Lecture 6 Summary - Taxation of Individuals and Capital Gains
第 6 讲摘要 - 个人和资本利得税

This lecture covers the specific provisions in the OECD Model Tax Convention (MTC) dealing with various types of income earned by individuals (employment, directing, performing, pensions, government service, students) and the allocation of taxing rights over capital gains. It also delves into the specific challenge of taxing Offshore Indirect Transfers (OITs).
本讲座涵盖了 OECD 税收协定范本 (MTC) 中关于个人所赚取的各种类型收入（雇佣、董事、表演、养老金、政府服务、学生）的具体规定，以及对资本收益征税权的分配。它还深入探讨了对离岸间接转让 (OIT) 征税的具体挑战。

Taxation of Individuals (MTC Articles 15-21)
个人所得税（MTC 第 15-21 条）

Tax treaties contain specific articles allocating taxing rights for income typically earned by individuals, deviating from the general business profits rules (Art 7) or passive income rules (Art 10-12).
税收协定包含具体条款，用于分配通常由个人赚取的收入的征税权，这与一般商业利润规则（第 7 条）或被动收入规则（第 10-12 条）不同。

1. Income from Employment (Art 15):
   雇佣收入（第 15 条）：

• General Rule (Art 15(1)): Income derived by a resident of one state (R) from employment is taxable primarily in R. However, if the employment is exercised in the other state (Source state, S), then S may also tax the remuneration derived from that work performed in S. The place of exercise is where the employee is physically present when performing the activities.
  总则（第 15(1) 条）：一国居民 (R) 从雇佣获得的收入主要在 R 国征税。但是，如果该雇佣在另一国（来源国，S）进行，则 S 国也可以对从在 S 国进行的工作中获得的报酬征税。履行职务的地点是雇员在从事活动时实际所在的地点。
• The 183-Day Exception (Art 15(2)): Source state taxation is prevented (exclusive residence state taxation applies) if all three conditions are met:
  183 天规则例外情况（第 15 条第 2 款）：如果满足以下所有三个条件，则可以避免来源国征税（适用专属居民国征税）：

1. The employee is present in S for a period or periods not exceeding 183 days in any 12-month period commencing or ending in the fiscal year concerned.
   雇员在相关财政年度开始或结束的任何 12 个月期间内，在 S 国的停留时间不超过 183 天。
2. The remuneration is paid by, or on behalf of, an employer who is not a resident of S.
   报酬由非 S 国居民的雇主支付或代表该雇主支付。
3. The remuneration is not borne by a Permanent Establishment (PE) which the employer has in S.
   报酬不由雇主在 S 国的常设机构（PE）承担。

• Interpretation Challenges: Determining the "employer" requires looking at substance (who bears risks/rewards, provides instructions), not just the formal contract, especially in cases of hiring-out labour. Whether remuneration is "borne by" a PE depends on whether it's an allowable deduction for the PE under Art 7. The rise of remote work and "digital nomads" challenges the traditional reliance on physical presence and fixed employer location, making the application of Art 15 difficult in some modern contexts.
  解释方面的挑战：确定“雇主”需要考察实质（谁承担风险/收益，谁提供指示），而不仅仅是正式合同，尤其是在劳务派遣的情况下。报酬是否由常设机构“承担”取决于根据第 7 条，该报酬是否是常设机构的可允许扣除额。远程工作和“数字游民”的兴起挑战了传统上对实际存在和固定雇主地点的依赖，使得第 15 条在某些现代环境中的应用变得困难。
• International Transport (Art 15(3)): Remuneration for employment on ships/aircraft in international traffic may be taxed where the enterprise's Place of Effective Management (POEM) is located.
  国际运输（第 15 条第 3 款）：在国际运输工具（船舶/飞机）上从事雇佣工作所得的报酬，可以在企业实际管理场所（POEM）所在地征税。

2. Directors' Fees (Art 16): Fees and similar payments derived by a resident of R as a member of the board of directors of a company resident in S may be taxed in S. This rule applies specifically to board functions, not necessarily other remuneration received from the company (which might fall under Art 15).
   董事费（第 16 条）：R 国居民作为 S 国居民公司的董事会成员所获得的费用和类似报酬，可以在 S 国征税。本规则专门适用于董事会职能，不一定适用于从公司收到的其他报酬（可能属于第 15 条的范围）。
3. Entertainers and Sportspersons (Art 17):
   演艺人员和运动员（第 17 条）：

• Direct Taxation (Art 17(1)): Income derived by resident entertainers (e.g., theatre, film, radio, TV artists, musicians) or sportspersons from their personal activities exercised as such in S may be taxed in S. This rule applies regardless of the 183-day limit in Art 15, reflecting the view that source countries should tax high levels of income earned over short periods.
  直接税收（第 17 条第 1 款）：居住地艺人（如戏剧、电影、广播、电视艺术家、音乐家）或运动员因其在 S 国从事的个人活动而获得的收入，可在 S 国征税。该规则的适用不受第 15 条中 183 天限制的约束，反映了源头国应对短期内获得的高额收入征税的观点。
• Indirect Taxation / Anti-Abuse (Art 17(2)): Where the income accrues not to the performer directly but to another person (e.g., a personal service company or "star company"), S may still tax that income if the performer participates in the profits or controls that other person.
  间接税收/反滥用（第 17 条第 2 款）：如果收入并非直接归属于表演者，而是归属于另一个人（例如，个人服务公司或“明星公司”），如果表演者参与利润分配或控制该其他人，S 国仍可对该收入征税。

4. Pensions (Art 18): Subject to government service rules (Art 19(2)), pensions and similar remuneration paid to a resident of R in consideration of past employment shall be taxable only in R. (Note: UN Model allows source taxation).
   养老金（第 18 条）：在遵守政府服务规则（第 19 条第 2 款）的前提下，因以往雇佣关系而支付给 R 国居民的养老金和类似报酬应仅在 R 国征税。（注：《联合国范本》允许源头国征税）。
5. Government Service (Art 19):
   政府服务（第 19 条）：

• Salaries (Art 19(1)): Remuneration (other than pensions) paid by a Contracting State (or its political subdivision/local authority) to an individual for services rendered to that State (or subdivision/authority) is generally taxable only in that paying State (S). Exception: Taxable only in the other State (R) if the services are rendered in R and the individual is a resident and national of R (or did not become resident solely to render the services).
  薪金（第 19 条第 1 款）：缔约国（或其政治分区/地方当局）向个人支付的，为该国（或分区/当局）提供服务的报酬（养老金除外），一般仅在该支付国（S）征税。例外情况：如果服务是在 R 国提供的，且该个人是 R 国的居民和国民（或并非仅为提供服务而成为居民），则仅在另一国（R）征税。
• Pensions (Art 19(2)): Pensions paid for past government service follow similar rules.
  养老金（第 19 条第 2 款）：因过去的政府服务而支付的养老金遵循类似的规则。
• Business Activities (Art 19(3)): These special rules do not apply if the services are rendered in connection with a business carried on by the State (or subdivision/authority). In such cases, standard rules (Art 15, 16, 17, or 18) apply.
  商业活动（第 19 条第 3 款）：如果服务是与该国（或分区/当局）经营的业务有关，则这些特殊规则不适用。在这种情况下，适用标准规则（第 15、16、17 或 18 条）。

6. Students (Art 20): Payments received by a student or business apprentice present in S solely for education/training (who was resident in R immediately before visiting S) are exempt from tax in S, provided the payments arise from sources outside S. This facilitates educational exchange.
   学生（第 20 条）：学生或商业学徒仅为教育/培训目的而居住在 S 国（在访问 S 国之前立即居住在 R 国）所收到的款项，如果这些款项来自 S 国境外，则在 S 国免税。这有助于教育交流。
7. Other Income (Art 21):  其他所得（第 21 条）：

• Residual Rule (Art 21(1)): Items of income not dealt with in the preceding articles of the Convention, wherever arising, are taxable only in the State of residence (R) of the beneficial owner.
  剩余规则（第 21 条第 1 款）：未在公约前述条款中处理的任何来源的所得，仅在受益所有人居住国（R）征税。
• PE Exception (Art 21(2)): This exclusive residence taxation does not apply if the income (other than from immovable property, Art 6(2)) is effectively connected with a PE through which the resident carries on business in S. In such cases, the income is taxable under Article 7.
  常设机构例外（第 21 条第 2 款）：如果所得（不动产所得除外，第 6 条第 2 款）与居民通过其在 S 国开展业务的常设机构有实际联系，则此项专属居住国税收不适用。在这种情况下，所得根据第 7 条征税。

Taxation of Capital Gains (OECD MTC Article 13)
资本利得税（OECD MTC 第 13 条）

Article 13 allocates taxing rights for gains derived from the alienation (sale, exchange, etc.) of property. Unlike income articles which often share rights (e.g., dividends, interest), Article 13 typically grants primary or exclusive rights based on the property type and its connection to a state.
第 13 条分配了因转让（出售、交换等）财产所得收益的征税权。与通常共享权利的收入条款（如股息、利息）不同，第 13 条通常根据财产类型及其与某国的联系授予主要或专属权利。

1. Immovable Property (Art 13(1)): Gains derived by a resident of R from alienating immovable property (defined in Art 6) situated in S may be taxed in S. Source state retains primary right.
   不动产（第 13 条第 1 款）：R 国居民转让位于 S 国的不动产（定义见第 6 条）所得的收益，可以在 S 国征税。来源国保留主要权利。
2. Movable Property of a PE (Art 13(2)): Gains from alienating movable property forming part of the business property of a PE that an enterprise of R has in S may be taxed in S. This includes gains from alienating the PE itself (alone or with the whole enterprise). Links taxation to the business presence.
   常设机构的动产（第 13 条第 2 款）：R 国企业在 S 国拥有的常设机构的营业财产所包含的动产的转让收益，可以在 S 国征税。这包括转让常设机构本身（单独或与整个企业一起）的收益。将税收与商业存在联系起来。
3. Ships and Aircraft (Art 13(3)): Gains from alienating ships or aircraft operated in international traffic, or movable property pertaining to their operation, are taxable only in the State where the enterprise's POEM is situated. Avoids multiple taxation for transport enterprises.
   船舶和飞机（第 13 条第 3 款）：从国际运输中运营的船舶或飞机，或与其运营相关的动产的转让收益，仅在该企业实际管理机构所在地国征税。避免了运输企业的重复征税。
4. Shares in "Land-Rich" Entities (Art 13(4)): Gains derived by a resident of R from alienating shares or comparable interests (like in partnerships/trusts) may be taxed in S IF, at any time during the 365 days before alienation, these shares/interests derived more than 50% of their value directly or indirectly from immovable property situated in S. This rule aims to prevent avoidance of tax on immovable property gains through corporatisation and sale of shares. It is a key tool for taxing some Offshore Indirect Transfers (see below).
   “土地储备”实体中的股份（第 13 条第 4 款）：R 国的居民转让股份或类似权益（如合伙企业/信托中的权益）所获得的收益，如果这些股份/权益在转让前的 365 天内的任何时间，直接或间接从位于 S 国的不动产中获得超过 50%的价值，则 S 国可以对这些收益征税。此规则旨在防止通过公司化和出售股份来规避不动产收益税。它是对某些境外间接转让征税的关键工具（见下文）。
5. Other Property (Art 13(5)): Gains from alienating any property not mentioned in paragraphs 1-4 (e.g., most shares not covered by Art 13(4), bonds, intellectual property) are taxable only in the State where the alienator is resident (R). This is the default rule, granting exclusive taxing rights to the residence state for many types of capital gains.
   其他财产（第 13 条第 5 款）：转让第 1 至 4 款中未提及的任何财产（例如，第 13 条第 4 款未涵盖的大多数股份、债券、知识产权）所获得的收益，仅在转让人为居民的 State（R 国）征税。这是默认规则，对许多类型的资本收益授予居住国独有的征税权。

Offshore Indirect Transfers (OITs)
境外间接转让（OIT）

OITs represent a significant challenge where gains on underlying assets located in a source country escape local taxation through the sale of shares in an intermediate holding company located offshore.
境外间接转让（OIT）带来了一项重大挑战，即位于来源国的标的资产的收益通过出售位于境外的中间控股公司的股份而逃避当地税收。

• The Structure: An investor holds shares in an entity (often resident offshore or in a low-tax jurisdiction) which, directly or indirectly, derives most of its value from assets (like immovable property, resource rights, or a local business) situated in the source country. The investor sells the shares of the offshore entity, rather than the underlying assets directly.
  结构：投资者持有某实体的股份（通常为离岸或低税收居民），该实体直接或间接地从位于来源国的资产（如不动产、资源权利或当地企业）中获得其大部分价值。投资者出售离岸实体的股份，而不是直接出售相关基础资产。
• The Tax Problem: Under traditional treaty rules (like OECD MTC Art 13(5)), the gain on the sale of the offshore entity's shares is often taxable only in the seller's state of residence, which might be a zero-tax jurisdiction. The source country, where the underlying economic value lies, gets no tax revenue, despite the effective transfer of the underlying assets.
  税务问题：根据传统的税收协定规则（如 OECD MTC 第 13(5)条），出售离岸实体股份的收益通常仅在卖方居住国征税，而该居住国可能是一个零税收管辖区。 尽管相关基础资产的实际所有权已转移，但作为基础经济价值所在地的来源国却无法获得任何税收收入。
• Treaty and Domestic Solutions:
  条约和国内解决方案：

• MTC Art 13(4): Provides a partial solution by allowing source taxation if the transferred shares derive >50% value from local immovable property.
  MTC 第 13(4)条：如果转让的股份 >50% 的价值来自当地不动产，则允许来源地征税，从而提供部分解决方案。
• MLI Art 9: Allows countries to adopt or strengthen provisions similar to MTC Art 13(4) in their covered treaties, ensuring source country rights to tax gains on shares/interests deriving value principally from local immovable property, often including the 365-day testing period.
  《多边税收公约》第 9 条：允许各缔约国在其涵盖的税收协定中采纳或加强与《税收协定范本》第 13 条第 4 款类似的条款，以确保来源地国对主要从当地不动产取得价值的股份/权益的收益征税的权利，通常包括 365 天的测试期。
• Domestic Legislation (e.g., China SAT Announcement 7): Many countries have enacted specific domestic anti-avoidance rules to tax OITs. China's Announcement 7 (2015) is a notable example. It applies to indirect transfers of Chinese taxable assets (immovable property, assets of establishment in China, shares in Chinese resident companies) by non-resident enterprises. Key features:
  国内立法（例如，中国国家税务总局公告 7）：许多国家已经颁布了专门的国内反避税规则来对境外间接转让（OIT）征税。 中国的 7 号公告（2015 年）就是一个值得注意的例子。 它适用于非居民企业间接转让中国应税财产（不动产、在中国境内设立的机构场所的资产、中国居民企业的股份）。 主要特点：

• Uses a substance-over-form and "reasonable commercial purpose" test. OITs lacking such purpose may be recharacterised as direct transfers taxable in China.
  采用实质重于形式和“合理的商业目的”测试。 缺乏此类目的的境外间接转让（OIT）可能会被重新定性为在中国应纳税的直接转让。
• Creates "Red Zone" (presumed taxable, e.g., main value from Chinese immovable property, avoidance function), "Green Zone" (safe harbours, non-taxable, e.g., qualified group reorganisations, public market trading), and "Grey Zone" (case-by-case analysis) scenarios.
  创建“红色区域”（推定应税，例如，主要价值来自中国不动产，具有规避功能）、“绿色区域”（安全港，非应税，例如，合格的集团重组、公开市场交易）和“灰色区域”（个案分析）情形。
• Qualified internal reorganisations are exempt if specific shareholding thresholds (often 80%+) are met, no reduction in potential future China tax occurs, and consideration is mainly equity.
  如果符合特定的持股门槛（通常为 80% 以上），且未来潜在的中国税款没有减少，并且对价主要为股权，则符合条件的内部重组可免税。
• Requires self-assessment by the transferor, with potential reporting obligations and interest/penalties for non-compliance. Withholding obligations may fall on the transferee or the Chinese target entity.
  要求转让方进行自我评估，不合规可能会产生申报义务以及利息/罚款。代扣代缴义务可能落在受让方或中国目标实体身上。

• Practical Challenges: Implementing OIT taxation involves difficulties in valuation, obtaining information from offshore entities, and enforcing tax collection against non-residents.
  实际挑战：实施 OIT 税收涉及估值困难、从离岸实体获取信息困难以及对非居民强制征税等问题。

This comprehensive approach in Lecture 6 covers the specific treaty rules governing income derived by individuals in various capacities and the complex rules for allocating taxing rights over capital gains, including the important contemporary issue of offshore indirect transfers.
第 6 讲中的这种综合方法涵盖了管辖个人以各种身份获得的收入的具体条约规则，以及分配资本收益征税权的复杂规则，包括重要的当代问题，即离岸间接转让。