Carson Markley served as a research intern at AFI during the summer of 2024. He has an MA in International Relations from Richmond University, London UK; and a BA in Economics and Political Science from Youngstown State University, Ohio, USA. 卡森·马克利在 2024 年夏季期间担任 AFI 的研究实习生。他拥有来自英国伦敦里士满大学的国际关系硕士学位,以及来自美国俄亥俄州扬斯敦州立大学的经济学和政治学学士学位。
Asia Freedom Institute (AFI) promotes democracy, human rights and religious freedom in China and Tibet; and strengthens Tibetan democracy in exile. It works towards educating the public and strengthening the community of people and organizations working on democracy and human rights issues related to China and Tibet. 亚洲自由研究所(AFI)促进中国和西藏的民主、人权和宗教自由,并加强西藏流亡地区的民主建设。它致力于教育公众,并加强致力于中国和西藏民主与人权问题的个人和组织的社区。
(Disclaimer: The views and opinions expressed in this document are those of the author’s and do not necessarily reflect the views or positions of the Asia Freedom Institute) 免责声明:本文档中表达的观点和意见仅代表作者个人,并不必然反映亚洲自由研究所的观点或立场
CHINA’S NATIONAL PARK PROJECT ON THE TIBETAN PLATEAU: CONSERVATION OR ASSIMILATION? 中国在西藏高原的国家公园项目:保护还是同化?
What China Can Learn From Other Countries 中国可以从其他国家学习什么
TABLE OF CONTENTS 目录
FOREWORD … 5 前言...5
I. INTRODUCTION … 6 1.简介
II. NATIONAL PARK SITES ON THE TIBETAN PLATEAU … 6 西藏高原的国家公园地区
III. PROS AND CONS OF CREATING NATIONAL PARK SYSTEMS … 11 建立国家公园体系的利弊
A. Positives … 11 积极的方面... 11
B. Negatives … 13 负值...13
C. The Tibetan Situation … 15 西藏局势
IV. MODELS OF SUCCESSFUL CO-MANAGEMENT AGREEMENTS … 17 成功共同管理协议的模型
A. Australia … 19 澳大利亚...19
B. New Zealand … 19 新西兰
C. Canada … 20 加拿大... 20
D. The United States Of America (Usa) … 22 美利坚合众国
E. Nordic Countries … 23 北欧国家...23
F. Africa … 23 非洲
G. Nepal … 24 尼泊尔... 24
V. CONCLUSION … 25 结论
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY … 27 参考文献…27
VII. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES … 32 额外资源
VIII. KEY CHINESE GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND LAWS … 34 关键中国政府政策和法律
IX. KEY CHINESE GOVERNMENT AGENCIES … 36 主要中国政府机构
FOREWORD 前言
No country over the last three decades comes close to China when it comes to launching megaprojects: highways, railways, dams, airports, tunnels, water transfer projects, building entire cities, etc. The scale and pace of these projects have helped propel China’s rise. Chinese authorities have now turned their attention to transforming the Tibetan Plateau, a 2.5 million square kilometer territory, into the world’s largest national park. This is part of a plan to develop a new national parks system inspired by Yellowstone and Yosemite national parks in the U.S. 在过去三十年里,没有一个国家能与中国在启动大型项目方面相媲美:公路、铁路、水坝、机场、隧道、调水工程、整座城市的建设等。这些项目的规模和速度帮助推动了中国的崛起。中国当局现在把注意力转向对青藏高原的改造,这片 250 万平方公里的领土将成为世界最大的国家公园。这是中国发展一个新的国家公园系统的一部分,受到美国黄石和优胜美地国家公园的启发。
China’s efforts to protect the rich biodiversity and environment of the Tibetan Plateau and mitigate climate change ought to be a positive development. However, there is serious concern that this ambitious initiative will come at great cost to the Tibetan people, their rights and livelihood. The national parks initiative is happening against the backdrop of a well documented Chinese government policy of resettling Tibetan nomads to “protect the ecological environment.” According to Human Rights Watch, the Chinese authorities will have relocated close to a million rural Tibetans between 2000-2025. Tibetans fear that the national park project will lead to displacement of Tibetans, further assimilate Tibetans and Tibet into China, and will largely benefit the Chinese community. 中国保护青藏高原丰富的生物多样性和环境,减缓气候变化应该是积极的发展。然而,有严重担心这一雄心勃勃的举措将以藏人权利和生计为代价。国家公园项目背后是有记录的中国政府将藏族游牧民迁往"保护生态环境"的政策。据《人权观察》称,中国当局将在 2000-2025 年间迁移近百万农村藏民。藏人担心国家公园项目将导致藏人被驱逐,加剧藏人和西藏被同化为中国,主要利益将是中国社区。
Most of the national parks in the United States, the inspiration for the Chinese initiative, were established on land inhabited by Native Americans and many of them were forcibly removed. There are now calls from the Native American community to turn over the national park sites in the United States and place these lands under collective Native control. 大部分美国国家公园建立时,所在土地原本由美洲土著居住,许多部落被强制驱逐。现在美洲土著社区呼吁将美国国家公园的土地转交给部落集体管理。
China’s National Park Project on The Tibetan Plateau: Conservation or Assimilation? What China Can Learn From Other Countries provides an overview of the scale of the project to transform the Tibetan Plateau in the name of ecological conservation. While the paper identifies potential positives from such an initiative, it cautions the Chinese government to tread carefully and advocates for taking the needs and concerns of the Tibetan population into consideration. Finally, it offers models of successful comanagement agreements. 中国青藏高原国家公园项目:保护还是同化?中国可以从其他国家学到什么提供了对这个以生态保护为名改造青藏高原的项目的规模概述。该论文虽然识别了这种倡议的潜在积极作用,但警告中国政府应谨慎行事,倡导考虑藏族人口的需求和关切。最后,它提供了成功的共同管理协议模式。
A National Parks Law in China’s National People’s Congress is expected to become law in 2025. There is an opportunity for the Chinese leadership to reimagine their approach and use the establishment of the national parks system as a vehicle to both protect biodiversity and address the concerns of the Tibetan people. The indigenous peoples of Australia and New Zealand now control some of those countries’ most significant natural landmarks. The Nunavut people of Canada signed the largest land transfer in Canada’s history - two million km 2 of land and water - with the Canadian government in January 2024. China too should consider the national parks on the Tibetan Plateau as autonomous areas where the control and management is in the hands of the Tibetan people - the true residents and stewards of the land since antiquity. 预计中国全国人民代表大会将在 2025 年通过国家公园法。这为中国领导层重新考虑他们的方法提供了机会,将建立国家公园体系作为保护生物多样性并解决藏族人民关切的工具。澳大利亚和新西兰的原住民现在控制了这些国家最重要的自然地标。加拿大努纳武特人于 2024 年 1 月与加拿大政府签署有史以来最大规模的土地转让协议,涉及 200 万平方公里的陆地和水域。中国也应该将青藏高原上的国家公园视为自治区,由藏族人民—这片土地自古以来的真正居民和管理者—掌控和管理。
Kelsang D,. Aukatsang 格桑·达
I. INTRODUCTION 引言
China has announced plans to create the largest national park system in the world by 2035. Five pilot sites were established in 2021 and an additional 49 sites were identified as national park candidates in 2022. Almost 70%70 \% of the total area of the proposed park system, approximately 770,000km^(2)770,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2}, is located on the Tibetan Plateau (Times, G. 2022). The proposed parks protect numerous endangered species, unique biomes, and culturally important locations. Creating a national park system can have positive and negative results. Conservation and combating climate change can generate huge benefits not just for China but for the entire world. However, Tibetans in Tibet, the native residents and stewards of the Tibetan Plateau, are concerned about losing their rights, autonomy and being displaced from the new protected areas. The Chinese government has a history of displacing Tibetans which emphasizes the importance of listening to the concerns of the Tibetan population. Additionally, China has centralized the government agencies for their national park service creating new levels of bureaucracy and making it hard to address the concerns of Tibetans residing on the Tibetan Plateau. 中国宣布计划到 2035 年创建世界上最大的国家公园系统。2021 年建立了 5 个试点场地,2022 年还确定了 49 个候选国家公园场地。所提议的公园系统总面积约为,其中约位于青藏高原(泰晤士报,2022 年)。这些拟建的公园将保护众多濒危物种、独特的生态系统和具有文化重要性的地点。建立国家公园系统可能会产生积极和负面的结果。保护和应对气候变化不仅可以为中国,也可以为整个世界带来巨大的利益。但是,居住在青藏高原上的藏人,作为这一地区的本土居民和管理者,担心会失去权利、自治和被驱逐出新的保护区。中国政府曾经驱逐藏人,这突显了倾听藏人群众的担忧很重要。此外,中国已经将国家公园管理机构集中,增加了层级,这也使得解决青藏高原上藏人的担忧变得很困难。
Almost 70%70 \% of the total area of the proposed park system, approximately 770,000km^(2)770,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2}, is located on the Tibetan Plateau. 几乎 70%70 \% 拟议公园系统的总面积，大约 770,000km^(2)770,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} ，位于青藏高原。
China is not the first country to establish a national park system. Countries before China experienced both good and bad results but a takeaway from their experience is the importance co-management agreements can play for native peoples. The United States National Park system (an inspiration for the Chinese model) was once guilty of removing Native peoples and is now considering co-management agreements in some of its parks. Moving forward with the national park proposal, China should consider pursuing co-management agreements with the Tibetan population to ensure both the nature and rights of locals are protected. The purpose of this paper is to explore this idea in three parts. First, identify existing and potential parks in the Tibetan Plateau and briefly describe their respective importance to Tibetans. Second, explore the various advantages and drawbacks of creating national park systems and how it applies to Tibet. Third, identify examples of successful co-management agreements around the world and how they could apply to China and Tibet. Overall, the paper will document a list of best practices that the Chinese government can use to ensure its park system addresses the needs and concerns of the Tibetan people while balancing the priorities of environmental protection. 中国不是第一个建立国家公园系统的国家。在中国之前的国家都经历了好坏结果,但从他们的经验中可以看出,共同管理协议对于土著人民的重要性。美国国家公园系统(中国模式的灵感来源)曾经有过驱逐土著人民的不当行为,现在正在考虑在一些公园中实行共同管理协议。在推进国家公园提议时,中国应该考虑与藏族人口建立共同管理协议,以确保自然环境和当地居民的权利得到保护。本文旨在从三个方面探讨这一想法:首先,确定青藏高原现有和潜在的国家公园,并简要描述它们对藏族人民的重要性;其次,探讨建立国家公园系统的各种优缺点,以及它如何适用于西藏;第三,找出世界各地成功的共同管理协议示例,以及它们如何适用于中国和西藏。总的来说,本文将列出一系列最佳实践,供中国政府在建立公园系统时参考,以确保兼顾环境保护的优先性和满足藏族人民的需求和关切。
II. NATIONAL PARK SITES ON THE TIBETAN PLATEAU 西藏高原的国家公园景区
China has proposed the largest national park system in the world. This proposal would make over 15%15 \% of China’s landmass protected territory. The Tibetan Plateau would have 70%70 \% of its landmass classified into protected national parks (Times, G. 2022). Of that area, 13 potential parks have been identified, including The Three-River Source National Nature Reserve (Sanjiangyuan), Lhalu Wetland National Nature Reserve, Qomolangma National Park, Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon National Park, Chang Tang National Nature Reserve, Hoh Xil National Nature Reserve, Nianqing Tanggula National Nature Reserve, Riwoche National Nature Reserve, Namtso National Nature Reserve, Nyenchen Tanglha National Nature Reserve, Nagqu Hoh Xil National Nature Reserve, Ruoergai National Nature Reserve, 中国提出建立世界最大的国家公园系统。这一提议将使中国超过 15%15 \% 的国土面积成为受保护区域。西藏高原将有 70%70 \% 的国土面积划入受保护的国家公园 (Times, G. 2022)。在这片区域内,已经确定了 13 个潜在的国家公园,包括三江源国家自然保护区、拉萨湿地国家自然保护区、珠穆朗玛国家公园、雅鲁藏布大峡谷国家公园、昌塘国家自然保护区、可可西里国家自然保护区、念青唐古拉国家自然保护区、日巴国家自然保护区、纳木错国家自然保护区、年仁唐古拉国家自然保护区、那曲可可西里国家自然保护区和若尔盖国家自然保护区。
Wolong National Nature Reserve. The proposed plan has yet to be finalized and could be subject to change as it is implemented. COVID-19 has already caused some setbacks. Each park mentioned above is unique in its environment, history, and cultural importance, making them prime targets for this program. Specifics about the park’s qualities are explored further below. (Times, G. 2022) 卧龙国家自然保护区。拟议计划尚未最终确定,在实施过程中可能会发生变更。COVID-19 已经造成了一些挫折。上述每个公园在其环境、历史和文化价值方面都具有独特性,使它们成为这一计划的重点目标。有关公园特点的具体信息将在下文中进一步探讨。(Times, G. 2022)
The Three-River Source National Nature Reserve (Three-River Headwaters or Sanjiangyuan National Nature Reserve) is a massive national park protecting over 123,100km^(2)123,100 \mathrm{~km}^{2} or approximately the size of England was established in 2020. It is located in Qinghai province along the Tibetan plateau. The protected areas include the headwaters of three major rivers: the Yellow River, the Yangtze River, and the Mekong River. Additionally, there are protected alpine mountains and high-altitude grasslands. These areas house brown bears, gray wolves, Tibetan foxes, Eurasian lynx, wild yaks, Tibetan antelope, and the world’s largest living sheep: argali. 三江源国家级自然保护区(三江源或三江源国家级自然保护区)是一个庞大的国家公园,保护了超过英格兰大小的面积,于 2020 年设立。它位于青海省的青藏高原地区。受保护区包括黄河、长江和湄公河三大河流的源头。此外,还有受保护的高山及高海拔草原。这些区域栖息有棕熊、灰狼、藏狐、欧亚猞猁、野牦牛、藏羚羊和世界上最大的野生羊:盘羊。
As a home of the headwaters of three of the most important rivers in Asia: Yangtse, Yellow and Mekong rivers, the Tibetan people consider it sacred territory as a “source of life” and of practical importance for historical transportation. Over 40,000 Tibetans live in the core of the national park and have their livelihoods connected to the land. The park was originally made of 18 subsections of protected areas, but in 2015, the government began the transition to national park status. This conversation is still ongoing due to delays related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Regulations on paper ban mining, logging, hunting and fishing in the national park and the management has started forest restoration. (Coulton, L. 2023) 作为亚洲三大重要河流长江、黄河和湄公河的发源地,西藏人将其视为"生命之源",在历史上也有重要的交通作用。超过 40,000 名西藏人居住在国家公园的核心地带,他们的生计与这片土地息息相关。这个国家公园最初由 18 个受保护区组成,但在 2015 年,政府开始将其转变为国家公园。由于新冠疫情的延迟,这一转变工作仍在进行中。纸面上的规定禁止在国家公园内进行采矿、伐木、狩猎和捕鱼,管理部门也开始进行森林恢复。(Coulton, L. 2023)
Lhalu Wetland National Nature Reserve is located on the outskirts of Lhasa City, the capital of the Tibet Autonomous Region. As an urban park, it is smaller in size at 3,000 acres. It protects the wetland area, plants like reeds, sedges, duckweed, grasses, and flowers, and a small part of the neighboring mountain and river. Furthermore, it is a popular stop for migratory birds in the region, including Ruddy shelduck, Bar-headed goose, Black-necked crane, Brown-headed gull, and white stork. The wetland environment helps regulate the surrounding area’s weather patterns, resulting in a more habitable climate despite its high altitude. 拉卜楞湿地国家级自然保护区位于西藏自治区首府拉萨市郊。作为一座城市公园,它的面积较小,约 3000 英亩。它保护了湿地区域、芦苇、莎草、浮萍、草地以及花卉等植被,以及毗邻的山区和河流。此外,它也是该地区候鸟的热门停歇地,包括赤麻鸭、斑头雁、黑颈鹤、棕头鸥和白鹳。这片湿地环境有助于调节周围地区的天气模式,即使海拔较高,也依然拥有较为宜人的气候。
Along the banks of the park are historical structures like the Dalai Lama’s summer palace, which marks the area’s profound importance to the Tibetan people. The park was initially founded as an urban park in 1994, and by 2005, it was promoted to national protection status. It is on the radar for further promotion into the national park system. (Lalu Wetland 2022) 沿着公园的银行有历史建筑,如达赖喇嘛的夏宫,这标志着该地区对藏族人民的深远重要性。该公园最初于 1994 年成立为一个城市公园,到 2005 年,它被提升到国家保护地位。它正在考虑进一步升级为国家公园体系。(Lalu Wetland 2022)
Qomolangma National Park lies on the Tibetan region border between China and Nepal. It’s famous for containing Qomolangma (more popularly known as Mount Everest) and its 78,000 square kilometers of surrounding mountain peaks. As a high-altitude park, wildlife can be scarce, but tundra flora, alpine forest, Blue Sheep, Black bears, and snow leopards can still be found. 珠穆朗玛国家公园位于中国和尼泊尔的西藏边界地区。它以包含珠穆朗玛峰(更广为人知的是珠穆朗玛峰)和周围 78,000 平方公里的山峰而闻名。作为一个高海拔公园,野生动物可能比较稀少,但高山草地植被、高山森林、藏羚羊、黑熊和雪豹仍然存在。
Mount Everest is woven into Tibetan folklore; it regularly receives local pilgrims trying to receive blessings and further connect to their culture. Some stories include that it is home to Miyolangsangma, the goddess of inexhaustible giving, or that it is a place where the karmic effects of actions are magnified. 珠穆朗玛峰被融入藏族民间故事之中；它经常接待当地朝圣者,试图获得祝福,进一步连接他们的文化。一些故事包括,它是无穷无尽的施予女神 Miyolangsangma 的家园,或者它是行为的业力效果被放大的地方。
As one of the most visited national parks, it also serves as a livelihood for many Tibetans who assist tourists from around the world in exploring the area. Recognizing the importance of community engagement, park authorities have implemented initiatives to empower local residents, such as training programs for eco-guides and support for community-based tourism enterprises. The park received national protection status in 2012 and was given national park status in 2020 during China’s original national park pilot program announcement. 作为最受欢迎的国家公园之一,它也为许多来自世界各地探索该地区的游客提供生计。认识到社区参与的重要性,公园管理部门已实施一些举措来赋予当地居民权力,如为生态向导提供培训计划,并支持社区旅游企业。该公园于 2012 年获得国家保护地位,并在 2020 年中国首批国家公园试点项目公布期间被授予国家公园地位。
(Mount Qomolangma 2024) 珠穆朗玛峰 2024
Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon Nature Reserve is another national park located in Tibet province proper. It covers Mount Namcha Barwa and a 1,700km^(2)1,700 \mathrm{~km}^{2} stretch of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. Along this stretch is the world’s deepest canyon. It protects a wide variety of ecosystems due to the change in elevation from lowland tropical forest to temperate coniferous forest and even tundra. 雅鲁藏布大峡谷自然保护区是位于西藏省的另一个国家公园。它覆盖了南迦巴瓦峰和雅鲁藏布江的一段 1,700km^(2)1,700 \mathrm{~km}^{2} 。沿这一段是世界最深的峡谷。由于从低地热带雨林到温带针叶林再到苔原的海拔变化,它保护了各种各样的生态系统。
The canyon portion of the park is prominent in Tibetan folklore and is a pilgrimage site for some. Moreover, outside of the canyon, it is home to Tibetans in the Zhibe settlement. According to folklore, the canyon is believed to be the abode of deities and spirits, with its towering cliffs and swirling waters serving as a gateway to the divine realm. The area has received national protection status but has been limited in standard park activities because of its proximity to multiple countries, including India and Myanmar. Restrictions have slowly loosened since the 1990s because of increased multinational collaboration, and they will likely be incorporated into China’s national park strategy. (Ying, K. a. Y. 2023) 藏梅峡谷是西藏民间传说中著名的圣地,是藏人朝圣的场所。峡谷外,还有藏人聚居的治孜补村。根据民间传说,峡谷内高耸的悬崖和旋转的河水被认为是神灵的栖息地。这一区域获得了国家级保护地位,但由于靠近印度和缅甸等多个国家,标准的公园活动受到了限制。自 20 世纪 90 年代以来,随着多国合作的加强,限制措施已逐步放松,未来很可能被纳入中国的国家公园规划。(Ying, K. a. Y. 2023)
Chang Tang National Nature Reserve in Tibet is an enormous reserve that travels through several provinces and borders two other park systems. It has a total of 334,000km^(2)334,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2}, which is larger than 183 countries, and is the 3 rd largest land reserve in the world. The park protects the alpine steppe biome, which is home to several endangered species, including chiru (Tibetan antelope), wild yaks, snow leopards, and Kiang (aka Tibetan wild donkeys). 西藏长塘国家自然保护区是一个巨大的保护区,横跨几个省份并与另外两个公园系统相邻。它的总面积达到 334,000km^(2)334,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} 平方公里,比 183 个国家还要大,是世界上第三大陆地保护区。该公园保护了高寒草甸生物群落,这里栖息着许多濒危物种,包括藏羚羊、野牦牛、雪豹和藏野驴。
Chiru wool is extremely valuable and a unique product for the Tibetan people and the earlier Zhangzhung people, who also called this area home. For centuries, Tibetan nomads have revered the vast expanse of Chang Tang as a sacred sanctuary where the spirits of their ancestors roam free, and the divine presence of the land is palpable. Additionally, Tibetans have long used the park to recreate the spiritual pilgrimage of Xuanzang (a 7th-century Buddhist monk) on the path to enlightenment. The park 藏羊绒是西藏人民和更早期的张赞人独有的极为珍贵的产品。数个世纪以来,藏族牧民一直敬重长塘平原广袤无边的神圣荒野,那里是祖先灵魂自由徜徉的禁地,也是这片大地神圣存在的可感知之地。此外,藏人也长期把这片公园作为重现玄奘法师(7 世纪佛教僧侣)通往涅槃的精神朝圣之路的场所。公园
was founded in 1993 by the Tibet government and moved to national reserve status in 2000. It is a likely park for China’s national park strategy. (Chang Tang Tibet 2024) 成立于 1993 年,由西藏政府创建,2000 年转为国家自然保护区。它可能成为中国国家公园战略的一部分。(Chang Tang Tibet 2024)
Hoh Xil National Nature Reserve lies on the northern reaches of the Tibetan plateau. The reserve, about the size of Switzerland, covers 45,000km^(2)45,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} of alpine grasslands, a concentration of insulated lakes, steppe systems, a historic volcanic field, and more. In the park, you can find 230 species of animals, 20 of which are protected by the state. The area has long been a prime target for Tibetan herders, marking its importance to locals both economic and cultural. The park received its national protection status in 1995 and has received awards for conservation, including a 2017 UNESCO distinction, making it a target for national park conversion. (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2017) 青海可可西里国家级自然保护区位于西藏高原北部。该保护区约与瑞士一样大,包括 45,000km^(2)45,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} 高寒草甸、一系列绝缘湖泊、草原系统、古老的火山地带等。在该公园内能发现 230 种动物,其中 20 种受国家保护。这片区域一直是藏族牧民的主要活动区,反映了其对当地人来说的经济和文化重要性。该公园于 1995 年获得国家级保护地位,并曾获得保护奖项,包括 2017 年联合国教科文组织的认定,使其成为国家公园改造的目标。(联合国教科文组织世界遗产中心,2017)
Nianqing Tanggula Nature Reserve covers the northern regions of the Tibetan plateau, protecting mountain ranges and the Ulan Moron/ Danggu Rivers (Ma Chu/Dam Chu rivers in Tibetan). Wildlife is scarce in this mountain-based park, however alpine shrubs, rare grasses and the occasional yak can be spotted between the ice glaciers. Although few in number, the Tibetans inhabiting this area possess a strong connection to the land. The park is remote and has not faced environmental degradation like other protected areas. Its untouched nature makes it a plausible location for the national park plan. (The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica 1998) 年青唐古拉自然保护区覆盖了西藏高原的北部地区,保护了山脉及乌兰毛仑/当古河(藏语称马曲/当曲河)。这个以山地为主的公园里,野生动物很少,但可以在冰川之间看到高山灌木、稀有草本植物以及偶尔的牦牛。虽然数量不多,但居住在这一地区的藏族人与这片土地有着深厚的联系。该公园位置偏远,未像其他保护区那样遭受到环境退化。其原始状态使其成为国家公园计划的合适选址。
Riwoche National Nature Reserve straddles the border of Qinghai and Tibet province. It’s a small park measuring only 6,300km^(2)6,300 \mathrm{~km}^{2}. Despite its size, it is bountiful, and is one of Tibet’s only evergreen forests. The forest is home to the Riwoche horse, which is believed to be the connecting link between prehistoric horses and modern horses. 日武切国家自然保护区位于青海和西藏省交界处。它是一个面积只有 6,300km^(2)6,300 \mathrm{~km}^{2} 的小型公园。尽管它很小,但却物产丰富,是西藏唯一的常绿森林之一。这片森林是日武切马的家园,这种马被认为是史前马和现代马之间的联系纽带。
The Tibetan people use the unique trees for construction, cooking, and heating. The climate and soil sustain nearby wheat and barley fields, making the area crucial to the area’s food diversity and independence. Previously, the area was home to the Khampa warriors, who were featured as defenders in several folklore stories for the Tibetan people. Due to its significance, this area has been listed as one of the parks for the national park scheme. (Travel, T. T. 2023) 藏族人利用独特的树木进行建筑、烹饪和取暖。该地区的气候和土壤维持附近的小麦和大麦田,使该地区成为当地食品多样性和独立性的关键所在。此前,该地区是坎巴战士的居所,他们在多个藏族民间故事中被描述为捍卫者。由于其重要性,该地区已被列入国家公园计划中的一个公园。(旅游,《T.T.》2023)
Namtso Nature Reserve is located in the Nyainqêntanglha mountain range. It protects the mountains and namesake glacier-made lake: Namtso Lake. It is the world’s highest saltwater lake and the largest lake in Tibet. Due to its high altitude and saltiness, there is a lack of biodiversity in the park’s relatively small 1,900km^(2)1,900 \mathrm{~km}^{2} area. 纳木错自然保护区位于冈底斯山脉。它保护了该地区的山脉以及以其命名的冰川形成的湖泊:纳木错湖。这是世界上海拔最高的咸水湖,也是西藏最大的湖泊。由于海拔较高和盐度较高,该公园相对狭小的 1,900km^(2)1,900 \mathrm{~km}^{2} 范围内生物多样性较少。
Namtso translates to “heavenly lake” and is known as a symbol of purity and divinity. Historically, the Tibetan people used to cross the frozen lake to bring good luck. Additionally, some migratory Tibetans lived on the lakes islands during the summer months; this has gone out of practice but demonstrates the local people’s cultural connections to the area. The lake has achieved international status, even getting an asteroid named after it, hence China’s consideration for national park designation. (Schütt, B., Berking, J., Frechen, M., & Yi, C. 2008) 纳木错翻译为"天湖",被认为是纯洁和神圣的象征。历史上,藏族人民曾经跨越结冰的湖面,以期获得好运。此外,一些迁徙的藏族人在夏季居住在湖岛上,尽管这种做法已经停止,但仍体现了当地居民与该区域的文化联系。这个湖泊已经获得了国际地位,甚至还有一颗小行星以此命名,因此中国正在考虑将其列为国家公园。(Schütt, B., Berking, J., Frechen, M., & Yi, C. 2008)
Nyenchen Tanglha Nature Reserve is a parallel mountain range to the Himalayas in southern Tibet. In addition to the mountain range, it also has 7080 glaciers and stunning glacier lakes or runoff rivers. The biodiversity is immense, with 472 species of plants, 23 mammals, 105 birds, and an amphibian. The bird categories notably include the saker falcon, pallas’s fish-eagle, and the eastern imperial eagle. 聂赤塘拉自然保护区是西藏南部与喜马拉雅山脉平行的一座山脉。除了这座山脉外,它还拥有 7080 个冰川,以及壮丽的冰川湖泊和溪流。这里的生物多样性非常丰富,拥有 472 种植物、23 种哺乳动物、105 种鸟类以及 1 种两栖动物。值得一提的鸟类包括猎鹰、白背鹫和大鵟。
The park is lightly populated and visited by the Tibetan people. Still, the glacier ice melt forms the Yarlung Tsangpo River (Brahmaputra in India), which has major cultural significance for historic transportation and crop irrigation. It borders several other national parks, making it easy to incorporate into the new national park system. (Allen, C. 2013). China has approved the construction of what will be the world’s largest hydropower dam on the Yarlung Tsangpo. This will displace many communities and negatively impact downstream countries like India and Bangladesh. 公园里人口稀少,被藏族人民访问。然而,冰川融化形成了雅鲁藏布江(在印度称为布拉马普特拉河),这对于历史上的运输和作物灌溉具有重大文化意义。它与几个其他国家公园接壤,这使得将其纳入新的国家公园体系变得容易。(艾伦,C. 2013 年)。中国已批准在雅鲁藏布江建设世界最大的水电大坝。这将驱散许多社区,并对下游国家如印度和孟加拉国产生负面影响。
Nagqu Nature Reserve lies between the Anggula Mountains and the Kunlun Mountains, stretching through several provinces, including Tibet Autonomous Region, northwest China’s Qinghai Province, and China’s Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. In total, it includes 83,000km^(2)83,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} of protected area. It’s home to many of the same wildlife and flora as Nyenchen and Hoh Xil parks mentioned above. 那曲自然保护区位于昂赌拉山脉和昆仑山脉之间,跨越几个省份,包括西藏自治区、中国西北部的青海省和中国新疆维吾尔自治区。总共包括 83,000km^(2)83,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} 的保护区。它是上述涅赤和热孜尔公园相同野生动物和植物的家园。
The portion of the park, along with Tibet and its neighboring region, remains very important to the local people because of its historical connection to horse racing and the 13th Dalai Lama. The park authorities are implementing conservation measures such as habitat restoration, wildlife monitoring programs, and sustainable tourism practices. This park is part of China’s larger park designs throughout the country but has made this list for the small section of the park that remains in Tibet. (China Highlights 2024) 这片公园,连同西藏及其邻近地区,在当地人心中仍然很重要,因为它与马术和第 13 世达赖喇嘛有着历史渊源。公园管理局正在实施保护措施,如栖息地恢复、野生动物监测计划和可持续旅游实践。这个公园是中国在全国范围内更大规模公园设计的一部分,但因仍保留在西藏的小部分区域而入选。(中国亮点 2024)
Ruoergai National Nature Reserve is located in Sichuan Province but still resides on the greater Tibetan plateau. The park is unique as the largest alpine peat marsh in the world. Waters from this area feed the Yangtze River and Yellow Rivers, earning the park its nickname as the “water tower of China.” The reserve’s role in carbon sequestration helps mitigate climate change, highlighting its global significance as a natural carbon sink. The waters bring immense wildlife, including 137 birds, 38 mammals, and 362 identified wild plants. 若尔盖国家自然保护区位于四川省,但仍处于更大的青藏高原上。作为世界最大的高原泥炭沼泽地,该公园独具特色。该区域的水源养育了长江和黄河,因而有"中国的水塔"之称。该保护区在碳吸存方面的作用有助于缓解气候变化,突出了其作为天然碳汇的全球意义。这些水域孕育了丰富的野生动物,包括 137 种鸟类、38 种哺乳动物和 362 种已鉴定的野生植物。
Additionally, it is crucial for the Tibetan people who use this area to build irrigation systems for agricultural use. Culturally, the park is significant to China, because this area was on the path of Mao Zedong’s Long March. The park was initially classified for environmental protection by the Qing Dynasty but was organized in its current political status in 2008. Its ecological importance has earned it a Ramsar site distinction and a place on China’s national park list. (Sichuan Ruoergai Wetland National Nature Reserve 2008) 此外,对于在这一地区使用的藏族人来说,建立农业用途的灌溉系统至关重要。从文化角度来看,该公园对中国很重要,因为这个地区曾是毛泽东长征的道路。该公园最初由清朝列为环境保护区,但在 2008 年获得了现有的政治地位。其生态重要性使其获得了拉姆萨尔湿地公约地位和中国国家公园名单。
Wolong National Nature Reserve (part of the Giant Panda National Park), which lies at the foot of the Tibetan plateau in Wenchuan County, has over 200,000 hectares. The park is home to 4,000 species but is known as a panda sanctuary and breeding program. 卧龙国家自然保护区(大熊猫国家公园的一部分),位于汶川县的青藏高原脚下,面积超过 20 万公顷。公园拥有 4,000 多种物种,但以大熊猫保护区和繁育项目著称。
The reserve and the Giant Panda National Park are located in the historically Tibetan-populated regions of Sichuan and Gansu provinces. Though the Tibetan population is a minority in the area, the Tibetan people have a substantial connection to the endangered Panda and other protected species that reside here. According to Tibetan folklore, Pandas used to be all white, but when some Tibetan shepherds died attempting to save a panda from a leopard attack, Pandas dyed their arms black in mourning for their protectors. The park has received awards from the World Wildlife Fund and UNESCO for its conservation efforts. The reserve was initially established in 1963, expanded in 1975, and is being further expanded to create of a national park. (Cindy 2024) 四川和甘肃省的历史上以藏族人口为主的地区拥有这处保护区和大熊猫国家公园。尽管藏族人口在该地区只占少数,但藏族人民与濒危的大熊猫及此处其他受保护物种有着深厚的联系。根据藏族民间传说,大熊猫原本全身雪白,但当有些藏族牧羊人为拯救大熊猫而不幸丧生时,大熊猫就把前肢染成黑色,以示对保护者的哀悼。这处保护区曾获得世界自然基金会和联合国教科文组织的保护奖项。该保护区最初于 1963 年建立,1975 年扩大,目前还在进一步扩展以建成国家公园。
All of the 13 proposed national parks along the Tibetan Plateau have unique features worthy of protection. Additionally, many of the parks have deep spiritual, cultural, or historical connections to the local Tibetan people. China’s ambition to create a national park system has already engaged tourists and garnered international recognition. The three ideas of preservation, respect for culture, and elevation of national status are all great things but can sometimes come into conflict with one another. As a national park system is being developed, the conservation benefits and national solutions must be considered within the context of the benefits for native people. 位于青藏高原的 13 个拟议国家公园都拥有独特的特征,值得保护。此外,许多公园与当地藏人的精神、文化或历史都有深厚联系。中国创建国家公园体系的野心已吸引游客并获得国际认可。保护、尊重文化和提高国家地位这三个理念都很棒,但有时会相互冲突。在建立国家公园体系时,必须在保护利益和国家利益之间权衡当地居民的利益。
III. PROS AND CONS OF CREATING NATIONAL PARK SYSTEMS 建立国家公园系统的优缺点
National Parks systems can have benefits and drawbacks. National parks are inherently bureaucratic and political, which can lead to poor management to hostile intentions at worst. Parks also inherently protect nature and create a place for community engagement. The duality of national park systems can be especially impactful to native communities with deeper connections to the land they inhabit. As China develops a national park system, the pros and cons should be considered to protect the people of the Tibetan Plateau and their autonomy. Some positives to consider are the preservation of cultural heritage, economic opportunities, resource management, education awareness, community development, and combating climate change. Negatives for local communities include displacement and loss of access, restrictions on land use, loss of autonomy, erosion of cultural identity, unequal benefits, and mismanagement (OECD iLibrary and UNESCO 2024). These impacts are expanded upon in more detail below. Both positive and negative aspects are explored below and how they may impact Tibetans on the Tibetan Plateau. 国家公园系统可以带来好处和弊端。国家公园本质上是官僚和政治化的,这可能导致管理不善,甚至有恶意企图。国家公园也本质上保护自然,为社区参与创造场所。国家公园系统的这种二重性对与土地有深厚联系的本土社区影响尤为深远。随着中国建立国家公园系统,应考虑利弊,以保护青藏高原人民及其自治权。一些积极因素包括:保护文化遗产、创造经济机会、资源管理、提高教育意识、社区发展以及应对气候变化。对当地社区的负面影响包括:遗址被迫迁移和失去使用权、土地使用限制、自治权丧失、文化认同被侵蚀、利益分配不公、管理不善(OECD 图书馆和联合国教科文组织 2024)。这些影响将在下文中进一步详细阐述。
A. POSITIVES 积极的
Preservation of Cultural Heritage is significantly achieved through national parks, which serve as an excellent means to safeguard the cultural heritage of native peoples. Some regions do not have the resources or manpower to maintain their cultural artifacts, language or land in the way they choose. Federal governments, through national parks, can correct this resource imbalance. 通过国家公园显著实现了文化遗产的保护,它们为土著人民的文化遗产提供了卓越的保护手段。一些地区没有资源或人力来按照自己的方式维护自己的文化文物、语言或土地。联邦政府通过国家公园可以纠正这种资源失衡。
The United States is a prime example because of the 1906 Antiquities Act. This act allows the president to create national monuments specifically for prehistoric Native American ruins. National monuments 美国就是一个很好的例子,因为 1906 年的《古物法》。该法允许总统专门为史前美洲土著遗址创建国家纪念碑。国家纪念碑
have a separate title but have the same designation and governance structure as other national parks. This act was used as part of Glacier Bay National Park to preserve a 150 -acre cultural site. The property is a sacred site for the Huna Tlingit people because it is the site of an ancestral Tlingit village and the place of origin of the Chookaneidí Clan. The park service through this act has implemented various programs like the Native American fund or the inclusive storytelling program to ensure these properties under federal jurisdiction receive the money and support they require. (National Park Foundation 2023) 这些地区虽然没有独立的标题,但与其他国家公园拥有相同的指定和治理结构。这一法案被用作冰川湾国家公园的一部分,以保护一个 150 英亩的文化遗址。这处财产是胡纳特林吉特人的圣地,因为这里是一个祖先特林吉特村庄的所在地,也是楚卡尼迪氏族的发源地。通过这一法案,国家公园管理局实施了各种项目,如原住民基金或全纳式讲故事项目,以确保这些联邦辖区内的财产得到所需的资金和支持。(国家公园基金会 2023)
Economic Opportunities, Jobs, and Investments are generated in national parks, which can serve as a source of economic opportunities for local communities. There are several avenues parks bring money into the local economies. First, national parks tend to attract tourists, providing opportunities for native residents to open restaurants, hotels, art shops, or other venues of interest. Second, parks can create jobs in park management, conservation, educators, researchers, or tour guides. Thirdly, national parks create a heightened profile, which can lead to business development investments or federal grants for non-park-related activities. Ultimately all three avenues have the potential of creating economic growth in the area. 经济机遇、就业和投资都是在国家公园中产生的,可以为当地社区提供经济机会。国家公园为当地经济带来资金的途径有几种。首先,国家公园往往吸引游客,为当地居民提供开设餐厅、酒店、艺术品店或其他有趣场所的机会。其次,公园可以创造公园管理、保护、教育、研究或导游等工作。第三,国家公园提高了知名度,这可能导致商业开发投资或非公园相关活动的联邦补助金。总的来说,这三种途径都有可能在该地区带来经济增长。
Tongariro National Park in New Zealand provides native peoples with the economic impacts mentioned above. The Maori people living in the area specifically in the Ohakune and Raetihi have incomes below the national average, the park has preferential hiring to Maori people, providing good-paying jobs. As a popular destination, partially native-owned businesses like Chateau Tongariro Hotel or Skotel Alpine Resort have generated income for local individuals and communities. The park since its opening has garnered UNESCO Status, and a partner organization called Project Tongariro has raised the area’s status, leading to an injection of money for the restoration of Historic Waihohonu Hut and the Alpine Garden at Whakapapa. 通加里罗国家公园提供了上述经济影响。位于该地区的毛利人,特别是位于奥哈昆和拉埃蒂希的毛利人,收入低于全国平均水平,公园为毛利人提供优先就业,提供了高薪工作。作为一个受欢迎的目的地,部分由本地人拥有的企业,如通加里罗酒店或斯科特尔高山度假村,为当地个人和社区带来了收入。自公园开园以来,它已获得联合国教科文组织的地位,一个名为"通加里罗项目"的合作伙伴机构提高了该地区的地位,并为瓦霍奥努小屋和瓦卡帕帕高山花园的修复注入了资金。
(Giving Compass 2023) 给予指南 2023
Resource Management is effectively promoted by national parks, which is beneficial for the environment and native peoples. Native tribes lacking resources may require support from outside sources to achieve their resource management goals. This is especially true for areas experiencing illegal mining, poaching, or other unsanctioned use of resources. National parks also help maintain standards across multiple areas and can reduce resource competition in areas with several native tribes. For parks in desolate areas like mountains and deserts, national parks can provide much-needed resources to native people, like reliable drinking water. 资源管理由国家公园有效促进,这对环境和土著人民有利。缺乏资源的土著部落可能需要外部支持来实现其资源管理目标。这对于遭受非法采矿、偷猎或其他未经授权使用资源的地区尤其如此。国家公园还有助于维护多个地区的标准,并可减少拥有多个土著部落的地区的资源竞争。对于像山区和沙漠这样荒凉的地区的公园来说,国家公园可以为土著人民提供急需的资源,如可靠的饮用水。
Mount Revelstoke and Glacier National Parks in Canada provide an example of a best practice for resource management. The park has been suffering from the effects of climate change. The area’s national status has allowed the government to inject money into new alpine measures and caribou conservation. Additionally, the park experiences a harsh winter and mountain terrain, making traveling difficult. However, with the assistance of government resources, roads and the flow of necessary goods can be maintained throughout the winter months. (Lasimbang, J. 2010) 卡纳达的沛尔斯托克山和冰川国家公园为资源管理的最佳实践提供了一个例子。该公园一直受到气候变化的影响。该地区的国家地位使政府能够向新的高山措施和驯鹿保护注入资金。此外,该公园冬季严酷,山地地形使旅行困难。然而,在政府资源的协助下,道路和必需品的流通可以在整个冬季保持。(Lasimbang, J. 2010)
Education and Awareness are fostered by national parks, which disseminate educational awareness of native cultures through their programs. National parks raise the status of certain areas, raising the 教育和意识是由国家公园培养的,它们通过自己的项目传播对本土文化的教育意识。国家公园提高了某些地区的地位,提高了
interest in certain cultures who inhabit nearby areas. At park centers, there are usually museums and events that can also create a platform for native peoples. Some park systems conduct research and excavation of historical sites, creating new publications on local peoples. 对邻近地区居民的某些文化感兴趣。在公园中心,通常都有博物馆和活动,这也可以为本土民族创造一个平台。一些公园系统会对历史遗址进行研究和发掘,并出版关于当地民族的新刊物。
Indiana dunes and Sleeping Bear Dune national parks are the gold standard for native cultural awareness. They provide on-premises education but also provide training for teachers in the classrooms throughout their region. Additionally, they produce publications on historical native encampments. Special events are also available to visitors, which provide native people with opportunities to tell stories or teach their language. (Porterfield, A 2023) 印第安纳沙丘和沉睡熊沙丘国家公园是原住民文化意识的黄金标准。它们不仅提供现场教育,还为该地区的教师提供课堂培训。此外,它们还出版有关历史原住民营地的出版物。游客还可以参加特别活动,这些活动为原住民提供讲述故事或教授他们语言的机会。(Porterfield, A 2023)
Community Development is positively influenced by the status of national parks, which can aid in facilitating financing and engagement. First, the influx of money and resources can increase circulation in local economies, supporting local businesses and third spaces. Additionally, parks can provide accessible outdoor activities, camps, meeting spaces, and special events to help engage and strengthen a community. These activities promote physical health, cultural continuity, and a deep sense of appreciation for the land for all involved. 社区发展受国家公园状况的积极影响,这有助于促进融资和参与。首先,资金和资源的流入可以增加当地经济的流通,支持当地企业和第三空间。此外,公园可以提供可访问的户外活动、营地、会议空间和特殊活动,帮助吸引和加强社区。这些活动促进了身心健康、文化延续性,以及对土地的深深崇敬。
Rouge National Park, in the heart of downtown Toronto, Canada, provides the benchmark for community development. As an urban park, the park’s intention is people-focused rather than historical or protecting unique natural landmarks. The park has programs supporting outdoor sports, cultural events, educational programs, and festivals. As the historical homeland of the Mississauga people, they also use the park for community building within the tribe and the many cultures of the greater Toronto area. (Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada 2024) 路易国家公园位于加拿大多伦多市中心地带,为社区发展提供了基准。作为一个城市公园,公园的目标是以人为中心,而不是历史或保护独特的自然地标。公园提供户外运动、文化活动、教育项目和节庆活动。作为密西沙加人的历史家园,他们也在公园里开展部落内部和大多伦多地区多种文化的社区建设活动。(加拿大政府,加拿大公园署,2024 年)
Combating Climate Change requires a variety of approaches and national parks can be an important tool in a government’s arsenal. Many native cultures have a spiritual connection to the land, and a threat to these ecosystems is also a threat to their culture. Since climate change is a new threat, many of the historical ways native peoples have tended to their lands may not be effective. National parks can provide ample resources to ensure this protection. 应对气候变化需要采取多种方法,国家公园可以成为政府手中的重要工具。许多本土文化与土地有着精神上的联系,对这些生态系统的威胁也是对他们文化的威胁。由于气候变化是一个新的威胁,许多本土人民过去维护土地的方式可能不再有效。国家公园可以提供充足的资源来确保这种保护。
A prime example of this is the Everglades National Park in Florida of the United States. As sea levels rise, the park has had to restore freshwater flow into the area, which is required for the habitat and drinking water for native peoples. The Everglades area is economically weak, and the native peoples do not have the resources required to maintain a separation between salt and fresh water, making the national intervention a crucial step in conservation. (National Parks Conservation Association. n.d) 一个很好的例子是美国佛罗里达州的大沼泽国家公园。随着海平面的上升,该公园不得不恢复淡水流入该地区,这对于当地居民的栖息地和饮用水至关重要。大沼泽地区经济薄弱,当地居民没有维持盐水和淡水之间分界的所需资源,因此国家干预这一步在保护方面至关重要。（国家公园保护协会,无日期）
B. NEGATIVES 负面的
Displacement is a dark part of history for many national parks. Creating tourist facilities like hotels or roads can push people out of their homes. Some governments are intentional and may attempt to remove local people because they see them as undesirables. Displaced communities often struggle to maintain their cultural practices and face socio-economic challenges, including losing access to traditional 位移是许多国家公园历史上黑暗的一部分。创建酒店或道路等旅游设施可能会将人们赶出家园。一些政府有意识地试图驱逐当地居民,因为他们视他们为不受欢迎的人。被迫离开家园的社区往往很难维持自己的文化实践,并面临社会经济挑战,包括失去获得传统资源的渠道。
resources and disrupting social cohesion. True numbers may never be known, but some estimates show that 14 million people have been displaced by national parks globally. 国家公园全球已经导致了 1,400 万人被迫流离失所,破坏了社会凝聚力。真实数字可能永远无法得知。
The United States had a long history of displacing native populations for new territory, farmland, and national parks. The history of the United States National Park includes displacing people from Yellowstone, Yosemite, Grand Canyon, and more. In cases like Yellowstone, native populations nowadays reside on the reservations and have never really been able to return as permanent residents to their homelands. (Luthy, Q. 2023) 美利坚合众国拥有一段漫长的历史,在寻求新的领土、农田和国家公园的过程中,曾不断驱逐土著居民。美国国家公园的历史包括从黄石公园、优胜美地、大峡谷等地驱逐人们。就像在黄石公园一样,如今土著居民居住在保留地上,却无法真正回到他们的故土永久居住。(Luthy, Q. 2023)
Restrictions on land use, may be implemented by governments to negatively impact native peoples way of life. This can occur in several ways. First, national parks that have admission fees or camping fees and can prohibit native peoples from accessing the park through financial tools. Second, national parks focus on conservation, which can prohibit native tribes from continuing to practice hunting and fishing. Third, native peoples who live within national parks can be prohibited from opening businesses or farming in the name of conservation. 政府可能实施土地使用限制,以负面影响土著人民的生活方式。这可能以几种方式发生。首先,国家公园收取入场费或营地费,并且可以通过财务手段禁止土著人进入公园。其次,国家公园侧重于保护,这可能禁止土著部落继续进行狩猎和捕鱼。第三,居住在国家公园内的土著人可能被禁止以保护为名开设企业或从事农业。
In Canada, has historically lived near what is now Jasper National Park. Park policy mandated a ban on foraging. The intention was to protect park liability from tourists eating poisonous plants but fined natives for practicing decades-old traditions. Only in 2023 did Canada revoke that policy for First Nations individuals, but years of oppression still have lingering consequences for native persons who lost the opportunity to learn to forage. (Weber, B. 2023) 在加拿大,历来居住在现在的贾斯珀国家公园附近。公园政策禁止采集野生植物。这样做的目的是保护公园免受游客误食有毒植物的责任,但最终却对本地人的几十年传统加以处罚。直到 2023 年,加拿大才撤销了针对土著人的该政策,但多年的压迫仍然给原住民带来持久的后果,他们失去了学习采集的机会。(Weber, B. 2023)
Loss of Autonomy through national parks by malicious governments seeking more direct control is another issue. The status quo of native individuals is self-governance, and depending on the country, they may have some local or federal government laws through which they are also governed. Creating a national park system adds a governing document native peoples must follow. Park management documents can include anything from banning business, hunting, local government formation, camping, and even entry, all of which not only infringe upon indigenous rights but also hamper community autonomy and self-sufficiency. 通过恶意政府寻求更多直接控制而导致自治权的丧失是另一个问题。本土个人的现状是自我管治,并且取决于所在国,他们可能还受制于一些地方或联邦政府法律。建立国家公园体系增加了本土人民必须遵循的管理文件。公园管理文件可能包括禁止商业、狩猎、地方政府组建、野营,甚至禁止入内等内容,这不仅侵犯了土著权利,还阻碍了社区自主权和自给自足。
For example, the native peoples Bininj/Mungguy living in Kakadu National Park in Australia had their autonomy removed by a park. Historical park management plans required native people to get hunting permits, which were often denied. It banned large gatherings that impacted cultural traditions. There were also restrictions on land use, limiting the people’s ability to farm and be self-sufficient. (Giving Compass 2023) 以下是简体中文翻译:
例如,居住在澳大利亚卡卡杜国家公园的本地人 Bininj/Mungguy,由于公园的管理措施,他们的自治权遭到剥夺。历史上的公园管理计划要求当地人获得狩猎许可证,而这些许可证常常被拒绝。该计划还禁止影响文化传统的大型集会。人们的土地使用也受到限制,限制了他们从事农耕和自给自足的能力。(Giving Compass 2023)
Unequal benefits can arise from national parks through political focus in some countries that can lead to unequal access. National parks can provide heightened benefits for corporations, tourists, or environmentalists over that of native peoples and locals. In some cases where native peoples have been placed in reservation systems, national parks can provide priority access to the park for one tribe over another. 不平等的利益可能会产生国家公园,通过一些国家的政治焦点,这可能会导致不平等的访问。国家公园可为企业、游客或环保主义者提供更大的收益,而非本地人民。在某些情况下,当土著人民被置于保留区系统时,国家公园可为一个部落优先进入公园而不是另一个。
Devil’s Tower National Monument in Wyoming, USA exemplifies a cautionary tale. Companies once marketed the unique rock formation for rock climbing. This practice has caused increased litter, erosion of the monument, and disturbing local wildlife. Additionally, the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes each have stories about the spiritual significance of the structure, and allowing individuals to walk on the tower is harmful to these people’s beliefs. Many of the native stories are positive, leading to additional conflict over the name “Devil” that was chosen for the park. As is evident by the lack of name change, a satisfactory solution for native peoples has yet to be reached. (Zabaleta, L. 2020) 怀俄明州的撒旦塔国家纪念碑是一个警示故事的典型例子。过去公司曾经推销这个独特的岩石构造作为攀岩目的地。这种做法导致了更多垃圾、纪念碑受到侵蚀,以及扰乱当地野生动物。此外,拉科塔武装部落、夏延部落和阿拉帕霍部落都有关于这一结构的精神意义的故事,允许个人攀登塔楼会伤害这些人的信仰。许多原住民的故事都是积极的,导致了对公园被称为"撒旦塔"这一名称的额外争议。正如缺乏更名这一事实所显示的那样,尚未达成令原住民满意的解决方案。(Zabaleta, L. 2020)
Mismanagement can occur in national parks. This can come in several forms that negatively affect native populations. First is corruption, such as skimming money away from park programs for personal gain or offering parkland for oil exploration and other extractive activities in exchange for campaign contributions. Second is incompetence, some examples include failing to provide funding, prevent poachers, or truly acknowledge the importance of the monuments. 管理不善可能发生在国家公园。这可能出现在多种形式上,从而对本土居民群体产生负面影响。第一种是腐败,例如从公园计划中挪用资金用于个人利益,或者用公园土地作为交换,换取竞选捐款以用于石油勘探和其他开采活动。第二种是无能,一些例子包括未能提供资金、未能防止盗猎者,或者未能真正认识到这些纪念物的重要性。
Native mounds in the American Midwest were misunderstood; they look like hills but are extremely important historical locations for native people. Effigy Mounds National Monument protects over 200 mounds, but archaeologists and natives predict there were many more. Failure by the government to recognize these monuments and sponsor timely protection programs lead to the destruction of the mounds. These mounds are now lost to history and will never be recovered. (Visit Indigenous Landscape, n.d.) 美国中西部的原住民高地被误解;它们看起来像小丘,但是对原住民来说是极其重要的历史场所。Effigy Mounds National Monument 保护着 200 多座高地,但考古学家和原住民预测曾经有更多。政府未能认识到这些纪念碑并及时启动保护计划,导致这些高地被毁。这些高地现已失落在历史中,再也无法被找到。(参见原住民景观,无日期)
Erosion of Cultural Identity can occur through national parks because of the above-listed factors. Some examples include separating people from spiritually important monuments, banning them from gathering, or cases of mismanagement destroying these monuments. Alternatively, parks that promote native culture but do so without consultation may create an environment of cultural appropriation and erasure of cultural identities. 文化认同的侵蚀可能会通过国家公园发生,因为上述因素。一些例子包括将人们与精神上重要的纪念碑分离,禁止他们聚集,或者管理不善导致这些纪念碑被破坏。另一方面,促进本土文化但没有咨询的公园可能会造成文化挪用和文化认同的消失。
Tongariro National Park in New Zealand displaced native Maori people from the park, where cultural practices took place, and were therefore forced to adapt. Over 30 generations ago, according to legend, the eponymous ancestor of the Ngāti Tuwharetoa iwi, Ngatoroirangi, ascended the great mountains of the Central Plateau. Many Maori recreated this climb in connection to the story, and their removal threatened to end that practice. (Department of Conservation n.d.) 新西兰东加里罗国家公园驱逐了当地毛利人,这里曾是他们进行文化实践的地方,因此他们被迫进行适应。根据传说,在 30 多代之前,恩加蒂图瓦雷托亚部落的始祖恩加托罗伊兰基登上了中央高原的大山。许多毛利人都因这个故事而重复这个攀登,但他们被迫离开这个地方,这种做法也面临着结束的威胁。(环境保护部,未注明日期)
C. THE TIBETAN SITUATION 西藏局势
China has announced its intention to create a massive national park system. There are concerns about whether this new program will benefit or negatively impact the Tibetan people. The main concern for the Tibetan people living in the area is of being displaced. China has displaced people in Tibet for multiple reasons including for mining rights, the creation of factors like the Kela power station and in the name of environmental protection. In 2005, the Three River Headwater Region of Tibet was experiencing environmental degradation issues. China’s solution was called The Ecological Migration Program which provided some economic benefits if Tibetan herders agreed to leave the area for nearby cities. The 中国已宣布其有意建立一个巨大的国家公园体系。人们担心这个新计划是否会给藏人带来利益,还是产生负面影响。藏人最主要的担忧是可能被迫迁移。中国已经多次以采矿权、克拉电站等设施建设,以及以环境保护为名驱逐藏人。2005 年,西藏三江源地区出现环境恶化问题。中国的解决方案是"生态移民计划",如果藏族牧民同意离开该地区前往附近的城市,将获得一定的经济利益。
program achieved most of its goals but Tibetan herders raised complaints that the sum offered was too small and that the jobs promised in the cities never materialized. Additionally the program did not do enough to protect the herders’ culture and some herders struggled to adapt to city life and left the program (Wang, Z). The national park system governing board was created in 2018 as a subsection of the Ministry of Natural Resources. However, despite being a new organization it is recycling the ideas of its parent ministry. To create the national parks there is a plan to relocate around 100,000 people from traditional committees by 2030. (Slade, M. 2023) 该计划大部分目标已实现,但藏族牧民抱怨所给的补偿太少,并且在城市的工作也没有实现。此外,该计划没有足够努力保护牧民的文化,一些牧民难以适应城市生活而退出该计划(Wang, Z)。2018 年,国家公园体系管理委员会作为自然资源部的下属机构成立。然而,尽管是一个新的组织,但它正在复制母部门的想法。要建立国家公园,计划到 2030 年从传统社区搬迁约 10 万人(Slade, M. 2023)。
Another issue is that some current management plans (a small number) which include Tibetan perspectives on maintaining parks might not be included in the larger plan. Before the creation of the national park system national reserves in China were often overseen by as many as three federal agencies and various local agencies (Slade, M. 2023). The downside to this system is the bureaucracy but the positive as mentioned above was that there were avenues for local people to be involved in the parks. After the establishment of the national park system everything has been centralized into the National Forests and Grasslands Administration and the National Park System which may remove current avenues of local participation. (Slade, M. 2023) 一个另一个问题是,一些当前的管理计划(少数)包含了藏人在维护公园方面的观点,可能不会包含在更大的计划中。在建立国家公园系统之前,中国的国家自然保护区常常由三个联邦机构和各种地方机构监管(Slade, M. 2023)。这个系统的缺点是官僚主义,但如上所述的积极一面是地方居民有参与公园的渠道。在建立国家公园系统后,一切都被集中到国家森林和草原管理局以及国家公园系统,这可能会删除当前的地方参与渠道。(Slade, M. 2023)
Although the main concern is displacement, the Tibetan people have additional concerns. China’s policy of assimilating the Tibetan people, their language, culture and identity into Han China is a major concern. The expansion of a national park system provides the government more power and another vehicle to carry out its policy of assimilation of Tibetans and Tibetan culture into China and Chinese Han culture. The national park system is also raising concerns that Tibetan herders would lose access to grazing land. Further the system may limit the Tibetan community’s potential for economic growth in the area by not allowing them to own and operate businesses. This means that Tibetans may lose economic opportunities like herding and have no economic replacements. 虽然主要关注点是流离失所,但藏人还有其他担忧。中国同化藏人、藏语、文化和身份认同到汉族中国的政策是一个主要关切。国家公园系统的扩张为政府提供了更多权力和另一种途径来实现将藏人和藏文化同化到中国和汉族文化中的政策。国家公园系统也引发了藏人牧民可能失去对牧场的使用权的担忧。此外,该系统可能限制藏人社区在该地区的经济增长潜力,因为不允许他们拥有和经营企业。这意味着藏人可能失去像放牧这样的经济机会,也没有经济替代品。
Despite these concerns, there are potential positives for the program. First, China’s current park system is a bureaucratic nightmare, with rules varying from provinces to cities and different types of parks. The new park system has mentioned creating a united policy guideline which will consider the needs of the local population. Second, China appears to be taking additional steps to combat climate change. President Xi Jinping has advocated for conservation and reducing climate change during his term as president. The announcement of the world’s largest park system is a big step towards reducing this threat 尽管存在这些担忧,该计划也有潜在的积极意义。首先,中国目前的公园系统是官僚主义的噩梦,不同省份和城市的规则各不相同,不同类型的公园也不尽相同。新的公园系统提到要制定统一的政策指导方针,考虑当地居民的需求。其次,中国似乎正采取更多措施来应对气候变化。习近平主席在担任总统期间倡导保护和减缓气候变化。宣布建立世界最大的公园系统是降低这一威胁的重大一步。
and ensuring these areas exist for future generations. Third, Sanjiangyuan National Park, which is one of the proposed national parks in Tibet, has stated that it will include the Tibetan people in park management and highlight the Tibetan culture in the new park through education programs. If Sanjiangyuan and the new national park system follow through with some of their commitments then the parks could provide some benefit to the Tibetans. As China rolls out its plan, it 并确保这些地区存在于未来几代人。第三,三江源国家公园是西藏拟定的国家公园之一,它表示将在公园管理中包括藏族人民,并通过教育项目突出新公园中的藏族文化。如果三江源和新的国家公园系统兑现了一些承诺,那么这些公园可能会给藏族人带来一些好处。当中国推出它的计划时, should explore the errors and the success of countries that developed parks before it to ensure a best-case outcome. 应该探索在其之前已建立公园的国家的错误和成功,以确保最佳结果。
(Note: Historical Tibet comprised of three provinces: U-Tsang (Central Tibet), Kham (Eastern Tibet) and Amdo. The Chinese-dilineated TAR only covers U-Tsang. Most of Kham and all of Amdo have been incorporated into the four Chinese provinces of Qinghai, Sichuan, Gansu and Yunnan. Image source: Free Tibet/TibetanTreakking.com) 注:历史上的西藏包括三个省份:乌藏(中央西藏)、康巴(东藏)和安多。中国划定的西藏自治区只涵盖乌藏。康巴大部分地区和安多全部地区已并入中国的青海、四川、甘肃和云南四个省。图片来源:自由西藏/西藏旅行网。
IV. MODELS OF SUCCESSFUL CO-MANAGEMENT AGREEMENTS 成功的联合管理协议的模型
Many countries have long had competition between national interests like park systems and the native population. After some trial and error, a handful of success stories can be used as guiding principles for China. Mainly the importance of Co-Management Agreements. 许多国家长期存在着国家利益(如公园系统)和本地人口之间的竞争。经过一些试错,可以借鉴几个成功案例作为中国的指导原则。主要是 Co-Management 协议的重要性。
Academically, the topic of co-management has been well analyzed and documented. Most researchers tend to agree that co-management is a best practice for conservation and has many benefits, including enhancing working group effectiveness for all parties, empowering local communities, improving bureaucratic management, increasing staff availability, reducing climate change threats, increasing environmental sustainability, and increasing economic growth. However, some agreements are more successful than others. Academic analysis in this area has created a list of best practices that create the desired outcomes listed above. 学术上,共同管理这个话题已经被充分分析和记录。大多数研究人员倾向于认为,共同管理是保护工作的最佳实践,并且有许多好处,包括提高所有参与方的工作小组效率、授权当地社区、改善官僚管理、增加员工可用性、减少气候变化威胁、增加环境可持续性以及增加经济增长。然而,一些协议的成功程度高于其他。在这个领域的学术分析创造了一份最佳实践清单,可以产生上述所列的预期结果。
Native populations need to have equal power and authority over the government or other partners (Nadasdy, P. 2005). Unequal involvement creates scenarios where the government can pursue an agenda and ignore its partners. This step is crucial because most tribes have experienced unequal power balances with their governments in the past. 土著人口需要对政府或其他合作伙伴拥有平等的权力和权威(Nadasdy, P. 2005)。不平等的参与创造了政府可以推行议程并忽视其合作伙伴的场景。这一步很关键,因为大多数部落在过去与其政府之间一直存在不平等的权力平衡。
Government authorities need to trust and follow the environmental knowledge of the local people (Natcher, D.C., Davis, S., & Hickey, C. G. 2021). Native peoples possess traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which is extremely valuable when combined with other forms of conservation. 政府当局需要相信和遵循当地人的环境知识(Natcher, D.C., Davis, S., & Hickey, C. G. 2021)。原住民拥有传统生态知识(TEK),当与其他保护形式结合时,非常有价值。
Native people should be provided partial land ownership. People tend to work harder for things they own, creating that ownership for native people strengthens their bond. 土著人应该被部分提供土地所有权。人们倾向于更努力地为自己拥有的事物工作,为土著人创造这种所有权加强了他们的纽带。
Maintaining communication channels is vital (Nadasdy, P. 2005). Disasters such as forest fires can change rapidly on the ground, and communication between partners can help with responses. 保持沟通渠道至关重要(Nadasdy, P. 2005)。森林火灾等灾难在地面上可能会急剧变化,而合作伙伴之间的沟通有助于应对。
Providing education to non-native persons about native cultural practices and connection to the land is essential (Nadasdy, P. 2005). Coalition members must respect each other as equals, providing that education goes a long way to ensure that native voices are incorporated. 提供非原住民关于原住民文化实践和土地联系的教育是至关重要的(Nadasdy, P. 2005)。联盟成员必须相互尊重为平等,只有这样,提供这种教育才能确保原住民的声音被纳入其中。
A clear boundary of authority that is easily accessible to all parties needs to be created in writing (Washburn, Kevin K., Facilitating Tribal Co-Management of Federal Public Lands 2021). Confusion in ownership can lead to the interpretation of overstepping bounds; keeping everything written is the best possible path. 需要以书面形式创造一个清晰的权限边界,所有相关方都可以轻松获取(Washburn, Kevin K., Facilitating Tribal Co-Management of Federal Public Lands 2021)。所有权混乱可能会导致越界的解释;保持一切以书面形式是最佳路径。
The equitable allocation of financial resources to native tribes in the partnership is indispensable (Washburn, Kevin K., Facilitating Tribal Co-Management of Federal Public Lands 2021). This is especially important when multiple communities and organizations have vested interest in the area. 向土著部落公平分配财政资源是该合作伙伴关系不可或缺的一部分(Washburn, Kevin K., Facilitating Tribal Co-Management of Federal Public Lands 2021)。当多个社区和组织在该地区有既得利益时,这尤为重要。
The use of adaptive management strategies is a requisite because the interests of both parties may change over time, especially with the rise of climate change; having the ability to change priorities is a strong benefit (Washburn, Kevin K., Facilitating Tribal Co-Management of Federal Public Lands 2021). 自适应管理策略的应用是必需的,因为双方的利益可能会随时间而改变,特别是气候变化的出现;拥有改变重点的能力是一大优势(沃什伯恩,凯文·K.,促进部落与联邦公共土地的共同管理,2021 年)。
Providing precise written conflict resolution mechanisms is imperative (Washburn, Kevin K., Facilitating Tribal Co-Management of Federal Public Lands 2021). No co-management agreement is perfect, especially in cases that deal with spiritually important places, and having a strong conflict resolution process goes a long way to ensuring the agreement’s longevity. 提供精确的书面冲突解决机制是必不可少的(Washburn, Kevin K., 促进部落共同管理联邦公共土地 2021)。没有任何共同管理协议是完美的,特别是在处理具有灵性重要性的场所的情况下,拥有一个强大的冲突解决过程可以很大程度上确保协议的持久性。
Capacity building and empowerment must be ensured (Natcher, D. C., Davis, S., & Hickey, C. G. 2005). Many native peoples have had their numbers decreased and influence reduced, and providing native persons with skill training ensures they can hold up their end of the agreement. Native tribes are often strapped for resources and opportunities, creating a path forward that incentivizes participation in the agreement and allows them to carry out their end of the bargain. 能力建设和赋权必须得到保证(Natcher, D. C., Davis, S., & Hickey, C. G. 2005)。许多土著人口数量减少,影响力降低,为土著人提供技能培训可确保他们能够履行协议。土著部落往往资源匮乏,机会有限,制定一条前进之路,激励他们参与协议,并让他们能够履行自己的义务。
The ten listed programs are best practices in the academic sphere but have not always been realized in the more complex real world. In the next section, some of the most successful programs worldwide are highlighted. Many of these best practices incorporate one or more of the above best practices. 这十个列出的项目是学术领域的最佳实践,但并没有总是在更复杂的现实世界中实现。在下一节中,突出了全球一些最成功的项目。这些最佳实践中的许多都包含了上述一个或多个最佳实践。
A. AUSTRALIA 澳大利亚
Australia is a large country home to a robust national park system. Before colonization, it was home to hundreds of unique aboriginal groups. The parks and the Aboriginal way of life often overlap, resulting in a need for co-management agreements to resolve possible disputes. Australia is one of the leaders in this field; some of its successes are listed below. 澳大利亚是一个拥有强大国家公园系统的大国。在殖民化之前,它是数百个独特的原住民群体的家园。公园和原住民的生活方式往往重叠,这需要共管协议来解决可能产生的争议。澳大利亚在这个领域是领导者;下面列举了它的一些成功案例。
Kakadu National Park is in the Northern Territories of Australia and has immense biodiversity with over 2000 plants, saltwater crocodiles, and flatback turtles. The Northern Territories are more influenced by federal policies than Australia’s provinces. The area is also home to Nitmiluk National Park, Watarrka National Park, and more, all of which have some form of co-managing agreement. The park has been inhabited continuously for over 40,000 years and protects historical sites like cave paintings and nature. Over 50%50 \% of the land in Kakadu is owned by native titles. To set up the co-management agreement, the native peoples rent their land to the national park system. This situation creates a regular cash inflow to the native peoples, reduces their cost burden on maintaining ecology, and creates a situation where the tribe can set terms and rules for the lease. (Government, N. T. 2022, and Smee, B. 2021) 卡卡杜国家公园位于澳大利亚北领地,拥有丰富的生物多样性,包括 2000 种以上的植物、咸水鳄鱼和扁背海龟。与澳大利亚各省相比,北领地更受联邦政策的影响。该地区还包括 Nitmiluk 国家公园、Watarrka 国家公园等,这些公园都有某种形式的共同管理协议。该公园一直被连续居住了 40,000 多年,保护了洞穴壁画和自然资源等历史遗址。卡卡杜国家公园的 50%50 \% 土地由原住民所有。为了设立共同管理协议,当地原住民将他们的土地租给国家公园系统,这为原住民带来了稳定的现金收入,减轻了他们维护生态的负担,同时也让部落可以制定租赁条款和规则。(Government, N. T. 2022, and Smee, B. 2021)
Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park is the most famous Australian national park, and it is the location of Ayers Rock. As the park name suggests, it is the native home of the Uluru and Kata Tjuta peoples. Tjukurpa, Anangu traditional law, has been used to create a lease agreement for 99 years. The current lease requires mandated native culture learning opportunities and guaranteed native representation on the board of directors. (Australian Government. 2023) 乌鲁鲁-卡塔 Tjuta 国家公园是最著名的澳大利亚国家公园,位于艾尔斯岩附近。正如公园名称所暗示的,这里是乌鲁鲁和卡塔 Tjuta 原住民的祖居地。Tjukurpa,阿南古的传统法律,已被用于制定为期 99 年的租赁协议。当前的租赁要求提供强制性的原住民文化学习机会,并在董事会上保证原住民代表。(澳大利亚政府,2023)
Daintree National Park in Queensland, Australia, protects stunning coastal capes and the Daintree rainforest. The area historically was home to Eastern Kuku Yalanji peoples. In 2021, the government signed a portion of the park to the people, becoming an example of repatriation in Australia. Due to this being a recent change, formal agreements have yet to be set up, but it will likely result in a rental agreement of these lands, similar to other co-management agreements. (Australian Government. 2021) 昆士兰州的戴恩特里国家公园保护了令人惊叹的海岸峡湾和戴恩特里雨林。该地区历来是东部库库耶拉尼人的家园。 2021 年,政府将公园的一部分划给该人民,这成为澳大利亚重新收归所有权的一个例子。由于这是一个最近的变化,正式协议尚未建立,但这可能会导致这些土地的租赁协议,类似于其他共同管理协议。(澳大利亚政府,2021 年)
In the examples provided, Australia invests in several critical success factors, including partial land ownership for native groups, trust in environmental knowledge, education programs for non-native peoples, and equitable finance strategies. 在提供的例子中,澳大利亚投资了几个关键的成功因素,包括原住民群体的部分土地所有权、对环境知识的信任、针对非原住民的教育计划以及公平的财务策略。
B. NEW ZEALAND 新西兰
New Zealand is famous for its beautiful natural landscapes, often used in movies. The country was initially inhabited by the Maori and other Polynesian groups before British colonization. As an independent country, New Zealand has spent the past 30 years working on reconciliation with the native tribes, including creating successful co-management agreements for the national park system. 新西兰以其美丽的自然风景闻名,常被用于电影拍摄。这个国家最初由毛利人和其他波利尼西亚群体居住,然后被英国殖民。作为一个独立国家,新西兰过去 30 年一直致力于与土著部落进行和解,包括为国家公园体系创建成功的共同管理协议。
Whanganui National Park is a park that conserves its namesake Whanganui River, which is the longest navigable river in New Zealand. This river is also one of the remaining sanctuaries for the Blue Duck. 惠灵顿国家公园是一个保护以其名字命名的惠灵顿河的公园,这是新西兰最长的可航行河流。这条河也是蓝鸭仅存的庇护所之一。
As a navigable waterway, this area historically was heavily populated by the Maori and is believed to be the most inhabited national park in New Zealand. It’s a sacred river where some rituals are still practiced today. The Treaty of Waitangi requires native input for park management plans through a joint forum. Additionally, it requires dissemination of the plan to native communities, promotion of the park’s cultural significance to visitors, and an agreement to consider Maori organizations or individuals when hiring contractors. There were some concerns that the park was not maintaining the full extent of these relations, and in 2008, the Maori used the court system to investigate. Although wrongdoing was identified, the agreement shows native access to conflict resolution procedures. (Coutts, D. & New Zealand Department of Conservation 2012) 作为一条可航行的水道,这片区域历史上曾经被茂茹人大量居住,被认为是新西兰最受居民居住的国家公园。这是一条神圣的河流,今天仍有一些仪式在此进行。根据《怀唐伊条约》,原住民需参与公园管理计划的制定,并通过联合论坛进行。此外,该条约还要求将该计划传播给原住民社区,并推广公园的文化意义,在聘任承包商时还要考虑茂茹组织或个人。有一些担忧是公园未能充分维持这些关系,因此在 2008 年,茂茹人利用司法系统进行了调查。尽管发现了一些不当行为,但该协议显示原住民可以获得冲突解决程序的机会。（Coutts, D. & 新西兰自然保护部 2012）
Abel Tasman National Park has beaches and seaside ridges on New Zealand’s Southern Island. The park is home to New Zealand’s sea lion population, blue penguins, and dolphins. The park falls under the jurisdiction of the Treaty of Waitangi and, therefore, has a co-management agreement. The agreement through this park requires providing natives with notice of any maintenance, establishing partnerships for pest management, enabling custom access to answers, and developing signs using the cultural names of places. 阿贝尔·塔斯曼国家公园位于新西兰南岛,拥有海滩和滨海山脊。该公园是新西兰海狮、蓝企鹅和海豚的家园。该公园受《怀唐伊条约》的管辖,因此拥有共同管理协议。该协议要求在该公园内提供原住民任何维护工作的通知、为害虫管理建立合作伙伴关系、允许原住民按照习俗进入公园,以及使用当地文化名称来设置标识。
(New Zealand Department of Conservation, & Ross, D. 2008) 新西兰保护区管理局和罗斯，D. 2008 年
Tongariro National Park is New Zealand’s first national park. It has three volcanoes, boiling mud pools, craters, kiwis, and large fish populations. Native populations live in the area and have a deep spiritual connection to the mountains. However, they claim the crown control over the parks has not treated the mountains properly by prioritizing tourism and other interests. This argument stalled attempts to create an agreement, but negotiations resumed in 2023. (Harawira, W. 2023) 汤加里罗国家公园是新西兰第一个国家公园。它拥有三座火山、沸腾的泥浆池、火山口、奇异鸟和丰富的鱼类种群。当地原住民与这些山脉有深厚的精神联系。然而,他们声称,政府过于重视旅游业和其他利益,未能妥善管理这些山脉。这一争议拖延了达成协议的尝试,但谈判在 2023 年恢复。 (Harawira, W. 2023)
Te Urewera was a national park on the north Island that protects forest biomes and New Zealand’s native bird populations. The park was established in 1954 but lost that status in 2014. It was diminished because it was converted from a national park to a new designation with control by a board of natives with minimal crown representation. The new management has prioritized native involvement and conservation efforts. (McAuliffe, L. 2019) 特雷韦拉是北岛上的一个国家公园,用于保护森林生态系统和新西兰的本土鸟类种群。该公园于 1954 年建立,但在 2014 年失去了这一地位。它被削减的原因是,它从国家公园转变为一种新的指定,由一个拥有最少皇冠代表的土著董事会控制。新的管理优先考虑土著参与和保护努力。(McAuliffe, L. 2019)
New Zealand demonstrates a few key competencies, including partial land ownership, maintaining open communication channels, and conflict resolution procedures. Additionally, New Zealand demonstrates that even successful programs have bumps in the road and can always attempt to improve. 新西兰展示了几个关键的能力,包括部分土地所有权、维持开放的沟通渠道和冲突解决程序。此外,新西兰还表明即使成功的计划也会遇到障碍,并且可以一直尝试改进。
C. CANADA 加拿大
Canada has a large national park system and a diverse native American population. Canada has a complex relationship with its native communities, made widely known by the Truth Commission. As part of the country’s reconciliation agenda, they have established various co-management agreements with native tribes. 加拿大拥有庞大的国家公园系统和多元化的原住民人口。加拿大与其原住民群体存在复杂的关系,这一点广为人知,源自真相委员会的调查。作为该国和解议程的一部分,政府与原住民部落建立了各种共同管理协议。
Nahanni National Park Reserve resides in the northwest territories; the park includes the Mackenzie Mountains and the Nahanni River. The Dehcho First Nations and NahPą Dehé Dene Band inhabit the area and donated land in 2009 to expand the park reserve and their connections to it. The native tribe has a detailed co-management agreement with the Canadian government with a mechanism for accountability. The plan has five points: sharing the stories of native people, focusing on using native knowledge in management decisions, addressing emerging environmental challenges, protecting water, and on reconciling relationships between the partners. (Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. 2022) 纳哈尼国家公园保留区位于西北地区;该公园包括麦肯齐山脉和纳哈尼河。德霍第一民族和纳普德黑德内部落居住在该地区,并在 2009 年无偿捐赠土地,以扩大公园保留区并加强与其的联系。当地土著部落与加拿大政府签有详细的联合管理协议,设有问责机制。该计划有五个重点:分享土著人的故事、着重使用土著知识进行管理决策、应对新兴环境挑战、保护水资源,以及促进合作伙伴之间的和解。(加拿大公园管理局,加拿大政府。2022 年)
Gwaii Haanas National Park in British Columbia encompasses an archipelago of 138 islands and the unique aquatic life that lives in between. Haida Nation currently has a unique in Canada agreement consisting of full management authority over the National Marine Conservation Area Reserve and Haida Heritage Site sections of the park through their organization called the Archipelago Management Board. Native management has proven successful and valuable to the tribe, expanding the agreement in 2018. (Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. 2024) 魁北克省的哈喜哈纳斯国家公园包括一个由 138 个岛屿组成的群岛,以及生活在其间的独特水生生物。海达民族目前在加拿大拥有一项独特的协议,通过他们的组织"群岛管理委员会",对国家海洋保护区储备和海达遗产地区拥有全面的管理权限。土著管理已被证明对该部落是成功且有价值的,他们在 2018 年扩大了这一协议。(加拿大国家公园管理局,加拿大政府。2024 年)
Ivvavik National Park is based in the Yukon, which has white-water rivers and is home to the porcupine caribou. The Inuvialuit live in the surrounding areas of the park and have an agreement to manage with the government. The tribe has a representative Wildlife Management Advisory Council, which helps manage the park. The park has 4 governing principles, two of which lay a focus on the native community. First is to ensure that meaningful and tangible opportunities will strengthen Inuvialuit benefits from park-related economic activities. Second is to develop awareness of the significance of the park to global natural and cultural diversity. 伊万维克国家公园位于育空地区,那里有急流河流,是北极袋熊的家园。伊努维亚卢特人居住在公园周围地区,与政府签有管理协议。该部落有一个代表性野生生物管理咨询委员会,它帮助管理公园。公园有 4 项管理原则,其中两项着重于本地社区。第一是确保有意义且实在的机会将加强伊努维亚卢特人从公园相关经济活动中获得的利益。第二是提高人们对这个公园对全球自然和文化多样性的重要性的认识。
(Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. 2022) 加拿大公园署,加拿大政府。2022 年
Qausuittuq National Park is located in Nunavut. It is one of Canada’s newest national parks and hosts bountiful arctic landscapes, including Peary caribou, muskoxen, and polar bears. In the northern Arctic, it is one of many national parks that are inhabited and used as migratory territory for the Innuit people. As a new park, an official agreement has not yet been established. However, whatever agreement will be reached must include a management plan be prepared to guide decision-making on all activities related to park management and operations". Part of the complications to this agreement is that in 2024, the government signed over land and resource responsibilities to the territorial government, which was the largest land transfer in Canada’s history. The provisional government, primarily composed of Inuit people, may fully own the region’s Qausuittuq and other national parks. (Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. 2023) 瓯斯特国家公园位于努纳武特。它是加拿大最新成立的国家公园之一,拥有丰富的北极景观,包括皮里岛驯鹿、麝牛和北极熊。在北极地区,它是许多国家公园之一,这些公园由因纽特人居住并作为迁徙领土使用。作为一个新的公园,尚未建立正式协议。然而,任何协议的达成都必须包括制定一项管理计划,以指导与公园管理和运营有关的所有活动的决策。这一协议存在的一部分复杂性在于,2024 年,政府将土地和资源责任转让给了领土政府,这是加拿大历史上最大规模的土地转让。主要由因纽特人组成的临时政府可能完全拥有瓯斯特等地区的国家公园。(加拿大政府,加拿大公园管理局,2023)
Tongait Mountains National Park straddles the border of Newfoundland and Quebec. The park is dedicated to protecting mountains, their unique wildlife, and the Inuit people. The Inuit people have reached a deal for co-management with three goals, all of which are focused on the local community. This deal includes increased federal funding for new camp zones used by tourists and migrating Inuit people. It further includes a commitment to creating an Innuit business and providing increased 汤盖特山国家公园位于纽芬兰和魁北克的边界。该公园致力于保护山脉、独特的野生动物和因纽特人。因纽特人达成了共同管理协议,有三个主要目标,都聚焦在当地社区。这一协议包括增加联邦资金,用于新的游客和迁徙的因纽特人使用的营地区域。此外,还包括建立因纽特企业的承诺,并提供更多支持。
opportunities. Lastly the agreement sets the stage for the Inuit to tell their story in centers within the park.(Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. 2024) 这个协议为因纽特人在公园内的中心讲述自己的故事奠定了基础。(加拿大公园局,加拿大政府。2024)
Canada has one of the better co-management agreements in place, demonstrating most of the best practices minus equal power and communication channels. 加拿大有一些较为出色的共同管理协议,展示了大部分最佳实践,但缺乏平等的权力和沟通渠道。
D. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA (USA) 美利坚合众国(美国)
The USA has one of the largest national park systems in the world. Additionally, the USA is home to numerous Native American nations, each of which has its own government and treaty with the Federal government. With that in mind, different national parks possess different local management agreements. Some parks don’t have any agreements at all, but the government has been open to improvements with a recent round of negotiations and policy recommendations occurring in 2022. America’s Park Service’s most successful parks are highlighted below. (National Park Service issues new policy, n.d.) 美国拥有世界上最大的国家公园系统之一。此外,美国还有众多原住民部落,每个部落都有自己的政府和与联邦政府的条约。考虑到这一点,不同的国家公园拥有不同的地方管理协议。一些公园根本没有任何协议,但政府一直开放改进,最近在 2022 年进行了一轮谈判和政策建议。以下重点介绍了美国国家公园管理局最成功的公园。(国家公园管理局发布新政策,不详)
Chaco Culture National Historical Park is based in New Mexico. Geographically, this area protects part of the San Juan Basin, which is unique because of its desert fauna and creatures. The main interest of the park is the Aztec’s descendants once occupied it. Today, 19 tribes trace their lineage back to these villages. The tribes became involved with the park in the 1980s as archaeologists used native experts to excavate the archeological sites. Native involvement ensured the sites were treated with respect and protected properly. Communications have remained open, and native advisors to the park have continued to make victories for local people. In 2013, the park was designated as a dark sky country, allowing native people to practice astronomy, just like their ancestors. In 2023, the government permanently withdrew the park and surrounding areas from possible mining claims lists. (U.S. Department of the Interior. 2023) 查科文化国家历史公园位于新墨西哥州。从地理上看,这个地区保护了圣胡安盆地的一部分,这里独特的是沙漠动物和生物。公园的主要吸引力是阿兹特克人的后代曾经占领过这里。如今,19 个部落可以追溯到这些村落的血缘。20 世纪 80 年代,考古学家利用当地专家对考古遗址进行发掘,这些部落也参与其中。土著人的参与确保了这些遗址受到尊重和适当的保护。沟通保持开放,土著顾问继续为当地人民取得胜利。2013 年,公园被指定为黑夜天空国家,允许土著人像他们的祖先一样进行天文研究。2023 年,政府永久从可能的采矿权名单中撤出了公园及其周边地区。(美国内政部,2023 年)
Sitka National Historical Park in Alaska is famous as a historic location of Russian culture in the United States, and it protects mastiff spruce and hemlock forests. Sitka Park is named after the Sitka nation, which used to call the region home. In 2018, the national park made a new first-of-its-kind agreement in the United States. The agreement allows the native tribe to write the historical interpretations of the area that will be presented at the museum. (Sitka, K. R. K.-. 2018) 阿拉斯加的锡特卡国家历史公园以其作为美国俄罗斯文化的历史所在地而闻名,它保护着大规模的云杉和铁杉森林。锡特卡公园以锡特卡部落命名,该部落曾经把这个地区称为家园。2018 年,这个国家公园在美国达成了一项新的首创性协议。该协议允许当地土著部落撰写将在博物馆展示的该区域的历史解释。(锡特卡,K. R. K.-.2018)
Canyon de Chelly National Monument is in northeast Arizona. Renowned for its towing sandstone cliffs and prehistoric rock art. Navajo Nation currently resides within the park territory. They have an agreement that highly favors the tribe, giving them control of wild horses, archaeological resources, and more. As the relationship develops, Navajo has seats at the table and regular community meetings to include everyone in how the park is operated. (Yurth, C. 2018) 峡谷德切利国家纪念碑位于亚利桑那州东北部。以其高耸的砂岩峭壁和史前岩画而闻名。纳瓦霍族目前居住在公园境内。他们有一个极其有利于部族的协议,授予他们对野马、考古资源等的控制权。随着关系的发展,纳瓦霍部落在公园运营方面有发言权,并定期举行社区会议以包括所有人。
Grand Portage National Monument in northern Minnesota protects historical fur trading forts and nature unique to Lake Superior. Due to its proximity to Canada and historical disputes over the area, the native Ojibwe tribe has long influenced the park. Still, the most recent agreement was created because of the 1994 self-governance act. Under their current agreement with the government, the Ojibwe tribe has 大大波特基国家纪念碑位于明尼苏达州北部,保护了历史上的毛皮贸易堡垒以及特有于上萨附近的自然风景。由于其临近加拿大,以及该地区的历史争议,土著奥吉布韦部落长期影响着这个公园。尽管如此,最新的协议是由于 1994 年的自治法而创立的。根据他们与政府现行的协议,奥吉布韦部落有
control over hiring maintenance workers, resource management, and educational programs.(Stewardship at Grand Portage National Monument n.d.) 对于雇佣维修工人、资源管理和教育项目的控制。(Grand Portage National Monument 的管理 n.d.)
The United States, in one capacity or another, reached the main points of co-management agreements minus partial ownership of land, clear boundaries, and conflict resolution. It is important to note that not every park hits the majority of points, but the parks above hit one or two each. Many parks in the USA don’t have co-management agreements at all. 美国以一种或另一种身份达到了共同管理协议的主要要点,但没有部分所有权、明确边界和冲突解决。值得注意的是,并非每个公园都达到了大部分要点,但上述公园都达到了一个或两个要点。美国许多公园根本没有共同管理协议。
E. NORDIC COUNTRIES 北欧国家
The Nordic countries are inhabited by the Sami (also Saami) people, a 2000-year-old nomadic ethnic group in Northern Scandinavia, Laponia. They have never had an independent state, and today their lands are divided between Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Russia. The region has unique natural qualities like old-growth forests, glaciers, extensive wetlands, and several reindeer herds. The unique qualities have made the Laponia, aka the Sápmi region a tourist hotspot home to 4 national parks, a UNESCO site, and 10,000km^(2)10,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} of reserves. 北欧国家由萨米(又称萨米)人居住,这是一个在北斯堪的纳维亚、拉封尼亚地区拥有 2000 年历史的游牧民族族群。他们从未拥有独立的国家,如今他们的领地被分划到芬兰、挪威、瑞典和俄罗斯之间。这个地区有独特的自然特质,如原始森林、冰川、广阔的湿地和几个驯鹿群。这些独特的特质使拉封尼亚,即萨普米地区成为一处旅游热点,拥有 4 个国家公园、1 处联合国教科文组织遗产地和 10,000km^(2)10,000 \mathrm{~km}^{2} 处自然保护区。
The Nordic governments have taken several steps to balance Sami rights with other goals. First, Sami representatives are granted seats on the board of directors for the regional national parks. Second, The region has strong local governance; Sweden has given control of economic development to county councils, while Norway allows the Sami people to run a semi-independent parliament. Third, the governments promotes Sami people to non-profit organizations or businesses. Rewilding Europe is an example of an environmental non-profit funded by the EU but still maintains some Sami control. Fourth, the Nordic countries have supported the Sami people in getting a permanent seat on the Arctic Council, allowing native voices to be heard internationally. These solutions are by no means perfect. Norway has come under fire in 2018 for setting up windmills contracts in the Laponia region. However, these steps allow Sami people to make their voices heard and hold their respective countries accountable. This area faces an uphill battle because of the three separate countries that control the nations. (OECD 2019, and HEAPS, D. 2019) 北欧政府采取了多项措施,试图在萨米人权益与其他目标之间寻求平衡。首先,萨米人代表被授予区域国家公园董事会的席位。其次,该地区拥有强大的地方治理;瑞典将经济发展控制权交给了县议会,而挪威则允许萨米人自主管理一个半独立的议会。第三,政府促进萨米人进入非营利组织或企业。"重返欧洲野生"就是一个由欧盟资助、但仍由萨米人控制的环保非营利组织的例子。第四,北欧国家支持萨米人在北极理事会上获得永久席位,使本土声音得以在国际上被听到。这些解决方案并非完美无缺。2018 年,挪威因在拉普兰地区设置风力发电厂而受到批评。然而,这些措施使萨米人能够发出自己的声音,并要求其所在国承担责任。这一地区面临着严峻挑战,因为它由三个独立的国家所控制。
The Nordic’s main success despite this setback is having open lines of communication and conflict resolution procedures. These two points are the foundations of any successful agreement, even if the other elements can’t be reached. 尽管遭受了这一挫折,北欧国家取得的主要成功在于建立了公开的沟通渠道和冲突解决程序。这两个因素是任何成功协议的基础,即使无法达成其他要素。
F.AFRICA 非洲
Africa has many national parks and ethnic diversity, but three countries have shown to be the most successful: Cameroon, Botswana, and Namibia. 非洲有许多国家公园和民族多样性,但有三个国家被证明是最成功的:喀麦隆、博茨瓦纳和纳米比亚。
Botswana has a large national park system, with over 17%17 \% of its land protected by the government. The park system includes wonders like the Okavango Delta and the Kalahari Desert. They have used a community-based natural resource management system since the 1980s. The current rendition of the 博茨瓦纳拥有一个巨大的国家公园体系,其中超过 17%17 \% 的土地受到政府的保护。公园体系包括奥卡万戈三角洲和卡拉哈里沙漠等奇迹。自 20 世纪 80 年代以来,他们一直采用以社区为基础的自然资源管理体系。目前的版本是
program known as the COMPACT model has 6 key steps to address this issue, including increasing community awareness, sustainable use of cultural heritage assets, increasing stakeholder capacity, effective management, increasing economic opportunities, and developing safe marketing strategies. Botswana struggles with funding and has not fully seen the results it hoped for. Tourism companies, stakeholder partnerships, or organizations like USAID fund many of its programs. 这个被称为 COMPACT 模型的项目有 6 个关键步骤来解决这个问题,包括提高社区意识、文化遗产资产的可持续利用、提高利益相关方的能力、有效管理、增加经济机会以及制定安全的营销策略。博茨瓦纳在资金方面一直存在困难,尚未完全实现预期的结果。旅游公司、利益相关方合作伙伴或 USAID 等组织为该国的许多项目提供资金支持。
(UNDP GEF/SGP, Engleton, A. L., Thakadu, O. T., & Okavango Research Institute. 2020) (联合国开发计划署 全球环境基金/小额赠款项目, Engleton, A. L., Thakadu, O. T., & 奥卡万戈研究所。 2020)
Namibia’s local populations have no direct control, but the Namibian government, under the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET), has regulations requiring stakeholder input into park management plans. For example, the Caprivi Region is a narrow strip of land extending eastwards from the country’s northeastern corner that borders four neighboring countries. The region is flat and characterized by numerous swamps and slow-flowing rivers. The management plan includes Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES), which pay locals to report poachers and hunt invasive species. (MET. 2013) 纳米比亚的当地人口没有直接控制权,但纳米比亚政府在环境和旅游部(MET)的监管下,要求利益相关者参与公园管理计划。例如,卡普里维地区是从该国东北角延伸到东部的一条狭长地带,与四个邻国接壤。该地区平坦,有众多沼泽和缓流河流。管理计划包括生态系统服务付费(PES),向当地人支付报告偷猎者和狩猎入侵物种的费用。(MET. 2013)
Cameroon has several national parks of note, including Mount Cameroon, Boumba Bek, Nki, and Lobeke. These parks protect Cameroon’s vast biodiversity, including forests, volcanos, coastlines, etc. Cameroon has consulted with local groups when building these parks. However, due to violence and many competing players, the parks and the local groups that live there have not been properly protected. NGOs have stepped in to fill the void and have assisted the government in maintaining its commitment to local participation. NGOs include Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD+), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and the African Wildlife Foundation. REDD+ has worked in Mount Cameroon National Park and has kept locals involved with labored tasks and committee roles. Participants in the program are very supportive. However, many are inactive due to a lack of diversity in participation routes. WWF has worked with the Baka communities since the 1990s around the Boumba Bek, Nki, and Lobeke national parks. Through the WWF, 14 community hunting zones were established, 42 community reforestation projects were undertaken, and 4 classrooms were built. The WWF has provided a path forward balancing natural protection, community rights, local governance, and economic expansion for the people who live there. The African Wildlife Foundation works with three parks: FARO, DJA, and Campo Ma’am. With their resources, they support the creation of local ambassador programs for the government, the hiring of local people for anti-poaching / biomonitoring projects, and help support alternative job creation outside of the environmentally destructive coco-industry. (Awung NS, Marchant R. n.d) 喀麦隆拥有几处著名的国家公园,包括喀麦隆山、Boumba Bek、Nki 和 Lobeke。这些公园保护了喀麦隆广阔的生物多样性,包括森林、火山、海岸线等。在建设这些公园时,喀麦隆政府与当地群体进行了咨询。然而,由于暴力事件和众多利益相关方的竞争,这些公园及其居民未能得到适当的保护。非政府组织已经介入填补这一空白,并协助政府保持对当地参与的承诺。这些组织包括减少发展中国家森林砍伐和森林退化排放(REDD+)、世界野生动物基金会(WWF)和非洲野生生物基金会。REDD+在喀麦隆山国家公园开展工作,并使当地居民参与到劳动任务和委员会角色中。该项目的参与者非常支持。然而,由于参与途径缺乏多样性,许多人保持不活跃。WWF 自 1990 年代起一直与 Baka 社区合作,围绕 Boumba Bek、Nki 和 Lobeke 国家公园。通过 WWF,建立了 14 个社区狩猎区域,开展了 42 个社区造林项目,并建造了 4 个教室。WWF 为平衡自然保护、社区权利、地方治理和当地经济发展提供了前进的道路。非洲野生生物基金会在 Faro、Dja 和 Campo Ma'am 三个国家公园开展工作。凭借资源,他们支持为政府建立当地大使计划,雇用当地人参与反偷猎/生物监测项目,并帮助在环境破坏性较小的可可行业之外创造其他就业机会。
African conservation primarily focuses on capacity building and equitable financing. The African examples show a crucial point: the intention of co-management agreements has little weight if resources are not available to put the agreements into action. 非洲的保护工作主要集中在能力建设和公平融资。非洲的例子显示了一个至关重要的观点:如果没有资源来实施共管协议,协议的初衷就不会发挥多大作用。
G. NEPAL 尼泊尔
Nepal, a country with close cultural ties to the Tibetan plateau, has co-management agreements around its national parks. As a smaller country, the national park in question is Sagarmatha National Park, home to dramatic mountains, glaciers, deep valleys, and seven mountain peaks, including portions of Mount 尼泊尔，一个与西藏高原有着密切文化联系的国家，在其国家公园周围有共同管理协议。作为一个较小的国家，这个国家公园就是萨加玛塔国家公园,这里拥有壮丽的山脉、冰川、深谷以及七座山峰,包括珠穆朗玛峰的一些区域。
Everest. The park hosts over 20 villages, and over 6000 locals, called Sherpas, have inhabited the region for the last four centuries. They regularly practice traditional mountaineering, trekking, and agriculture practices. The Park system has created a buffer zone that prevents park tourists from interacting with areas primarily used by the Sherpas. This policy is effectively supported by grants and the Nepalese military. In 2022, a review of the program was conducted and found that the program was very good at supporting community development and conflict resolution but lacked wildlife damage compensation schemes and feral dog controls. Overall, the program was ranked positively by many sherpas. 珠穆朗玛峰。该公园拥有超过 20 个村庄,超过 6000 名当地居民,称为夏尔巴人,已在该地区居住了四个世纪。他们定期实践传统的登山、远足和农业实践。该公园系统已创建一个缓冲区,阻止游客进入主要由夏尔巴人使用的区域。这一政策得到了赠款和尼泊尔军方的有效支持。2022 年,对该计划进行了评估,发现该计划在支持社区发展和冲突解决方面效果很好,但缺乏野生动物损害赔偿计划和流浪狗控制。总的来说,该计划受到许多夏尔巴人的积极评价。
(Sagarmatha National Park and Thakur Silwal, Bishnu P. Devkota, Prabin Poudel, and Mark Morgan, n.d) 萨加玛塔国家公园和 Thakur Silwal、Bishnu P. Devkota、Prabin Poudel 和 Mark Morgan（无日期）
Nepal benefits from several factors, including clear boundaries and equitable financing. As a park in circumstances similar to China’s Tibetan region, these key points of success should be of consideration for the Chinese Government. 尼泊尔从多个因素中获益,包括明确的边界和公平的融资。作为一个环境与中国西藏地区相似的国家公园,这些成功的关键点应该引起中国政府的关注。
The national park programs examined in this paper show the importance of the ten key principles of comanagement agreements. However, it also shows the importance of nuance: some programs work better than others, and the environment, country, and native tribe all have vital considerations. Maintaining open communication is, therefore, the most important of the ten principles. The programs show the importance of change. Although the programs outlined above are successful now, historically that is not always the case. Canada, the United States, and Australia, which are leading in this field of indigenous co-management, have a dark history of dealing with native communities. Additionally, countries like Mongolia, Suriname and South Africa are all examples of countries that do not yet have co-management agreements but have begun negotiations with local groups. It is never too late to adjust; and sometimes, minor changes can have a huge impact. 本文所研究的国家公园项目显示了十大共同管理协议原则的重要性。然而,它也显示了细微差别的重要性:一些项目效果比其他项目好,环境、国家和土著部落都有重要的考虑因素。因此,保持开放沟通是十大原则中最重要的。这些项目显示了变革的重要性。尽管上述概述的项目目前都很成功,但从历史上看并非总是如此。加拿大、美国和澳大利亚在这个领域处于领先地位,但却有与土著社区打交道的黑暗历史。此外,蒙古、苏里南和南非等国家都还没有共同管理协议,但已经开始与当地群体进行谈判。调整从未为时已晚;有时,小的改变也可能产生巨大影响。
V. CONCLUSION 结论
China aspires to create the largest national park system in the world. The national park sites identified by the Chinese government possess unique natural qualities deserving of preservation for future generations. The Tibetan people have lived in the 13 proposed parks on the Tibetan Plateau for centuries. This region has been their home. They have developed a deep connection and served as able stewards and maintained the fragile ecosystem. China’s massive national parks plan will have a profound impact on the lives of the resident Tibetan population, their culture, identity and livelihood. Many Tibetans are frightened of the unknown outcomes fearing loss of autonomy and forced removal. 中国志向建立世界最大的国家公园系统。中国政府确定的国家公园场址拥有独特的自然品质,值得为后代保护。几个世纪以来,藏族人一直居住在青藏高原的 13 处拟建公园中。这片区域是他们的家园。他们与之建立了深厚的联系,成为称职的管理者,维护了脆弱的生态系统。中国宏大的国家公园计划将对居住在此的藏族人口的生活、文化、身份认同和生计产生深远影响。许多藏族人担心未知的结果,害怕失去自治和被强制搬迁。
China’s massive national parks plan will have a profound impact on the lives of the resident Tibetan population, their culture, identity and livelihood. 中国巨大的国家公园计划将对居住在该地区的藏族人口的生活、文化、身份认同和生计产生深远影响。
National parks can have various positive or negative impacts on native populations from combating climate change to resource mismanagement. As of 2024 the results of China’s pilot program remain to be fully seen as China’s initiative is still at an early stage. China continues to adopt various measures 国家公园可能对本地居民产生积极或消极的影响,从应对气候变化到资源管理不善。截至 2024 年,中国试点计划的结果尚未完全显现,因为该倡议仍处于初期阶段。中国继续采取各种措施
towards its eventual goal of establishing the world’s largest national park system including its first National Parks Law currently being reviewed by the National People’s Congress and expected to become law in 2025. A centralized approach under the National Forest and Grassland Administration and by the Chinese government has so far limited Tibetan participation, caused displacement and reinforced concerns. 致力于建立世界最大的国家公园系统,包括其首部国家公园法目前正由全国人民代表大会审议,预计将在 2025 年成为法律。国家林业和草原局及中国政府采取的集中管理方式迄今限制了藏族人民的参与,导致了强制迁移并引发了相关担忧。
An absence of Tibetan participation, role and ownership will reinforce the fear that China’s national parks system is a step towards sinicizing the environment and assimilating Tibetans and Tibet into China. 西藏人缺乏参与、角色和所有权将加强人们对中国国家公园系统是一个向中国化环境和吸收西藏人和西藏入中国的步骤的担忧。
China is not the first country to create a national park system where native peoples were important stakeholders in proposed national parks. This is a benefit for China because other countries can provide a template of best practices for China. Every country, park, and native people will be slightly different resulting in slightly different outcomes of each park. Some possible programs include job training, economic development, federal funding, buffer zones, and more. However, beyond the best practices outlined in the paper, China must come to terms with the fact that almost 70 percent of the total area of the proposed national park system is located on the Tibetan Plateau - a land inhabited and stewarded by Tibetans for centuries. While the concept of establishing national parks can be good for the environment and ecology, it should not happen on the backs of the native Tibetan population. The Chinese government must address the concerns and issues of the Tibetan population. A negotiated comanagement agreement and transferring management and stewardship of the parks to the Tibetan community so that these parks operate as autonomous entities should be considered. An absence of Tibetan participation, role and ownership will reinforce growing fear that China’s national parks system is yet another step towards sinicizing the environment and assimilating Tibetans and Tibet into China. 中国并非第一个建立由本地人民成为国家公园重要利益相关方的国家。这对中国很有益,因为其他国家可以提供最佳实践的范本。每个国家、公园和本地人会略有不同,导致每个公园的结果略有差异。可能的项目包括就业培训、经济发展、联邦资金、缓冲区等。但是,除了论文中概述的最佳实践之外,中国必须认识到,所提议的国家公园系统总面积的近 70%位于西藏高原——这片土地数百年来一直由藏人居住和管理。虽然建立国家公园的概念可以对环境和生态有利,但不应建立在藏人的背上。中国政府必须解决藏人的关切和问题。应该考虑达成共同管理协议,并将公园的管理和管理权转交给藏人社区,使这些公园成为自治实体。缺乏藏人参与、角色和所有权将加强人们日益增长的担忧,即中国的国家公园系统只是另一个向中国化环境并同化藏人和西藏的步骤。
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY 参考文献
Awung NS, Marchant R. Investigating the Role of the Local Community as Co-Managers of the Mount Cameroon National Park Conservation Project. Environments. 2016; 3(4):36. https:// doi.org/10.3390/environments3040036 阿翁 NS, 马奇特 R. 研究地方社区作为坎梅隆山国家公园保护项目的联合管理者的作用。Environments. 2016; 3(4):36. https:// doi.org/10.3390/environments3040036
Cindy. (2024, May 8). Wolong National Nature Reserve (Wolong Panda Center), a Wild Panda reserve. China Highlights - Since 1998! https://www.chinahighlights.com/giant-panda/ wolong.htm 辛迪。(2024 年 5 月 8 日)。卧龙国家自然保护区(卧龙大熊猫中心),一处野生大熊猫保护区。自 1998 年以来的中国亮点! https://www.chinahighlights.com/giant-panda/wolong.htm
HEAPS, D. (2019, June 27). Sami Land rights and policy-driven recognition threats. Retrieved May 8, 2024, from https://jsis.washington.edu/news/sami-land-rights-and-policy-driven-recognition-thr 希普斯,D.(2019 年 6 月 27 日)。萨米土地权利和政策驱动的承认威胁。于 2024 年 5 月 8 日从 https://jsis.washington.edu/news/sami-land-rights-and-policy-driven-recognition-thr 获取。
Lalu Wetland a pure land in Lhasa – china.org.cn. (n.d.). http://www.china.org.cn/english/ environment/222205.htm 拉鲁湿地——拉萨的净土 - china.org.cn。(不详)。http://www.china.org.cn/english/environment/222205.htm
Lasimbang, J. (2010, May 7). National Parks: Indigenous resource management principles in protected areas and Indigenous peoples of Asia. Cultural Survival. https:// www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/national-parks-indigenous-resource-management-principles 拉西姆班, J. (2010 年 5 月 7 日)。国家公园: 亚洲土著资源管理原则在受保护区域和土著人民中的应用。Cultural Survival。https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/national-parks-indigenous-resource-management-principles
Management - Mesa Verde National Park (U.S. National Park Service). (n.d.). https:// www.nps.gov/meve/learn/management/index.htm 管理 - 梅萨维德国家公园 (美国国家公园管理局) .(无日期). https://www.nps.gov/meve/learn/management/index.htm
McAuliffe, L. (2019, June 3). Te Urewera: Governance Shifts with Co-Management. 3Rs of Ecology. https://biol420eres525.wordpress.com/2019/05/16/te-urewera-governance-shifts-with-environmental-personhood/ 麦考利夫, L. (2019 年 6 月 3 日). Te Urewera: 共同管理下的治理转变. 生态学 3R. https://biol420eres525.wordpress.com/2019/05/16/te-urewera-governance-shifts-with-environmental-personhood/
#:~:text=In %202014%2C%20Te%20\% 202014 \% 2 \mathrm{C} \% 20 \mathrm{Te} \% 20 Urewera %20was,a%20co%2\% 20 \mathrm{was}, \mathrm{a} \% 20 \mathrm{co} \% 2 Dmanagement %20\% 20 governance %20system 在乌鲁维拉管理治理系统中
MET. (2013). Management Plan Namib Naukluft Park. In Republic of Namibia Ministry of Environment and Tourism. https://www.meft.gov.na/files/files/ Namib%20Naukluft%20Management%20Plan.pdf 纳米比亚环境旅游部。(2013)。纳米布-奈克鲁夫特国家公园管理计划。
Nadasdy, P. (2005). The Anti-Politics of TEK: The Institutionalization of Co-Management Discourse and Practice. Anthropologica, 47(2), 215-232. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25606237 纳达西，P。(2005)。TEK 反政治化:合作管理话语和实践的制度化。 人类学，47(2)，215-232。 http://www.jstor.org/stable/25606237
Natcher, D. C., Davis, S., & Hickey, C. G. (2005). Co-Management: Managing Relationships, Not Resources. Human Organization, 64(3), 240-250. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44127318 纳彻, D. C., 戴维斯, S., & 希基, C. G. (2005). 共同管理: 管理关系,而非资源. 人类组织, 64(3), 240-250. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44127318
National Parks Conservation Association. (n.d.). Climate action. https://www.npca.org/reports/ climate-action 国家公园保护协会。(无日期)。气候行动。https://www.npca.org/reports/climate-action
OECD (2019), Linking the Indigenous Sami People with Regional Development in Sweden, OECD Rural Policy Reviews, OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264310544en 经合组织(2019)《将瑞典地区土著萨米人与区域发展联系起来》,经合组织农村政策评论,经合组织出版社,巴黎。https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264310544en
Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. (2022, October 6). Nahanni National Park Reserve of Canada Management Plan, 2021. Nahanni National Park Reserve. https:// parks.canada.ca/pn-np/nt/nahanni/info/plan/plan-2021 加拿大公园署,加拿大政府。(2022 年 10 月 6 日)。加拿大纳哈尼国家公园保护区管理计划,2021 年。纳哈尼国家公园保护区。https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/nt/nahanni/info/plan/plan-2021
Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. (2022, November 19). IVvavik National Park of Canada Management Plan 2018. Ivvavik National Park. https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/yt/ivvavik/ gestion-management/gestion-management2018 加拿大公园局,加拿大政府。(2022 年 11 月 19 日)。加拿大艾维维克国家公园管理计划 2018。艾维维克国家公园。https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/yt/ivvavik/ gestion-management/gestion-management2018
Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. (2023, October 5). Cooperative management. Qausuittuq National Park. https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/nu/qausuittuq/info/gestion-management 加拿大公园署,加拿大政府。(2023 年 10 月 5 日)。合作管理。考斯伊特山国家公园。https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/nu/qausuittuq/info/gestion-management
Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. (2024, February 21). National Urban Parks. Parks Canada. https://parks.canada.ca/pun-nup 加拿大公园局,加拿大政府。(2024 年 2 月 21 日)。国家城市公园。加拿大公园局。https://parks.canada.ca/pun-nup
Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. (2024, March 20). Tongait KakKasuangita SilakKijapvinga - Torngat Mountains National Park of Canada Management Plan, 2023. Torngat Mountains National Park. https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/nl/torngats/info/gestion-management/plan-2023 加拿大公园局,加拿大政府。(2024 年 3 月 20 日)。Tongait KakKasuangita SilakKijapvinga - 加拿大东格纳特山国家公园管理计划,2023 年。东格纳特山国家公园。https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/nl/torngats/info/gestion-management/plan-2023
Parks Canada Agency, Government of Canada. (2024, May 3). Cooperative management. Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, National Marine Conservation Area Reserve, and Haida Heritage Site. https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/bc/gwaiihaanas/info/coop 加拿大公园局,加拿拿政府。(2024 年 5 月 3 日)。合作管理。Gwaii Haanas 国家公园保护区、国家海洋保护区保护区和海达文化遗产地。https://parks.canada.ca/pn-np/bc/gwaiihaanas/info/coop
Porterfield, A. & Regional Educational Laboratory Program (REL). (2023). REL Blog | Supporting Native American Students Through Culturally Relevant Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ ncee/rel/Products/Region/west/Blog/107352 波特菲尔德,A. & 区域教育实验室项目(REL)。(2023)。REL 博客 | 通过文化相关教育支持美洲原住民学生。https://ies.ed.gov/ ncee/rel/Products/Region/west/Blog/107352
SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK AND ITS BUFFER ZONE MANAGEMENT PLAN 2016-2020 萨迦玛塔国家公园及其缓冲区管理计划 2016-2020
Schütt, B., Berking, J., Frechen, M., & Yi, C. (2008). Late Pleistocene Lake Level Fluctuations of the Nam Co, Tibetan Plateau, China. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie, 52, 57-74. [https:// doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2008/0052S2-0057] 舒特、伯金、弗雷辛和易. (2008). 西藏高原纳木错晚更新世湖泊水位波动. 地貌学杂志, 52, 57-74. [https://doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2008/0052S2-0057]
Slade, M. (2023, May 17). Conservation with Chinese characteristics: China’s new National Park System | CSIS. Retrieved May 8, 2024, from https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/ conservation-chinese-characteristics-chinas-new-national-park-system-0 斯莱德, M. (2023 年 5 月 17 日)。具有中国特色的保护:中国新的国家公园体系|CSIS。检索于 2024 年 5 月 8 日,取自 https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/conservation-chinese-characteristics-chinas-new-national-park-system-0
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1998, July 20). Nyainqêntanglha Mountains | Tibetan Plateau, Himalayas, Nature Reserve. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/ place/Nyainqentanglha-Mountains 尼扬千唐拉山
Thakur Silwal, Bishnu P. Devkota, Prabin Poudel, and Mark Morgan “Do Buffer Zone Programs Improve Local Livelihoods and Support Biodiversity Conservation? The Case of Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal,” Tropical Conservation Science 15(1), (15 June 2022). https://doi.org/ 10.1177/19400829221106670 塔库尔·西尔瓦尔、比什努·p·德夫科塔、普拉宾·浦德尔和马克·摩根 "缓冲区计划是否改善当地生计并支持生物多样性保护?以尼泊尔萨加尔玛塔国家公园为例"，《热带保护科学》15(1)期, (2022 年 6 月 15 日)。https://doi.org/ 10.1177/19400829221106670
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2017). Qinghai Hoh Xil - UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved May 8, 2024, from https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1540/ 联合国教科文组织世界遗产中心。(2017)。青海可可西里 - 联合国教科文组织世界遗产中心。2024 年 5 月 8 日检索,来源于 https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1540/。
UNESCO. (2024). World Heritage and Indigenous Peoples. Retrieved May 8, 2024, from https:// whc.unesco.org/en/activities/496/ 联合国教科文组织。(2024)。世界遗产和土著人民。取自 2024 年 5 月 8 日, 从 https:// whc.unesco.org/en/activities/496/
UNDP GEF/SGP, Engleton, A. L., Thakadu, O. T., & Okavango Research Institute. (2020). Community Management of Protected Areas for Conservation Site Strategy. In COMPACT Site Strategy. https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/bw/Community-Management-of-Protected-Areas-for-Conservation-Site-Strategy.pdf 联合国开发计划署全球环境基金/小规模赠款计划、Engleton、A. L.、Thakadu、O. T.和奥卡万戈研究所。(2020)。《保护地区社区管理保护区战略》。见《COMPACT 地点战略》。https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/bw/Community-Management-of-Protected-Areas-for-Conservation-Site-Strategy.pdf
U.S. Department of the Interior. (2023, June 2). Biden-Harris Administration Protects Chaco Region, Tribal Cultural Sites from Development. U.S. Department of The Interior. https:// www.doi.gov/pressreleases/biden-harris-administration-protects-chaco-region-tribal-cultural-sites-development 美国内政部。(2023 年 6 月 2 日)。拜登-哈里斯政府保护查科地区和部落文化遗址免受开发。美国内政部。https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/biden-harris-administration-protects-chaco-region-tribal-cultural-sites-development
Visit Indigenous Landscapes (U.S. National Park Service). (n.d.). https://www.nps.gov/articles/ visit-indigenous-landscapes.htm 参观原住民景观（美国国家公园管理局）。(无日期)。https://www.nps.gov/articles/visit-indigenous-landscapes.htm
Wang Z, Song K, Hu L. China’s largest scale ecological migration in the Three-River Headwater region. Ambio. 2010 Jul-Sep;39(5-6):443-6. doi: 10.1007/s13280-010-0054-z. PMID: 21053728; PMCID: PMC3357714. 王志、宋恺、胡林。中国三江源地区最大规模的生态移民。Ambio。2010 年 7-9 月;39(5-6):443-6。doi: 10.1007/s13280-010-0054-z.PMID: 21053728;PMCID: PMC3357714。
Washburn, Kevin K., Facilitating Tribal Co-Management of Federal Public Lands (October 27, 2021). 2022 Wis. L. Rev. 263-328 (2022), U Iowa Legal Studies Research Paper No. 2021-45, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3951290 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn. 3951290 瓦什本,凯文·K.,促进部落与联邦公共土地的共同管理(2021 年 10 月 27 日)。《2022 威斯康星法律评论》263-328 页(2022 年),爱荷华大学法律研究论文 No. 2021-45,可在 SSRN 获取:https://ssrn.com/abstract=3951290 或 http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3951290
Weber, B. (2023, October 18). First Nations harvest set to return to western Alberta’s Jasper National Park. CBC. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/parks-canada-jasper-first 韦伯, B. (2023 年 10 月 18 日)。西部阿尔伯塔省的积善国家公园即将恢复第一民族的收获活动。CBC。https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/parks-canada-jasper-first
n
a
t
i
O
n
-
n a t i O n -| n | a | t | i | O | n | - |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
Ying, K. a. Y. (2023, September 15). A journey to Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon- the deepest and longest canyon on the Earth. Journey Beyond the Horizon. https:// journeybeyondhorizon.com/yarlung-tsangpo-grand-canyon/ 应颖(2023 年 9 月 15 日)。一次通往雅鲁藏布大峡谷的旅程——地球上最深和最长的峡谷。《远方之旅》。https://journeybeyondhorizon.com/yarlung-tsangpo-grand-canyon/
Yurth, C. (2018, June 27). Agreement signed for Canyon de Chelly. Navajo Times. https:// navajotimes.com/reznews/agreement-signed-for-canyon-de-chelly/ 约尔思, C. (2018 年 6 月 27 日)。签署峡谷德奇利协议。纳瓦霍时报。 https:// navajotimes.com/reznews/agreement-signed-for-canyon-de-chelly/
Zabaleta, L. (2020, June 16). Devils Tower Vs. Bear Lodge: How A Name Shapes The Way Westerners Approach Holy Ground 扎巴莱塔, L. (2020, 6 月 16 日). 恶魔塔 vs. 熊洛奇: 名称如何塑造西方人接近神圣之地的方式
VII. ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 附加资源
Journal Articles: 期刊文章:
Domínguez, L., & Luoma, C. (2020). Decolonising Conservation Policy: How Colonial Land and Conservation Ideologies Persist and Perpetuate Indigenous Injustices at the Expense of the Environment. Land, 9(3), 65. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030065 多明格斯, L., & 卢奥马, C. (2020). 去殖民化保护政策: 殖民主义土地和保护理念如何持续存在并以环境为代价加剧土著不公. Land, 9(3), 65. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9030065
Ma, T., Swallow, B., Foggin, J.M. et al. Co-management for sustainable development and conservation in Sanjiangyuan National Park and the surrounding Tibetan nomadic pastoralist areas. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10, 321 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01756-1 马蒂、斯沃罗、方金等。三江源国家公园及周边藏族游牧牧民区的可持续发展和保护的联合管理。《人文与社会科学交流》10, 321 (2023)。https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01756-1
News Articles: 新闻文章:
Palmo, D. (2022, June 28). What Xi didn’t say about national parks on Tibetan Plateau 习近平没有谈及西藏高原国家公园的内容
The new parks will entail forced relocation of Tibetan nomads from their land. Asia Times. https://asiatimes.com/2022/06/what-xi-didnt-say-about-national-parks-on-tibetan-plateau/ 新公园将迫使藏族游牧民从他们的土地上被强制迁移。亚洲时报。https://asiatimes.com/2022/06/what-xi-didnt-say-about-national-parks-on-tibetan-plateau/
Treuer, D. (2021, May). Who Owns America’s Wilderness? Return the National Parks to the Tribes. The jewels of America’s landscape should belong to America’s original peoples. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/05/return-the-national-parks-to-the-tribes/618395/ 特鲁尔(Treuer, D.)。(2021 年 5 月)。谁拥有美国的荒野?向部族归还国家公园。美国景观的瑰宝应该属于美国的原住民。大西洋杂志。https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2021/05/return-the-national-parks-to-the-tribes/618395/
Woodrow Wilson Center. (2020. March 10). Protecting China’s Biodiverse Hotspots: The Birth of a National Park System. YouTube. 伍德罗·威尔逊中心.(2020 年 3 月 10 日).保护中国的生物多样性热点区:国家公园系统的诞生.YouTube. https://youtu.be/VPj4qT3KZaw?si=o2wKyC5qPTv3NWW0
VIII．KEY CHINESE GOVERNMENT POLICIES AND LAWS 八．主要中国政府政策和法律
1．＂Overall Plan for Ecological Civilization System Reform＂．Issued by the CCP Central Committee and the State Council．September 21， 2015 生态文明体系改革总体方案。由中共中央和国务院发布。2015 年 9 月 21 日
2．The Overall Plan for the Establishment of the National Park Management System Issued by the CCP Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council．September 26， 2017 关于建立国家公园管理体系的总体方案
3．＂Guiding Opinions on Establishing a Natural Protection Area System with National Parks as the Main Body．＂Issued by the CCP Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council．June 26， 2019 关于建立以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系的指导意见
4．National Parks Law of the People＇s Republic of China 中华人民共和国国家公园法
中华人民共和国国家公园法
［Current Text：not yet enacted］ 未制定法案
National People＇s Congress deliberation－3rd（expected final）round：expected by mid－2025 全国人民代表大会表决-第三（预计最终）轮：预计在 2025 年中期之前
Source：NPC Observer 源代码观察者
5．Qinghai－Tibet Plateau Ecological Conservation Law 青海-西藏高原生态保护法
Law of the People＇s Republic of China on Ecological Conservation on the Qinghai－Tibet Plateau中华人民共和国青藏高原生态保护法 中华人民共和国青藏高原生态保护法
（adopted Apr．26，2023，effective Sept．1，2023）．Text of the Law 《法律文本》
The Qinghai－Tibet Plateau Ecological Conservation Law of the People＇s Republic of China was formulated by the Standing Committee of the Fourteenth National People＇s Congress in Beijing on April 26，2023．This law came into effect from 1st September 2023．It has seven chapters，including general provisions，ecological security layout，ecological protection and restoration，ecological risk prevention and control，guarantee and supervision，legal responsibilities，and supplementary provisions，with a total of 63 articles．This law applies to the whole of Tibet and East Turkistan． 中华人民共和国青海-西藏高原生态保护法由第十四届全国人民代表大会常务委员会于 2023 年 4 月 26 日在北京制定。该法自 2023 年 9 月 1 日起生效。该法共 7 章，包括总则、生态安全格局、生态保护与修复、生态风险防范与控制、保障与监督、法律责任以及附则，共 63 条。该法适用于整个西藏和东突厥斯坦
6．Policy of Mass Relocation of Tibetan Nomads 西藏游牧民族大规模迁移的政策
According to Human Rights Watch，the Chinese government will have relocated over 930，000 rural Tibetans between 2000 and 2025．＂Most of these relocations－over 709,000 people or 76 percent of these relocations－have taken place since 2016．＂The government says that these relocations－often to areas hundreds of kilometers away－are voluntary and that they will＂improve people＇s livelihood＂and ＂protect the ecological environment．＂ 根据人权观察的报告，中国政府将在 2000 年至 2025 年间迁移 93 万多名农村藏人。其中超过 70.9 万人（占 76%）的迁移发生在 2016 年以来。中国政府表示，这些迁移(通常迁往数百公里外的地区)是自愿的,将"改善民众生计"和"保护生态环境"
Since 2016，the Chinese government has dramatically accelerated the relocation of rural villagers and herders in Tibet．The government says that these relocations－often to areas hundreds of kilometers away－are voluntary and that they will＂improve people＇s livelihood＂and＂protect the ecological environment．＂ 从 2016 年以来，中国政府大幅加快了在西藏地区对农村村民和牧民的遣散安置。政府表示，这些搬迁——通常是到几百公里外的地方——是自愿的,并且将"改善人民生活"和"保护生态环境"
7. Announcement of the National Park System 7. 国家公园系统公告
The Chinese government initiated a pilot program for a national park system in 2015. The first batch of 5 national parks were announced on October 12, 2021. The parks include Sanjiangyuan, Giant Panda, Northeast Tiger and Leopard, Hainan Tropical Rainforest, and Wuyi Mountain. 中国政府于 2015 年启动了国家公园体系试点项目。2021 年 10 月 12 日,首批 5 个国家公园正式宣布成立,包括三江源、大熊猫、东北虎豹、海南热带雨林和武夷山国家公园。
8. Expansion of the National Park System 国家公园系统的扩张
On December 29, 2022, China’s State Council announced that China had selected 49 candidate sites for building national parks. The statement said “China will have the largest national park system in the world, in terms of protected areas, if all 49 candidate parks are constructed, according to the plan.” 2022 年 12 月 29 日,中国国务院宣布中国已选定 49 个国家公园候选地。声明称,如果所有 49 个候选公园都按计划建成,中国将拥有世界上最大的国家公园体系,涉及的保护面积最广。
A spatial plan issued jointly by the National Forestry and Grassland Administration, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Natural Resources and the Ministry of Ecology and Environment listed 13 candidate sites on the Tibetan Plateau. The 13 sites covered an area of about 770,000 square kilometers and accounted for 70 percent of the total area of national park candidate sites. The Yellow River Basin had nine candidate areas, and the Yangtze River Basin had 11 candidate sites. 国家林业和草原局、财政部、自然资源部和生态环境部联合发布的一项空间规划列出了青藏高原 13 个候选地区。这 13 个地区总面积约 77 万平方公里,占国家公园候选地总面积的 70%。黄河流域有 9 个候选地区,长江流域有 11 个候选地区。
9. China's Climate Commitment 中国的气候承诺
China’s national climate commitment aims to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 and an emissions peak by 2030. China released its National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy 2035 in June 2022. 中国的国家气候承诺旨在于 2060 年实现碳中和,2030 年达到排放峰值。中国于 2022 年 6 月发布了《2035 年国家气候变化适应战略》。
The strategy document has a section entitled “Establish and improve a terrestrial ecosystem protection and supervision system.” This section states “We will gradually form a nature reserve categorization system with national parks as the mainstay and nature reserves as the foundation, supplemented by various types of nature parks, while significantly improving management effectiveness and ecological product supply capacity, so that the scale and management of nature reserves reach the world’s advanced level, and the total area reaches more than 18%18 \% of the land area of the country.” 该战略文件有一节题为"建立和完善陆地生态系统保护与监管体系"。该部分说道"我们将逐步形成以国家公园为主体、自然保护区为基础,并辅以各类自然公园的自然保护地体系,同时显著提高管理效能和生态产品供给能力,使自然保护地规模和管理水平达到世界先进水平,总面积达到国土面积的 18%18 \% 以上。"
10. Ecological Civilization and "Chinese Dream of National Rejuvenation" 生态文明与"中国梦的国家复兴"
“Ecological civilization is a rhetorical strategy, deployed by the Chinese government to legitimize international environmental objectives by appealing to deep-rooted traditional cultural values, without appearing to bow to foreign pressure.” It is also an “approach to governance, and one with the explicit aim of strengthening the authority of individual leaders and significantly expanding the power of the Chinese Communist Party.” (Source: Lila Buckley). 生态文明是一种修辞策略,中国政府通过诉诸深根的传统文化价值观来合法化国际环境目标,而不是屈从于外国压力。它也是一种治理方式,其明确目标是加强个人领导人的权威,并大幅扩大中国共产党的权力。(来源:Lila Buckley)
‘Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation’ is “Xi Jinping’s vision for achieving socialist modernization in China. It is based on ‘socialism with Chinese characteristics for a new era’ and underpinned by an explicit strengthening of the Communist Party leading in all areas of life in China.” (Source: Lila Buckley, Green Economy Coalition). 中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦是习近平提出的实现中国社会主义现代化的愿景。它以"新时代中国特色社会主义"为基础,并明确加强了中国共产党在生活的各个领域的领导地位。（来源:Lila Buckley,绿色经济联盟）。
IX. KEY CHINESE GOVERNMENT AGENCIES 九大关键中国政府机构
1. The State Council 国务院
The State Council is the chief administrative authority and the national cabinet of China. It is constitutionally the highest administrative organ of the country and the executive organ of the National People’s Congress (NPC). Constitutionally, the main functions of the State Council are to formulate administrative measures, issue decisions and orders, and monitor their implementation; draft legislative bills for submission to the NPC or its Standing Committee; and prepare the economic plan and the state budget for deliberation and approval by the NPC. 国务院是中国的主要行政机关和国家内阁。根据宪法,它是国家最高行政机关和全国人民代表大会的执行机构。根据宪法,国务院的主要职能是制定行政措施、发布决定和命令,并监督其实施;起草提交给全国人民代表大会或其常务委员会的立法议案;并且编制经济计划和国家预算,供全国人民代表大会审议和批准。
2. Ministry of Natural Resources 自然资源部
Manages the national natural resources. It supervises the utilization and conservation of natural resources; formulates unified measures to determine and register natural resource rights; establishes a natural resource payment system; and takes responsibility for managing the spatial use of all lands and their ecological conservation and restoration. 管理国家自然资源。它监督自然资源的利用和保护;制定统一措施以确定和登记自然资源权利;建立自然资源付费制度;并负责管理所有土地的空间利用及其生态保护和恢复。
3. Ministry of Ecology and Environment (MEE) 生态环境部(MEE)
Formerly known as the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) and the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA), The MEE is responsible for protecting, regulating, and monitoring the environment, as well as enforcing environmental policies. It initiates the formulation and implementation of national policies and plans. It guides, coordinates and supervises the restoration and conservation of ecological systems. 原先被称为环境保护部(MEP)和国家环境保护总局(SEPA)，MEE 负责保护、调控和监测环境,同时实施环境政策。它启动国家政策和计划的制定和实施。它指导、协调并监督生态系统的修复和保护。 https://www.mee.gov.cn/
4. The National Forestry and Grassland Administration 国家林业和草原局
The National Forestry and Grassland Administration, also known as the National Park Administration, is China’s national bureau responsible for the supervision and management of forests, grasslands, wetlands, deserts, and terrestrial wildlife. It is managed by the Ministry of Natural Resources. 国家林业和草原局,亦称国家公园局,是中国负责监督和管理森林、草原、湿地、沙漠和陆地野生动物的国家局。它由自然资源部管理。 http://www.forestry.gov.cn/
5. National Park Service (NPS) 国家公园服务局(NPS)
It manages natural resources, conserves ecosystems, carries out social education, coordinates relationships between local governments and surrounding communities, etc. 它管理自然资源,保护生态系统,进行社会教育,协调地方政府与周围社区之间的关系等。
should explore the errors and the success of countries that developed parks before it to ensure a best-case outcome.