (the second half of the 20th century) Lithuanian costumes to establish signs of cultural pollution and remaining authenticity. Over 500 articles of clothing with different purposes are collected from Lithuanian museums. Fabric parameters, such as raw materials, weaving technique, weave, pattern, decoration elements, etc., are established. The research results show that authentic folk clothes of the 19th century differ from the national costume of the second half of the 20th century in their cut, decoration, and patterns. No differences between ethnographic regions survived in the national costumes. Thus, at present, we must preserve our tangible heritage and re-create, as authentically as possible, national costume for folk songs and dance ensembles, folk restaurants, and rural tourism homesteads.
摘要： 立陶宛作家、国外作家和艺术家在他们的作品中展示了立陶宛民间服装。然而，这些表现形式最古老的例子并不是很可靠，因为作者是根据其他人的描述或彼此之间的复制作品来绘制它们。在 20 世纪，立陶宛的民族服装发生了很大变化。没有关注人种学的地区特点;相反，他们选择了类似的材料，而没有进行任何分析。本文对民间（19 世纪至 20 世纪上半叶）和国家（20 世纪下半叶）立陶宛服装进行了比较分析，以确定文化污染和保持真实性的迹象。立陶宛博物馆收集了 500 多件不同用途的服装。建立面料参数，如原材料、编织技术、编织、图案、装饰元素等。研究结果表明，19 世纪的正宗民间服装在剪裁、装饰和图案上与 20 世纪下半叶的民族服装不同。民族服装中民族学地区之间的差异没有幸存下来。因此，目前我们必须保护我们的物质遗产，并尽可能真实地为民歌和舞蹈团、民间餐厅和乡村旅游宅基地重建民族服装。

Keywords: folk clothes; national costume; cultural pollution; weaving technique; cut; authenticity
关键词：民间服饰;民族服装;文化污染;编织技术;切;真实性

Presently, becoming citizens of “the world”, interpretations and perceptions of traditions, and the cultural and historical heritage of each country (which were significantly distorted during the Soviet period) are very important. Searching for cultural identity and the desire to investigate our cultural heritage in Lithuania alongside the manifestations of cultural pollution in Lithuanian national textiles of the second half of the 20th century and describing this authenticity to others in Europe open the possibility to save elements of folk heritage, such as the folk textiles and folk costumes of different Lithuanian ethnographic regions.
目前，成为“世界”的公民、对传统的解释和认知以及每个国家的文化和历史遗产（在苏联时期被严重扭曲）都非常重要。寻找文化身份并渴望调查我们在立陶宛的文化遗产以及 20 世纪下半叶立陶宛民族纺织品中文化污染的表现，并向欧洲的其他人描述这种真实性，这为保存民间遗产元素提供了可能性，例如立陶宛不同民族学地区的民间纺织品和民族服饰。

Ethnographers have evaluated works of artists from the second half of the 18th century to the 19th century as important iconographic materials for investigating the clothes of Lithuanian peasants. There is little information about the iconography of Lithuanian peasants’ clothes, especially in 17-18th century and earlier. Single descriptions and illustrations can be found already in sources of the 16th century-Vecellio [1], De Heer [2], illustrations of old maps-Braun and Hogenberg [3], Ortelius [4]. The oldest Lithuanian sources are from the 18th century-Smuglevičius [5], Gizevijus [6]. In the 19th century, many sources depicting and describing Lithuanian folk clothing appeared, but it was also mostly foreign (Polish, French, Russian) authors [7-13]. More detailed analysis of folk clothes began in the middle of the 20th century, when museums started to be established, scientific expeditions were organised, collections of emerging museums began to be collected. The first albums
民族志学家将 18 世纪下半叶至 19 世纪艺术家的作品评估为研究立陶宛农民服装的重要图像学材料。关于立陶宛农民服装图像的信息很少，尤其是在 17-18 世纪及更早的时候。在 16 世纪的资料中已经可以找到单一的描述和插图——韦切利奥 [1]、德·希尔 [2]、旧地图的插图——布劳恩和霍根贝格 [3]、奥特里乌斯 [4]。最古老的立陶宛资料来自 18 世纪的 Smuglevičius [5]、Gizevijus [6]。在 19 世纪，出现了许多描绘和描述立陶宛民间服装的资料，但也大多是外国（波兰、法国、俄罗斯）作者 [7-13]。对民间服装的更详细分析始于 20 世纪中叶，当时博物馆开始建立，组织了科学考察，开始收集新兴博物馆的藏品。第一张专辑
and investigations of Lithuanian folk fabrics and clothes appear only at this time. Some information is only available in single publications, such as the album of folk art called “Clothes” [14], and in the monographs and catalogues of professional artists [15], in which some works of peasants’ clothes can be found. One of the most serious researchers, Lithuanian art critic Rèklaitis, published a few articles in this field [16,17]. Important ethnographic sources on Lithuanian clothes and iconographic materials are discussed in Vyšniauskaité’s work about Lithuanians in the 9th-19th centuries [18,19]. Milius’s article, which describes authors who wrote about clothes in Lithuania Minor [20], is important for researchers. The work containing Gizevijus’s and other authors’ works is also valuable [6]. The topics of Guzevičiūtè’s works cover a longer periods [21]. Šidiškienè investigated the evolution of folk costume, the traditional clothes of Lithuania Minor, and its descriptions in books and articles [22]. Bernotaite-Beliauskienè described sheets, gloves, and socks in the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century [23,24]. Appearance [25-32], cut [26], decoration [33], territorial distribution of folk clothes are described.
而对立陶宛民间织物和服装的调查只出现在这个时候。有些信息只能在单一出版物中找到，例如名为“衣服”的民间艺术专辑 [14]，以及专业艺术家的专著和目录 [15]，其中可以找到一些农民服装的作品。立陶宛艺术评论家 Rèklaitis 是最严肃的研究者之一，他在该领域发表了几篇文章 [16,17]。Vyšniauskaité 关于 9-19 世纪立陶宛人的著作讨论了关于立陶宛服装和图像材料的重要民族志资料 [18,19]。Milius 的文章描述了在小立陶宛撰写服装的作者 [20]，对研究人员来说很重要。包含 Gizevijus 和其他作者作品的作品也很有价值 [6]。Guzevičiūtè 作品的主题涵盖较长的时期 [21]。Šidiškienè 研究了民间服装的演变、小立陶宛的传统服装及其在书籍和文章中的描述[22]。Bernotaite-Beliauskienè 描述了 18 世纪至 20 世纪初的床单、手套和袜子 [23,24]。描述了民间服装的外观 [25-32]、剪裁 [26]、装饰 [33]、地域分布。

The investigation of any cultural heritage, including folk costume, is important to each country and not only promotes folk consciousness, but also helps to better understand the evolution of world culture. This aspect of folk costume investigation is especially important to the consciousness of contemporary people, for whom it is relevant to promote folk consciousness in a European and global context in the cosmopolitan world, despite the distortions of this heritage in the second part of the 20th century. Lithuanian National Revival began in the 19th century, but the biggest changes in folk costume were when Lithuania become part of the Soviet Union, i.e., in the middle of the 20th century. Because of that reason, namely, this period is in this article. The simplest way to disseminate this folk heritage is to use folk costume without elements of cultural pollution as the clothing of folk music and dance ensembles, workers of authentic rural homesteads and restaurants, and other Lithuanian patriots. All this will help save our folk identity and use authentic clothing details in contemporary national costume. Of course, some of the 16th century sources found may not reveal a detailed difference in clothing between different regions, so it is stated that these sources reveal only general clothing trends. However, abundant sources from the 19th to the 20th centuries already provide quite detailed territorial differences in folk clothing. It should also be borne in mind that during the Soviet era, any ethnographic research was prohibited, and this was one of the causes of cultural pollution.
对任何文化遗产的调查，包括民间服饰，对每个国家都很重要，它不仅可以促进民间意识，还有助于更好地了解世界文化的演变。民间服饰研究的这一方面对当代人的意识尤为重要，对他们来说，尽管这一遗产在 20 世纪下半叶被扭曲，但在欧洲和全球背景下的国际化世界中促进民间意识是相关的。立陶宛民族复兴始于 19 世纪，但民间服饰的最大变化是立陶宛成为苏联的一部分，即 20 世纪中叶。因为那个原因，即这个时期在这篇文章中。传播这种民俗遗产的最简单方法是使用没有文化污染元素的民间服装作为民间音乐和舞蹈团、正宗农村农庄和餐馆的工人以及其他立陶宛爱国者的服装。所有这些都将有助于挽救我们的民间身份，并在当代民族服装中使用真实的服装细节。当然，找到的一些 16 世纪资料可能无法揭示不同地区之间服装的详细差异，因此可以说这些资料只揭示了一般的服装趋势。然而，从 19 世纪到 20 世纪的大量资料已经提供了相当详细的民间服装的地域差异。还应该记住，在苏联时代，任何民族志研究都是被禁止的，这是文化污染的原因之一。

The culture changes in the world were also described by contemporary anthropologists. For example, Anderson [34] examines the creation and global spread of the ‘imagined communities’ of nationality, and explores the processes that created these communities: The territorialisation of religious faiths, the decline of antique kingship, the interaction between capitalism and print, the development of secular languages-of-state, and changing conceptions of time and space.
当代人类学家也描述了世界的文化变化。例如，Anderson [34] 研究了民族“想象社区”的创建和全球传播，并探讨了创建这些社区的过程：宗教信仰的领土化、古代王权的衰落、资本主义与印刷品之间的互动、世俗国家语言的发展以及时间和空间概念的变化。

Haskell [35] begins by discussing the antiquarians of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who brought to light and interpreted as historical evidence coins, sculptures, paintings discovered in the catacombs beneath Rome, and other relics surviving from earlier ages. He explains that, in the 18th century, historians gradually began to acknowledge the significance of such visual sources and to draw on them to validate and give colour to their narratives or to utilise them as foundation stones for a new branch of learning-the history of culture.
哈斯克尔[35]首先讨论了16世纪和17世纪的古物学家，他们揭露了在罗马地下墓穴中发现的硬币、雕塑、绘画，以及早期幸存的其他遗物，并将其解释为历史证据。他解释说，在 18 世纪，历史学家逐渐开始认识到这些视觉来源的重要性，并利用它们来验证和赋予他们的叙述色彩，或者将它们用作学习新分支——文化史的基石。

Lowenthal [36] analyses the ever-changing role of the past in shaping our lives. A heritage at once nurturing and burdensome, the past allows us to make sense of the present whilst imposing powerful constraints upon how the present develops.
Lowenthal [36] 分析了过去在塑造我们生活方面不断变化的作用。过去既是养育的遗产，也是沉重的负担，它使我们能够理解现在，同时对现在的发展施加了强大的限制。

Schnapp [37] examines the development of archaeology as a science and the process by which humankind developed an understanding of its past. The discovery of the past is not just the historian’s definition of his own territory. Even the term discovery invites us to reflect on the motivation which, since the dawn of human culture and history, has led humankind to recognise, preserve and at times study the traces of his predecessors.
Schnapp [37] 研究了考古学作为一门科学的发展以及人类对其过去的理解过程。对过去的发现不仅仅是历史学家对自己领土的定义。即使是“发现”一词也邀请我们反思自人类文化和历史诞生以来，促使人类识别、保存甚至研究其前辈的痕迹的动机。

All of these authors explore the past and cultural heritage through the prism of history and anthropology, i.e., they analyse the broad history of culture, covering various tangible and intangible heritage-coins, sculptures, paintings. They explore history and heritage from ancient cultures to the present day. Meanwhile, this study focuses more on a narrower period and covers a much narrower area of tangible heritage-Lithuanian women’s peasant clothing of the 19th century-the beginning of the 20th century.
所有这些作者都通过历史和人类学的棱镜探索过去和文化遗产，即他们分析了广泛的文化历史，涵盖了各种有形和无形遗产——硬币、雕塑、绘画。他们探索从古代文化到现在的历史和遗产。同时，本研究更侧重于一个较窄的时期，并且涵盖了更狭窄的有形遗产领域——19 世纪的立陶宛妇女农民服装——20 世纪初。

This article performs a comparative analysis of folk (the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century) and national (the second half of the 20th century) Lithuanian costumes, thereby establishing signs of cultural pollution and the remaining elements of authenticity.
本文对民间（19 世纪至 20 世纪上半叶）和民族（20 世纪下半叶）立陶宛服饰进行了比较分析，从而确定了文化污染的迹象和真实性的剩余要素。

Several projects on the Lithuanian national costume were carried out in Lithuania by Savoniakaitė, Nėnienė, Šidiškienė, Bernotaitė-Beliauskienė, Jurkuvienė, etc. However, in all previous projects, only an authentic national costume and/or reconstructions of this costume were investigated. Meanwhile, this project differs in that in addition to the national costume, it also analyses the recently created national costume, which is compared with the national one, looking for errors and inaccuracies, which are recommended to be paid attention to modern national costume manufacturers.
Savoniakaitė、Nėnienė、Šidiškienė、Bernotaitė-Beliauskienė、Jurkuvienė 等在立陶宛开展了几个关于立陶宛民族服装的项目。然而，在之前的所有项目中，只调查了正宗的民族服装和/或这种服装的重建。同时，本项目的不同之处在于，除了民族服装外，它还分析了最近制作的民族服装，将其与民族服装进行比较，寻找错误和不准确之处，建议现代民族服装制造商关注。

One of the oldest pictures of Lithuanians clothing comes from the citizens of Nurnberg Heldt, who copied, with coloured pencils, many people from different sources and created 11 drawings of Lithuanian clothing types in about 1570-1580 [38]. Woodcarvings were made according to Adelhauser’s drawings [38], and three illustrations of Lithuanians were published in Cesare’s Vecellio’s book (Venece) [1]. Kossak [39] presented his drawing from the cycle “Ancient Apparel and Armor”, published in the periodical journal “Illustrated Journal”, according to Vecellio’s carving of a Lithuanian man with a soldier uniform.
最古老的立陶宛服装图片之一来自纽伦堡赫尔特 （Nurnberg Heldt） 的市民，他用彩色铅笔复制了来自不同来源的许多人，并在 1570-1580 年左右创作了 11 幅立陶宛服装类型的图画 [38]。木雕是根据 Adelhauser 的图纸制作的 [38]，三幅立陶宛人的插图发表在 Cesare 的 Vecellio 的书 （Venece） [1] 中。Kossak [39] 展示了他从“古代服装和盔甲”系列中绘制的图画，该作品发表在期刊“Illustrated Journal”上，根据 Vecellio 雕刻的一位穿着士兵制服的立陶宛男子。

French painter Norblen shows the Lithuanians among other nations at the beginning of the 19th century. “Set of Polish Clothes” [40], whose graphic works were created by Debucourt according to Norblen’s drawings, was published in 1817 [7,41]. However, Norblen did not visit Lithuania. He also noticed some inaccuracies during publishing: The man called Samogitian was actually Lithuanian [42].
法国画家诺布伦 （Norblen） 描绘了 19 世纪初的立陶宛人和其他国家。《波兰服装套装》[40]于 1817 年出版，其图形作品由 Debucourt 根据 Norblen 的图纸创作[7,41]。然而，Norblen 没有访问立陶宛。他还注意到在发布过程中的一些不准确之处：那个叫 Samogitian 的人实际上是立陶宛人 [42]。

Leon Zienkowicz published the book “Polish Folk Costume” [9], which features 39 lithographs by Jan Levicki coloured by hand in 1841. Two of them are dedicated to Lithuania: “Peasants of Vilnius District” and “Samogitians”. It is difficult to determine from what sources Levicki sampled data about Lithuanian clothes. Notably, the wimple of the peasant woman from the Vilnius district is presented similarly to the lithographs of clothes from the Grodno, Minsk, and Jaroslav districts in the same book. The Samogitian female apron is also like that in the lithograph “Kijacy from Podgórze”.
Leon Zienkowicz 出版了《波兰民族服饰》一书 [9]，其中收录了 Jan Levicki 于 1841 年手工着色的 39 幅石版画。其中两个是献给立陶宛的：“维尔纽斯区的农民”和“萨莫吉蒂安人”。很难确定 Levicki 从哪些来源抽样了有关立陶宛服装的数据。值得注意的是，维尔纽斯区农妇的疙瘩与同一本书中格罗德诺、明斯克和雅罗斯拉夫区的衣服石版画相似。萨莫吉蒂亚女围裙也类似于石版画“来自 Podgórze 的 Kijący”中的围裙。

An illustration with a Lithuanian woman and a Polish man is included in the first volume of the book “Historical, Literary, Monumental and Imaginative Poland”, prepared by Leonard Boreika Chodzka [43]. The method of tying the wimple and clothes is very similar to those in Norblen’s picture, “Lithuanian Women” (just under the armpit). Moreover, all clothes are smoothed out like in Levicki’s work, “Peasants of Vilnius District”. The same work was included in the periodical edition “Friend of the People” and simply called “Lithuanian Peasants” [44].
一幅立陶宛妇女和波兰男子的插图包含在《历史、文学、纪念和想象的波兰》一书的第一卷中，该书由伦纳德·博雷卡·乔兹卡（Leonard Boreika Chodzka）编写[43]。将疙瘩和衣服系在一起的方法与 Norblen 的画作“立陶宛妇女”（就在腋下）中的方法非常相似。此外，所有的衣服都像 Levicki 的作品《维尔纽斯区的农民》一样被抚平。同一著作被收录在期刊版《人民之友》中，简称为《立陶宛农民》[44]。

Smuglevičius’s picture “Lithuanian Peasants” provides very valuable material about the hats of Vilnius district men in the second half of the 18th century, especially interesting are the methods for tying women’s kerchiefs tying, the cuts, the decoration of coats, and the peasants’ shoes. Ruseckas’s “Cutter Woman” is presented with shirts, the necks and cuffs of which are tied with coloured lace. The painting “Lithuanian Girl with Palms” illustrates a rarely included accessory—a scrotum hung at the waist. “Lithuanian fisherwoman” casts doubt on the conformity of the clothing depicted and actually worn at the time. The reality of the time is reflected by the same artist’s watercolour, “Peasant with Brooms”. This
Smuglevičius 的图片“立陶宛农民”提供了关于 18 世纪下半叶维尔纽斯地区男子帽子的非常有价值的材料，特别有趣的是系女手帕的方法、剪裁、外套的装饰和农民的鞋子。Ruseckas 的“Cutter Woman”以衬衫为特色，衬衫的脖子和袖口系有彩色蕾丝。画作《带棕榈树的立陶宛女孩》描绘了一个罕见的配饰——挂在腰部的阴囊。“立陶宛渔妇”对当时所描绘和实际穿着的服装的一致性产生了怀疑。同一位艺术家的水彩画《拿扫帚的农民》反映了那个时代的现实。这