ACCOUNTING
Luo Jianchuan Debarya Jana Shima Trisna
罗建川Debarya Jana ShimaTrisna
luojianchuan.net djana@luiss.it strisna@luiss.it
Syllabus
教学大纲
“Financial Accounting” 10th or 11th – Libby, Libby, Hodge
“财务会计” 第 10或第 11名 – Libby、Libby、Hodge
Midterm exam: March 14
期中考试：3 月 14 日
Comprehensive exam: May 15, June 5
综合考试：5 月 15 日、6 月 5 日
1)
Types of Business Entities
商业实体的类型
Sole proprietorship unincorporated business owned by a single individual (ditta individuale).
由个人 （ditta individuale） 拥有的独资企业非法人企业。
It is usually in small size and is common in the service, retailing, and farming industries. Often the owner is the manager. Legally, the business and the owner are not separate entities. Accounting views the business as a separate entity, however, that must be accounted for separately from its owners.
T 通常规模较小，在服务业、零售业和农业行业很常见。通常，所有者是管理者。 从法律上讲，企业和所有者不是独立的实体。会计将企业视为一个独立的实体，但是，必须独立于其所有者进行会计处理。
Partnership owned by two or more individuals (associazione, partenariato).
由两个或多个个人（associazione、partenariato）拥有的合伙企业。
It is an unincorporated business owned by two or more individuals, knowns as partners. The agreements between the owners are specified in a partnership contract. A partnership is not legally separated from its owners. Legally, each partner in a partnership is responsible for the debts of the business (each general partner has unlimited liability). The partnership, however, is a separate business entity to be accounted for separately from its several owners.
它是 由两个或多个个人（称为合伙人）拥有的非法人企业。业主之间的协议在合伙合同中指定。 合伙企业在法律上并未与其所有者分离。从法律上讲，合伙企业中的每个合伙人都对企业的债务负责（每个普通合伙人都承担无限责任）。 然而，合伙企业是一个独立的商业实体，独立于其几个所有者。
Corporation an incorporated association, ownership represented by shares of stock that can be bought and sold and operates separately from its owners (separation of ownership and management).
公司一个法人协会，所有权以可以买卖的股票代表，并独立于其所有者运作（所有权和管理分离）。
A corporation is a business that is incorporated under the laws of a particular state. The owners are called stockholders or shareholders. Ownership is represented by shares of capital stock that usually can be bought and sold freely. When the organizers file an approved application for incorporation, the state issues a charter. This charter gives the corporation the right to operate as a separate legal entity, separate and apart from its owners. The stockholders enjoy limited liability; they are liable for the debts of the corporation only to the extent of their investments.
公司是根据特定州的法律注册成立的企业。所有者称为股东或股东。 所有权以通常可以自由买卖的股本代表。 当组织者提交批准的注册申请时，州政府会颁发章程。 该章程赋予公司 作为独立的法人实体运营的权利，独立于其所有者。股东享有有限责任;他们仅在其投资范围内对公司的债务负责。
Advantages of a corporation:
公司的优势：
Limited liability - A form of legal protection for shareholders and owners that prevents individuals from being held personally responsible for their company's debts or financial losses;
Limited liability 有限责任 - 一种对股东和所有者的法律保护形式，防止个人对其公司的债务或财务损失承担个人责任;
Continuity of life - The principle that the withdrawal, incapacity, bankruptcy, or death of the owner of the corporation does not end the entity's existence;
生命的连续性 -原则是公司所有者的退出、丧失行为能力、破产或死亡 不会结束实体的存在;
Ease in ownership transfer - Your ownership transfer will need to be approved either by your board of directors or your shareholders, depending on the laws of your state and your own corporate policies. You should also hire an attorney and/or an accountant to advise you on the legal and tax implications of this transfer of ownership;
易于所有权转让 - 我们的所有权转让需要得到您的董事会或股东的批准，具体取决于您所在州的法律和您自己的公司政策。您还应该聘请律师和/或会计师就此次所有权转让的法律和税务影响向您提供建议;
Access to capital.
获得资本。
Disadvantages of a corporation:
公司的缺点：
Double taxation - Occurs when income generated by a corporation is taxed at both the corporate level (corporate profits) and the shareholder level (dividends)
双重征税 -当公司产生的收入在公司层面（公司利润）和股东层面（股息）都征税时
Problems of effiency.
效率问题。
Corporate investors and their goals
企业投资者及其目标
Stockholders (owners - azionista, socio)
股东（所有者 - azionista、socio）
Dividends - The percentage of a company's earnings that is paid to its shareholders as their share of the profits.
股息 - 支付给股东的公司收益的百分比，作为股东的利润份额。
Higher future stock prices - Creditors are more willing to lend and stock prices usually rise when creditors and investors expect the company to do well in the future. Both groups often judge future performance based on information in the company’s financial statements.
更高的未来股票价格 - Creditors 更愿意放贷，当债权人和投资者预计公司未来表现良好时，股价通常会上涨。这两个群体通常根据公司财务报表中的信息来判断未来的业绩。
Creditors (lenders - creditore, prestatore)
债权人（贷款人 - 债权人、债权人）
Interest - Creditors make money on the loans by charging interest.
利息 Creditors 通过收取利息来从贷款中赚钱。
Accounting is an information system that collects and processes (analyzes, measures, and records) financial information about an organization and reports that information to decision makers.
会计是一个信息系统，用于收集和处理（分析、衡量和记录）有关组织的财务信息，并将该信息报告给决策者。
Managers (often called internal decision makers) need information about the company’s business activities to manage the operating, investing, and financing activities of the firm.
经理（通常称为内部决策者）需要有关公司业务活动的信息，以管理公司的运营、投资和融资活动。
Stockholders and creditors (often called external decision makers) need information about these same business activities to assess whether the company will be able to pay back its debts with interest and pay dividends.
股东和债权人（通常称为外部决策者）需要有关这些相同业务活动的信息，以评估公司是否能够带利偿还债务并支付股息。
All businesses must have an accounting system that collects and processes financial information about an organization’s business activities and reports that information to decision makers.
所有企业都必须有一个会计系统，用于收集和处理有关组织业务活动的财务信息，并将这些信息报告给决策者。
Financing activities: Borrowing or paying back money to lenders and receiving additional funds from stockholders or paying them dividends;
融资活动：向贷方借款或偿还资金，并从 stockho lders 获得额外资金或向他们支付股息;
Investing activities: Buying or selling items such as plant and equipment;
投资活动： 购买或出售 Is等 I-M.
Operating activities: Day-to-day operations of the business, such as purchasing materials from suppliers, delivering products and services to customers, collecting cash from customers, and paying suppliers.
经营活动：企业的日常运营，例如从供应商处购买材料、向客户交付产品和服务、从客户处收取现金以及向供应商付款。
Decision makers who rely on financial information:
依赖财务信息的决策者：
Investors
投资者
Creditors
债权人
Managers within the firm such as:
公司内的经理，例如：
marketing managers and credit managers, use customers’ financial statements to decide whether to extend credit to their customers (businesses that offer a line of credit to their customers create the opportunity for customers to purchase goods and services when they need them while offering greater flexibility on their payment terms);
营销经理和信贷经理使用客户的财务报表来决定是否向客户提供信贷（向客户提供信贷额度的企业为客户创造了在需要时购买商品和服务的机会，同时在付款条件上提供更大的灵活性）;
supply chain managers, analyze suppliers’ financial statements to see whether the suppliers have the resources to meet demand and invest in future development;
供应链经理，分析供应商的财务报表，看看供应商是否有资源满足需求并投资于未来的发展;
human resource management, use financial statements as a basis for contract negotiations over pay rates. The net income figure even serves as a basis to pay bonuses not only to management, but to other employees through profit sharing plans.
人力资源管理，使用财务报表作为工资率合同谈判的基础。净收入数字甚至可以作为向管理层支付奖金的基础，还可以通过利润分享计划向其他员工支付奖金。
Internal managers typically require continuous, detailed information because they must plan and manage the day-to-day operations of the organization. Developing accounting information for internal decision makers, called managerial or management accounting, is the subject of a separate accounting course. The focus of this text is accounting for external decision makers, called financial accounting, and the four basic financial statements and related disclosures that are periodically produced by that system.
内部经理通常需要持续、详细的信息，因为他们必须规划和管理组织的日常运营。 为内部决策者开发会计信息，称为管理会计或管理会计，是单独会计课程的主题。 本文的重点是对外部决策者进行会计核算，称为财务会计，以及该系统定期生成的四个基本财务报表和相关披露。
Financial accounting involves preparation of the four basic financial statements and related disclosures for external decision makers. Managerial accounting involves the preparation of detailed plans, budgets, forecasts, and performance reports for internal decision makers.
财务会计涉及为外部决策者准备四种基本财务报表和相关披露。管理会计涉及为内部决策者准备详细的计划、预算、预测和绩效报告。
The four basic financial statements
四项基本财务报表
Balance sheet reports the financial position (amount of assets, liabilities, and stockholders’ equity) of an accounting entity at a particular point in time.
资产负债表报告会计实体在特定时间点的财务状况（资产、负债和股东权益的金额 ）。
Income statement reports the revenues less the expenses during the accounting period.
损益表报告会计期间的收入减去费用。
Statement of stockholders’ equity reports the changes in each of the company’s stockholders’ equity accounts, including the change in the retained earnings balance caused by net income and dividends, during the reporting period.
股东权益表报告了报告期内公司每个股东权益账户的变化，包括由净收入和股息引起的留存收益余额的变化。
Statement of cash flows reports inflows and outflows of cash during the accounting period in the categories of operating, investing, and financing.
现金流量表报告会计期间经营、投资和融资类别的现金流入和流出。
Notes are an integral part of these financial statements.
附注是这些财务报表不可分割的一部分。
The organization for which financial data are to be collected, called an accounting entity, must be precisely defined.
必须精确定义要为其收集财务数据的组织（称为会计实体）。
The four basic financial statements can be prepared at any point in time such as:
这四种基本财务报表可以在任何时间点准备，例如：
End of the year (for the year ended, annual reports)
年终（对于已结束的年度报告）
Quarterly (for the quarter ended, quarterly reports)
季度（截至季度末，季度报告）
Monthly (for the month ended, monthly reports)
每月（截至当月，月度报告）
Ad hoc (for significant corporate events).
Ad hoc （for significant corporate events）.
They also can apply to any time in span (such as one year, one quarter, or one month).
它们还可以应用于跨度中的任何时间（例如一年、一个季度或一个月）。
The financial statement heading includes:
财务报表标题包括：
Name of the entity (Company name)
实体名称 （Company name）
Title of the statement (e.g., Balance Sheet)
报表的标题（例如，资产负债表）
Specific date of the statement (e.g., at December 31, 20XX)
声明的具体日期（例如，20XX 年 12 月 31 日）
Unit of measure (e.g., in millions of dollars).
计量单位（例如，以百万美元为单位）。
The basic accounting equation (or the balance sheet equation)
基本会计方程式（或资产负债表方程式）
Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders’ Equity
资产 = 负债 + 股东权益
Assets Economic resources
资产 经济资源
Liabilities Financing for resource from creditors
债权人资源负债融资
Stockholders’ equity Financing for resource from stockholders and reinvested earnings
股东股权 股东资源融资和再投资收益
Balance sheet
资产负债表
Assets
资产
Cash
现金
Short-term investments
短期投资
Account receivable
应 收账 款
Notes receivable
应收票据
Inventory
库存
Supplies
用品
Prepaid expenses
预付费用
Long-term investments
长期投资
Equipment
设备
Buildings
建筑物
Land
土地
Intangibles
无形
Liabilities
负债
Unearned revenue
未实现的收入
Accounts payable
应付帐款
Accrued expenses
应计费用
Notes payable
应付票据
Taxes payable
应缴税款
Bond payable
应付保证金
Stockholders’ Equity
股东权益
Common stock
普通股
Retained earnings
留存收益
On the balance sheet, the business entity itself, not the business owners, is viewed as owning the resources it uses and being responsible for its debts. The heading of each statement indicates the time dimension of the report.
在资产负债表上，企业实体本身，而不是企业主，被视为拥有其使用的资源并对其债务负责。每个语句的标题指示报表的时间维度。
The basic accounting equation shows what we mean when we refer to a company’s financial position: the economic resources that the company owns and the sources of financing for those resources.
基本会计方程式显示了我们提到公司财务状况时的含义：公司拥有的经济资源以及这些资源的融资来源。
Balance Sheet Elements – book
资产负债表要素 – 账面
Balance Sheet is also known as Statement of Financial Position.
资产负债表也称为财务状况表。
Assets are the economic resources owned by the entity. Every asset on the balance sheet is initially measured at the total cost incurred to acquire it. Balance sheets do not generally show the amounts for which the assets could currently be sold.
资产是实体拥有的经济资源。资产负债表上的每项资产最初都是以收购它所产生的总成本来衡量的。资产负债表通常不显示资产当前可以出售的金额。
Liabilities and stockholders’ equity are the sources of financing for the company’s economic resources. Liabilities indicate the amount of financing provided by creditors. They are the company’s debts or obligations. The accounts payable arise from the purchase of goods and services from suppliers on credit without a formal written contract (or a note). The notes payable to banks result from cash borrowings based on a formal written debt contract with banks.
负债和股东权益是公司经济资源的融资来源。 负债表示债权人提供的融资金额。它们是公司的债务或义务。应付账款是由于在没有正式书面合同（或票据）的情况下从供应商处赊购商品和服务而产生的。应付给银行的票据来自基于与银行签订的正式书面债务合同的现金借款。
Stockholders’ equity indicates the amount of financing provided by owners of the business and reinvested earnings. The investment of cash and other assets in the business by the stockholders is called common stock. The amount of earnings (profits) reinvested in the business (and thus not distributed to stockholders in the form of dividends) is called retained earnings. Total stockholders’ equity is the sum of the common stock plus the retained earnings.
股东权益表示企业所有者提供的融资金额和再投资收益。股东在企业中投资现金和其他资产称为普通股。再投资于企业的收益（利润）（因此不以股息的形式分配给股东）的金额称为留存收益。 股东权益总额是普通股加上留存收益的总和。
The income statement equation
损益表等式
Revenues = Expenses + Net Income
收入 = 费用 + 净收入
Revenues Cash and promises (receivables) received from delivery of goods and services.
收入 从商品和服务交付中获得的现金和承诺（应收账款）。
Expenses Resources used to earn period’s revenues.
费用 用于赚取期间收入的资源。
Net income Revenues earned minus expenses incurred. Also called “profit”, “net earnings”, or “the bottom line.” If total expenses exceed total revenues, a net loss is reported.
净收入 赚取的收入减去产生的费用。也称为“利润”、“净收益”或“底线”。如果总费用超过总收入，则报告净亏损。
Income statement
损益表
Revenues
收入s
Sales revenue
销售收入
Fee revenue
费用收入
Interest revenue
利息收入
Rent revenue
租金收入
Expenses
费用
Cost of goods sold
销售成本
Wages expense
工资费用
Rent expense
房租费用
Depreciation expense
折旧费用
Insurance expense
保险费用
Repair expense
维修费用
Income tax expense
所得税费用
The Income Statement – book
损益表 – 账簿
The income statement (statement of income, statement of earnings, statement of operations, statement of comprehensive income) reports the accountant’s primary measure of performance of a business, revenues less expenses during the accounting period. While the term profit is used widely for this measure of performance, accountants prefer to use the technical terms net income or net earnings.
损益表（损益表、收益表、经营报表、综合收益表）报告会计师对企业业绩的主要衡量标准，即会计期间的收入减去费用。虽然利润一词 广泛用于这种绩效衡量标准，但会计师更喜欢使用技术术语净收入或净收益。
The heading identifies the name of the entity, the title of the report, and the unit of measure used in the statement. Unlike the balance sheet, however, which reports as of a certain date, the income statement reports for a specified period of time. The time period covered by the financial statements is called an accounting period.
标题标识实体的名称、报表的标题以及语句中使用的度量单位。然而，与截至特定日期报告的资产负债表不同，损益表报告指定时间段。财务报表涵盖的期间称为会计期间。
The Income Statement Elements – book
利润表 Elements – 账簿
Companies earn revenues from the sale of goods or services to customers. Revenues normally are amounts expected to be received for goods or services that have been delivered to a customer, whether or not the customer has paid for the goods or services. Retail stores such as Walmart and McDonald’s often receive cash from consumers at the time of sale. In either case, the business recognizes total sales (cash and credit) as revenue for the period. Various terms are used in income statements to describe different sources of revenue (e.g., provision of services, sale of goods, rental of property).
公司通过向客户销售商品或服务来赚取收入。收入通常是已交付给客户的商品或服务的预期收到的金额，无论客户是否已为商品或服务付款。沃尔玛和麦当劳等零售店通常在销售时从消费者那里收到现金。无论哪种情况，公司都会将总销售额（现金和信用卡）确认为该期间的收入。损益表中使用了各种术语来描述不同的收入来源（例如，提供服务、商品销售、财产租赁）。
Expenses represent the dollar amount of resources the entity used to earn revenues during the period. Expenses reported in one accounting period actually may be paid for in another accounting period. Some expenses require the payment of cash immediately, while others require payment at a later date. Some also may require the use of another resource, such as an inventory item, which may have been paid for in a prior period.
费用表示实体在会计期间用于赚取收入的资源的美元金额。在一个会计期间报告的费用实际上可能在另一个会计期间支付。有些费用需要立即支付现金，而另一些则需要稍后支付。有些可能还需要使用其他资源，例如库存项目，这些资源可能已在前一期间付款。
Net income or net earnings (often called “the bottom line”) is the excess of total revenues over total expenses. If total expenses exceed total revenues, a net loss is reported. Revenues are not necessarily the same as collections from customers and expenses are not necessarily the same as payments to suppliers. As a result, net income normally does not equal the net cash generated by operations. This latter amount is reported on the cash flow statement.
净收入或净收益（通常称为“底线”）是总收入超过总支出的部分。如果总费用超过总收入，则报告净亏损。收入不一定等同于从客户那里收款，费用也不一定等同于向供应商支付的款项。因此，净收入通常不等于运营产生的净现金。后一个金额在现金流量表上报告。
Statement of stockholders’ equity
股东权益表
Common stock: amounts invested in the business by stockholders.
普通股：股东投资于企业的金额。
Retained earnings: past earnings not distributed to stockholders.
留存收益：未分配给股东的过去收益。
（留存收入等式）
It begins with beginning-of-the-year Retained Earnings which is the prior year’s ending retained earnings reported on the balance sheet. The current year's Net Income reported on the income statement is added and the current year's Dividends are subtracted from this amount. The ending Retained Earnings amount is reported on the end-of-period balance sheet.
它从年初的留存收益开始，即资产负债表上报告的上一年期末留存收益。将损益表上报告的当年净收入相加，并从此金额中减去当年的股息。期末留存收益金额在期末资产负债表上报告。
Statement of stockholders’ equity – book
股东权益声明 – 账簿
The statement of stockholders’ equity reports the changes in each of the company’s stockholders’ equity accounts, including the change in the retained earnings balance caused by net income and dividends, during the reporting period. The heading identifies the name of the entity, the title of the report, and the unit of measure used in the statement. Like the income statement, the statement of stockholders’ equity covers a specified period of time, the accounting period.
stockholders' 权益表报告了报告期内公司每个股东权益账户的变化，包括由净收入和股息引起的留存收益余额的变化。 标题标识实体的名称、报表的标题以及语句中使用的度量单位。与损益表一样，股东权益表也包含指定的时间段，即会计期间。
Had it issued or repurchased common stock during the year, the transactions would be reported on separate lines. The retained earnings column reports the way that net income and the distribution of dividends affected the company’s financial position during the accounting period. Net income earned during the year increases the balance of retained earnings, showing the relationship of the income statement to the balance sheet. Declaring dividends to the stockholders decreases retained earnings.
如果它在年内发行或重新购买普通股，则交易将单独报告。留存收益列报告净收入和股息分配在会计期间影响公司财务状况的方式。当年赚取的净收入增加了留存收益的余额，显示了损益表与资产负债表的关系。 向股东宣布股息会降低留存收益。
Statement of stockholders’ equity Elements – book
股东权益声明 Elements – 账簿
The statement starts with the beginning balances in the stockholders’ equity accounts, lists the increases and decreases, and reports the resulting ending balances. The retained earnings portion of the statement in begins with beginning-of-the-year retained earnings. The current year’s net income reported on the income statement is added and the current year’s dividends are subtracted from this amount.
该报表从股东权益账户中的期初余额开始，列出增加和减少，并报告由此产生的期末余额。报表的留存收益部分以年初的留存收益开头。将损益表上报告的当年净收入相加，并从此金额中减去当年的股息。
The retained earnings portion of the statement indicates the relationship of the income statement to the balance sheet.
报表的留存收益部分表示损益表与资产负债表的关系。
Statement of cash flows
现金流量表
Statement of cash flows reports inflows and outflows of cash during the accounting period in the categories of operating, investing, and financing.
现金流量表报告会计期间经营、投资和融资类别的现金流入和流出。
It divides cash inflows and outflows (receipts and payments) into three primary categories of cash flows in a typical business: cash flows from operating, investing, and financing activities.
它将现金流入和流出（收入和支出）分为典型企业现金流的三大主要类别： c 来自经营、投资和融资活动的灰分流。
The heading identifies the name of the entity, the title of the report, and the unit of measure used in the statement. Like the income statement, the cash flow statement covers a specified period of time, the accounting period.
标题标识实体的名称、报表的标题以及语句中使用的度量单位。与损益表一样，现金流量表涵盖指定的时间段，即会计期间。
Reported revenues do not always equal cash collected from customers because some sales may be on credit. Also, expenses reported on the income statement may not be equal to the cash paid out during the period because expenses may be incurred in one period and paid for in another. Because the income statement does not provide information concerning cash flows, accountants prepare the statement of cash flows to report inflows and outflows of cash. The cash flow statement equation describes the causes of the change in cash reported on the balance sheet from the end of the last period to the end of the current period:
R导出的收入并不总是等于从客户那里收取的现金，因为有些销售可能是赊销的。此外，损益表上报告的费用可能不等于该期间支付的现金，因为费用可能在一个期间发生并在另一个期间支付。由于损益表没有提供有关现金流量的信息，因此会计师准备现金流量表以报告现金的流入和流出。现金流量表等式描述了资产负债表上报告的现金从上一期末到当期末的变化原因：
The net cash flows for the period represent the increase or decrease in cash that occurred during the period.
该期间的净现金流量表示该期间发生的现金增加或减少。
Note that each of the three cash flow sources can be positive or negative.
请注意，这三个现金流来源中的每一种都可以是正的或负的。
The operating activities section indicates the company’s ability to generate cash from sales to meet the company’s current cash needs. Analyze cash flow from operations in order to check the following:
经营活动部分表示公司从销售中产生现金以满足公司当前现金需求的能力。分析运营产生的现金流量，以检查以下内容：
Ability to repay creditors
偿还债权人的能力
Opportunity for expansion
扩展机会
Ability to distribute cash dividends.
能够分配现金股息。
Statement of cash flows Elements – book
现金流量表 要素 – 账面
Cash flows from operating activities are cash flows directly related to earning income.
经营活动产生的现金流量是与收入直接相关的 现金流量。
For example, when customers pay Le-Nature’s for the beverages it has delivered to them, it lists the amounts collected as cash collected from customers. When Le-Nature’s pays salaries to its production employees or pays bills received from its tea suppliers, it includes the amounts in cash paid to suppliers and employees.
例如，当客户向 Le-Nature's 支付其交付给他们的饮料时，它会列出从客户那里收取的现金收取的金额。当 Le-Nature's 向其生产员工支付工资或支付从茶叶供应商处收到的账单时，它包括支付给供应商和员工的现金金额。
Cash flows from investing activities include cash flows related to the acquisition or sales of the company’s plant and equipment and investments.
投资活动的现金流量包括与收购或出售公司厂房和设备以及投资相关的现金流量。
This year, Le-Nature’s had only one cash outflow from investing activities, the purchase of additional manufacturing equipment to meet growing demand for its products.
今年，Le-Nature 的投资活动只流出了一次现金流出，即购买额外的制造设备以满足对其产品不断增长的需求。
Cash flows from financing activities are cash flows directly related to the financing of the enterprise itself. They involve the receipt or payment of money to investors and creditors (except for suppliers).
融资活动产生的现金流量是与企业自身融资直接相关的现金流量。它们涉及向投资者和债权人（供应商除外）收取或支付款项。
This year, Le-Nature’s borrowed additional money from the bank to purchase most of the new manufacturing equipment. It also paid out dividends to the stockholders.
今年，Le-Nature's 从银行借了额外的资金来购买大部分新的制造设备。它还向股东支付股息。
Relationships among financial statements
财务报表之间的关系
Net income from the income statement results in an increase in ending retained earnings on the statement of stockholders’ equity.
损益表的净收入导致股东权益表上的期末留存收益增加。
Ending retained earnings from the statement of stockholders’ equity is one of the two components of stockholders’ equity on the balance sheet.
股东权益表的期末留存收益是资产负债表上股东权益的两个组成部分之一。
The change in cash on the cash flow statement added to the beginning-of-the-year balance in cash equals the end-of-year balance in cash on the balance sheet.
现金流量表上的现金变化加上年初的现金余额，等于资产负债表上的年终现金余额。
Thus, we can think of the income statement as explaining, through the statement of stockholders’ equity, how the operations of the company improved or harmed the financial position of the company during the year. The cash flow statement explains how the operating, investing, and financing activities of the company affected the cash balance on the balance sheet during the year.
因此，我们可以将损益表视为通过股东权益表解释公司运营在一年中如何改善或损害公司的财务状况。现金流量表解释了公司的运营、投资和融资活动如何影响当年资产负债表上的现金余额。
Notes and Financial Statement Formats
附注 and 财务报表格式
The notes are an integral part of these financial statements. Failure to read the notes to the financial statements will result in an incomplete picture of the company’s financial health.
附注是这些财务报表的组成部分。 未能阅读财务报表的附注将导致公司财务状况不完整。
Notes (footnotes) Provide supplemental information about the financial condition of a company, without which the financial statements cannot be fully understood.
注释（脚注） 提供有关公司财务状况的补充信息，没有这些信息就无法完全理解财务报表。
A few additional formatting conventions are worth noting here. Assets are listed on the balance sheet by ease of conversion to cash. Liabilities are listed by their maturity (due date). Most financial statements include the monetary unit sign (in the United States, the $) beside the first dollar amount in a group of items (e.g., the cash amount in the assets). Also, it is common to place a single underline below the last item in a group before a total or subtotal (e.g., property, plant, and equipment). For group totals (e.g., total assets), a dollar sign is placed beside each amount and a double underline is set below. The same conventions are followed in all four basic financial statements.
这里值得注意一些其他格式约定。资产通过易于转换为现金在资产负债表上列出。负债按其到期日（到期日）列出。大多数财务报表在一组项目（例如，资产中的现金金额）中的第一个美元金额旁边包含货币单位符号（在美国为 $）。此外，通常在组中的最后一项下方的总计或小计（例如，财产、工厂和设备）之前放置一条下划线。对于组总计（例如，总资产），每个金额旁边都有一个美元符号，下面设置一个双下划线。所有四个基本财务报表都遵循相同的惯例。
History of financial reporting
财务报告的历史
The accounting system in use today has a long history. Its foundations are normally traced back to the works of an Italian monk and mathematician, Fr. Luca Pacioli, published in 1494. However, prior to 1933, each company’s management largely determined its financial reporting practices. Thus, little uniformity in practice existed among companies. In the United States, Congress created in 1934 the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) and gave it broad powers to determine the measurement rules for financial statements that companies issuing stock to the public (publicly traded companies) must provide to stockholders.
今天使用的会计系统有着悠久的历史。它的基础通常可以追溯到意大利修道士和数学家卢卡·帕乔利神父 （Fr. Luca Pacioli） 于 1494 年出版的著作。然而，在 1933 年之前，每家公司的管理层在很大程度上决定了其财务报告实践。因此，公司之间在实践中几乎没有统一性。在美国，国会于 1934 年设立了证券交易委员会 （SEC），并赋予其广泛的权力来确定向公众发行股票的公司（上市公司）必须向股东提供的财务报表的计量规则。
Publicly traded company: A company with stock that can be bought and sold by investors on established stock exchanges.
Public traded company（上市公司）：拥有股票的公司，投资者可以在成熟的证券交易所买卖。
The SEC has worked with organizations of professional accountants and other interested parties to establish groups that are given the primary responsibilities to work out the detailed rules that become generally accepted accounting principles. Established in 1972, the Financial Accounting Foundation (FAF) is the independent, private-sector, not-for-profit organization based in Norwalk, Connecticut, responsible for the oversight, administration, financing, and appointment of the FASB and the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB). Since 1973, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) is the body to formulate GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles). The official pronouncements of the FASB are called the FASB Accounting Standards Codification.
SEC 已与专业会计师组织和其他相关方合作，成立了小组，这些小组主要负责制定成为普遍接受的会计原则的详细规则。财务会计基金会 （FAF） 成立于 1972 年，是一家位于康涅狄格州诺沃克的独立私营部门非营利组织，负责 FASB 和政府会计准则委员会 （GASB） 的监督、管理、融资和任命。自 1973 年以来，财务会计准则委员会 （FASB） 是制定 GAAP（公认会计原则）的机构。FASB 的官方声明称为 FASB 会计准则编纂。
Fr. Luca Pacioli’s Summa de Arithmetica (1494)
卢卡·帕乔利神父的《算术大全》（1494 年）
Practice prior to 1933
1933 年之前的执业
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) (1934)
证券交易委员会 （SEC） （1934）
Financial Accounting Foundation (FAF) (1972)
财务会计基础 （FAF） （1972）
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) (1973) (during the Great Depression)
财务会计准则委员会 （FASB） （1973）（大萧条期间）
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)
公认会计准则 （GAAP）
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) The measurement and disclosure rules used to develop the information in financial statements.
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles （GAAP） 公认会计原则 （GAAP） 用于制定财务报表信息的计量和披露规则。
GAAP are of great interest to the companies that must prepare financial statements, their auditors, and the readers of the statements. Companies incur the cost of preparing the financial statements and bear the following economic consequences of their publication:
GAAP 对必须编制财务报表的公司、其审计师和报表的读者非常感兴趣。 公司承担编制财务报表的费用，并承担其发布的以下经济后果：
Effects on the selling price of stock
对股票售价的影响
Effects on the amount of bonuses received by management and other employees
对管理层和其他员工的奖金金额的影响
Loss of competitive information to other companies.
将竞争信息丢失给其他公司。
As a consequence of these and other concerns, changes in GAAP are actively debated, political lobbying often takes place, and final rules are a compromise among the wishes of interested parties. Most managers do not need to learn all the details included in these standards.
由于这些和其他担忧，GAAP 的变化被积极辩论，政治游说经常发生，最终规则是相关方意愿之间的妥协。大多数经理不需要了解这些标准中包含的所有细节。
International Financial Reporting Standards
国际财务报告准则
International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) (1973–2001)
国际会计准则委员会 （IASC） （1973–2001）
International Financial Reporting Standards Foundation (IFRSC) (2001)
国际财务报告准则基金会 （IFRSC） （2001）
International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) (2001).
国际会计准则委员会 （IASB） （2001）。
International perspective
国际视野
Since 2002, there has been substantial movement toward the adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). Examples of jurisdictions requiring the use of IFRS:
自 2002 年以来，采用国际会计准则委员会 （IASB） 发布的国际财务报告准则 （IFRS） 已经取得了重大进展。要求使用 IFRS 的司法管辖区示例：
European Union
欧洲 Union
Australia and New Zealand
澳大利亚和新西兰
Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Republic of Korea
中国香港、马来西亚和韩国
Israel and Turkey
以色列和土耳其
Brazil and Chile
巴西和智利
Canada and Mexico.
加拿大和墨西哥。
In the U.S., the SEC and Exchange Commission now allows foreign companies whose stock is traded in the United States to use IFRS.
在美国，美国证券交易委员会 （SEC and Exchange Commission） 现在允许股票在美国交易的外国公司使用 IFRS。
Ethical conduct
道德行为
Intentional misreporting of financial statements is unethical and illegal. However, many situations are less clear-cut and required individuals to weigh one moral principal (e.g., honesty) against another (e.g., loyalty). When money is involved, people can easily fool themselves into believing that bad acts are justified.
故意错报财务报表是不道德和非法的。然而，许多情况并不那么明确，需要个人权衡一种道德原则（例如，诚实）与另一种道德原则（例如，忠诚）。 当涉及金钱时，人们很容易自欺欺人地相信不良行为是合理的。
Responsibility and controls
责任和控制
As a manager in a business, you are responsible for setting up systems to prevent and detect unethical behavior. Primary responsibility for the information in the financial statements lies with management, represented by the highest officer of the company and the highest financial officer.
作为企业的管理者，您负责设置系统来防止和检测不道德行为。 管理层对财务报表中的信息负有主要责任，管理层由公司的最高官员和最高财务官员代表。
A company ensures the accuracy of its financial information by:
公司通过以下方式确保其财务信息的准确性：
maintaining a system of controls over the records and assets
维护 对记录和资产的控制系统
hiring external independent auditors
聘请外部独立审计师
forming a committee of the board of directors to review these other two safeguards.
成立一个董事会委员会来审查其他两项保障措施。
Audit An examination of the financial reports to ensure that they represent what they claim and conform with generally accepted accounting principles.
审计 对财务报告的审查，以确保它们代表其声称的内容并符合公认的会计原则。
Those responsible for fraudulent financial statements are subject to criminal and civil penalties.
那些对欺诈性财务报表负责的人将受到刑事和民事处罚。
Career opportunities
工作机会
Public accounting
公共会计
Although an individual may practice public accounting, usually two or more individuals organize an accounting firm in the form of a partnership (in many cases, a limited liability partnership, or LLP). Accounting firms vary in size from a one-person office, to regional firms, to the Big Four firms (Deloitte & Touche, Ernst & Young, KPMG, and PricewaterhouseCoopers), which have hundreds of offices located worldwide.
尽管个人可以从事公共会计，但通常两个或两个以上的人以合伙企业（在许多情况下，有限责任合伙企业或 LLP）的形式组织会计 fir m。会计师事务所的规模各不相同，从单人办公室到区域性公司，再到四大公司（Deloitte & Touche， Ernst & Young， KPMG， and PricewaterhouseCoopers），这些公司在全球拥有数百个办公室。
Accounting firms usually render three types of services:
会计师事务所通常提供三种类型的服务：
Audit or assurance services - independent professional services that improve the quality of information for decision makers
审计或鉴证服务 - 为决策者提高信息质量的独立专业服务
Management consulting or advisory services - These services usually are accounting based and encompass such activities as the design and installation of accounting and profit-planning and control (budget) systems; financial advice; forecasting; inventory controls; cost-effectiveness studies; and operational analysis
管理咨询或咨询服务 - 这些服务通常以会计为基础，包括会计和利润规划和控制（预算）系统的设计和安装、财务咨询、预测、库存控制、成本效益管理和运营分析等活动
Tax services - These services include both tax planning as a part of the decision-making process and the determination of the income tax liability (reported on the annual income tax return).
税务服务 - 这些服务包括作为决策过程一部分的税务规划和确定所得税负债（在年度所得税申报表上报告）。
Employment by organizations
按组织划分的就业
Many accountants are employed by profit-making and nonprofit organizations. An organization, depending on its size and complexity, may employ from a few to hundreds of accountants. In a business enterprise, the chief financial officer is a key member of the management. This responsibility usually entails a wide range of management, financial, and accounting duties.
许多会计师受雇于服装制作和非营利组织。一个组织，根据其规模和复杂性，可能会雇用几到数百名会计师。在商业企业中，首席财务官是管理层的关键成员。 这项职责通常涉及广泛的管理、财务和会计职责。
A primary function of the accountants in organizations is to provide data that are useful for internal managerial decision making and for controlling operations.
组织中会计师的主要职能是提供对内部管理决策和控制运营有用的数据。
Internal accounting
内部会计
External reporting
外部报告
Tax planning
税务筹划
Various other functions.
各种其他功能。
Employment in the public and not-for-profit sector
在公共和非营利部门就业
The vast and complex operations of governmental units, from the local to the international level, create a need for accountants. The same holds true for other not-for-profit organizations such as hospitals and universities. Accountants employed in the public and not-for-profit sector perform functions similar to those performed by their counterparts in private organizations. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) and the regulatory agencies, such as the SEC and Federal Communications Commission (FCC), also use the services of accountants in carrying out their regulatory duties.
从地方到国际层面，政府单位的庞大而复杂的运作产生了对会计师的需求。医院和大学等其他非营利组织也是如此。受雇于公共和非营利部门的会计师履行的职能与私营组织中的会计师履行的职能类似。政府问责局 （GAO） 和监管机构，如 SEC 和联邦通信委员会 （FCC），也使用会计师的服务来履行其监管职责。
Not-for-profit hospitals and universities
非营利性医院和大学
Government agencies such as the SEC, GAO, and FCC.
SEC、GAO 和 FCC 等政府机构。
2)
Financial accounting and reporting conceptual framework
财务会计和报告概念框架
Objective of financial reporting to external users To provide financial information about the reporting entity that is useful to existing and potential investors, lenders, and other creditors in making decisions about providing resources to the entity.
向外部用户进行财务报告的目标 提供有关报告实体的财务信息，这些信息对现有和潜在投资者、贷款人和其他债权人在做出有关向实体提供资源的决策时有用。
Franchising involves selling the right to use or sell a product or a service to another.
特许经营涉及出售使用或向他人销售产品或服务的权利。
Most users are interested in information to help them assess the amounts, timing, and uncertainty of a business’s future cash inflows and outflows. For example, creditors and potential creditors need to assess an entity’s ability to (1) pay interest on a loan over time and also (2) pay back the principal on the loan when it is due. Investors and potential investors want to assess the entity’s ability to (1) pay dividends in the future and (2) be successful so that the stock price rises, enabling investors to sell their stock for more than they paid. Information about a company’s economic resources, claims against its resources, and activities that change these items provides insight into cash flows and a company’s financial strengths and weaknesses.
大多数用户对信息感兴趣，以帮助他们评估企业未来现金流入和流出的金额、时间和不确定性。例如，债权人和潜在债权人需要评估实体 （1） 随着时间的推移支付贷款利息以及 （2） 在贷款到期时偿还贷款本金的能力。 投资者和潜在的投资者希望评估实体 （1） 在未来支付股息和 （2） 成功以使股价上涨的能力，使投资者能够以高于他们支付的价格出售他们的股票。有关公司经济资源、对其资源的索赔以及改变这些项目的活动的信息可以深入了解现金流和公司的财务优势和劣势。
Pervasive cost-benefit constraint The benefits of providing information should outweigh its costs.
普遍的成本效益限制 提供信息的好处应该超过其成本。
Fundamental qualitative characteristics of useful information
有用信息的基本定性特征
Relevant information: information that can influence a decision; it has a predictive and/or feedback value.
相关信息：可以影响决策的信息;它具有预测和/或反馈值。
Faithful representation requires that the information be complete, neutral, and free from error.
忠实的代表要求信息完整、中立且没有错误。
Enhancing qualitative characteristics
增强定性特性
Comparability (including consistency)
可比性（包括一致性）
Verifiability
可验证性
Timeliness
及时
Understandability.
可理解性。
Separate Entity Assumption: States that business transactions are separate from the transactions of the owners.
单独的实体假设：声明业务交易与所有者的交易是分开的。
Going Concern Assumption (also called the continuity assumption): States that businesses are assumed to continue to operate into the foreseeable future, long enough to meet its contractual commitment and plans.
持续经营假设（也称为连续性假设）：假设企业在可预见的未来继续运营，足够长的时间以满足其合同承诺和计划。
Monetary Unit Assumption: States that accounting information should be measured and reported in the national monetary unit without any adjustment for changes in purchasing power (e.g., inflation).
货币单位假设：规定会计信息应以国家货币单位计量和报告，而不对购买力的变化（例如通货膨胀）进行任何调整。
Accountants measure the elements of the balance sheet using what is called a mixed-attribute measurement model.
Accountants 使用所谓的混合属性测量模型来衡量资产负债表的要素。
Mixed-Attribute Measurement Model: Applied to measuring different assets and liabilities of the balance sheet.
混合属性计量模型：应用于计量资产负债表中的不同资产和负债。
Cost (Historical Cost): The cash-equivalent value of an asset on the date of the transaction.
成本 （历史成本）：资产在交易日期的现金等价价值。
Cash equivalent cost is the cash paid plus the dollar value of all noncash considerations.
现金等价物成本是支付的现金加上所有非现金对价的美元价值。
Most balance sheet elements are recorded at their cost (historical cost).
大多数资产负债表要素都按其成本（历史成本）进行记录。
Elements of the balance sheet
资产负债表的要素
Assets = Liabilities + Stockholders’ Equity
资产 = 负债 + 股东权益
Assets An asset is a present right of an entity to a probable future economic benefit as a result of past transactions or events.
资产 资产是指实体因过去的交易或事件而获得可能的未来经济利益的现时权利。
In other words, they are the economic resources the entity acquired to use in operating the company in the future. Most companies list assets in order of liquidity, or how soon an asset is expected by management to be turned into cash or used.
换句话说，它们是实体获得用于未来运营公司的经济资源。 大多数公司按流动性或管理层预计资产多久转化为现金或使用的顺序列出资产。
Current Assets Assets that will be used or turned into cash within one year. Inventory is always considered a current asset regardless of the time needed to produce and sell it. Cash and near-cash assets (es. Prepaid rent, Prepaid expense) are always considered to be current assets.
流动资产 一年内将使用或转换为现金的资产。库存始终被视为流动资产，无论生产和销售它需要多长时间。C灰分和接近现金资产 （es.预付租金、预付费用）始终被视为流动资产。
Noncurrent assets All assets that are to be used or turned into cash after the coming year. They are long term and they are typically highly illiquid.
非流动资产 来年后将使用或转换为现金的所有资产。它们是长期的，通常流动性很差。
Liabilities A liability is a present obligation of an entity to transfer an economic (benefit cash, goods, or services) as a result of a past transaction.
负债 负债是指实体因过去的交易而转移经济（利益现金、商品或服务）的当前义务。
Entities that a company owes money to are called creditors. Liabilities are usually listed on the balance sheet in order of maturity (how soon an obligation is to be paid).
公司欠款的实体称为债权人。 Li能力通常按到期日（多久支付义务）的顺序列在平衡表 上。
Current Liabilities Short-term obligations that will be paid in cash (or other current assets) within the current operating cycle or one year, whichever is longer.
流动负债 在当前运营周期或一年内以现金（或其他流动资产）支付的短期债务，以较长者为准。
Distinguishing current assets and current liabilities assists external users of the financial statements in assessing the amounts and the timing of future cash flows.
区分流动资产和流动负债有助于财务报表的外部使用者评估未来现金流的金额和时间。
Noncurrent liabilities include Notes Payable (written promises to pay the amount borrowed and interest as specified in the signed agreement) and Other Liabilities representing a summary of other obligations, such as to employee pension plans and long-term leases (discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters).
N流动负债包括应付票据（书面承诺支付已签署协议中规定的借款金额和利息）和其他负债，这些负债代表了其他义务的摘要，例如员工养老金计划和长期租赁（在后续章节中将更详细地讨论）。
Equity The terms equity or net assets represent the residual interest in the assets of an entity that remains after deducting its liabilities.
权益 权益或净资产等术语表示 实体在扣除负债后剩余的资产中的剩余权益。
Stockholders’ equity is also called shareholders’ equity or owners’ equity. It is a combination of the financing provided by the owners and by business operations.
股东权益是一种称为 shareholders' equity 或 owner' equity 的 LSO。 它是业主和企业运营提供的融资的组合。
Financing Provided by Owners is referred to as contributed capital. Owners invest in the business by providing cash and sometimes other assets, receiving in exchange shares of stock as evidence of ownership. The directors and executive officers also own stock, as do other corporate employees and the general public. Common Stock and Additional Paid in Capital are the accounts used to represent the amount investors paid to the company when the investors purchased the stock from the company. Note, however, that the Treasury Stock account reduces stockholders’ equity. Treasury stock is the amount that the company paid to its investors when the company repurchased from investors a portion of previously issued common stock. Treasury Stock will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 11.
业主提供的融资称为出资。所有者通过提供现金，有时提供其他资产来投资企业，作为交换股票作为所有权的证据。董事和执行官也拥有股票，其他公司员工和公众也是如此。普通股和额外实收资本是用于表示投资者从公司购买股票时向公司支付的金额的账户。但请注意，库存股账户减少了股东权益。 库存股是公司从投资者那里回购部分先前发行的普通股时，公司向投资者支付的金额。 库存股将在第 11 章中更详细地讨论。
Financing Provided by Operations is referred to as earned capital or retained earnings. When companies earn profits, they can be distributed to owners as dividends or reinvested in the business. The portion of profits reinvested in the business is called Retained Earnings. Companies with a growth strategy often pay little or no dividends to retain funds for expansion.
运营提供的融资称为赚取资本或留存收益。 当公司赚取利润时，它们可以作为股息分配给所有者或再投资于业务。再投资于企业的利润部分称为留存收益。具有增长战略的公司通常很少或根本不支付股息以保留扩张资金。
Unrecorded but valuable assets and liabilities
未记录但有价值的资产和负债
Many very valuable intangible assets, such as trademarks, patents, and copyrights, are not reported on the balance sheet. Intangible assets which are not reported:
许多非常有价值的无形资产，例如商标、专利和版权，没有在资产负债表上报告。未报告的无形资产：
Internally developed over time
随着时间的推移而内部开发
Not purchased.
未购买。
Some liabilities, called off-balance-sheet financing-obligations, are not reported as liabilities on the balance sheet. Off-balance-sheet financing:
一些负债，称为资产负债表外融资债务，不在资产负债表上报告为负债。资产负债表外融资：
Some equipment or building rentals.
一些设备或建筑物租赁。
This also illustrates the importance of reading the notes, not just the financial statements.
这也说明了阅读附注而不仅仅是财务报表的重要性。
Business transactions
商业交易
Transactions Events that have an economic impact on the entity and are recorded as part of the accounting process.
交易 对实体有经济影响并作为会计流程的一部分记录的事件。
As the definitions of assets and liabilities indicate, only economic resources and obligations resulting from past transactions are recorded on the balance sheet. Transactions include two types of events:
正如资产和负债的定义所表明的那样，资产负债表上只记录过去交易产生的经济资源和义务。事务包括两种类型的事件：
External events Exchanges between the entity and one or more parties. For example, the purchase of a machine from a supplier, sale of merchandise to customers, borrowing of cash from a bank, and investment of cash in the business by the owners.
外部事件实体与一个或多个参与方之间的交换。例如，从供应商处购买机器、向客户销售商品、从银行借款现金以及所有者将现金投资于企业。
These are exchanges of assets, goods, or services by one party for assets, services, or promises to pay (liabilities) from one or more other parties.
这些是一方用资产、商品或服务交换资产、服务或承诺支付（负债）来自一个或多个其他方。
Internal events Not exchanges between parties but that have a direct and measurable effect on the entity. For example, the use of the machine purchased, using up insurance paid in advance and using buildings and equipment over several years.
内部事件不是各方之间的交流，但对实体有直接和可衡量的影响。 例如，使用购买的机器、用完预先支付的保险以及使用几年的建筑物和设备。
Non-transaction events Contracts as exchanges of promises, i.e. no exchange of assets, goods or services.
非交易事件 作为承诺交换的合同，即不交换资产、商品或服务。
Because of their importance, long-term employment contracts, leases, and other commitments may need to be disclosed in notes to the financial statements.
由于长期雇佣合同、租约和其他承诺的重要性，可能需要在财务报表的附注中披露。
Accounts
帐户
An account is a standardized format that accounting entities use to accumulate the dollar effect of transactions on each financial statement item.
账户是会计实体用来累积交易对每个财务报表项目的美元影响的标准化格式。
The resulting balances are kept separate for financial statement purposes.
出于财务报表目的，生成的余额将分开保存。
A chart of accounts is a list of all account titles and their unique numbers.
会计科目表是所有账户科目及其唯一编号的列表。
The accounts are usually organized by financial statement element, with asset accounts listed first, followed by liability, stockholders’ equity, revenue, and expense accounts in that order.
这些账户通常按财务报表要素组织，首先是资产账户，然后是责任、股东权益、收入和费用账户。
Every company creates its own chart of accounts to fit the nature of its business activities. These differences in accounts will become more apparent as we examine the balance sheets of various companies.
每家公司都会创建自己的会计科目表以适应其业务活动的性质。当我们检查不同公司的资产负债表时，这些账户差异将变得更加明显。
Once you select a name for an account, you must use that exact name in all transactions affecting that account.
为账户选择名称后，您必须在影响该账户的所有交易中使用该确切名称。
The accounts you see in the financial statements of largest corporations are actually summations (or aggregations) of a number of specific accounts in their recordkeeping system.
您在最大公司的财务报表中看到的账户实际上是其记录保存系统中许多特定账户的总和（或汇总）。
Principles of transaction analysis
交易分析的原则
Managers’ business decisions often result in transactions that affect the financial statements. Sometimes these decisions have unintended consequences as well. The decision to purchase additional inventory for cash in anticipation of a major sales initiative, for example, will increase inventory and decrease cash. But if there is no demand for the additional inventory, the lower cash balance also will reduce the company’s ability to pay its other obligations. Because business decisions often involve an element of risk, managers should understand exactly how transactions impact the financial statements. The process for determining the effects of transactions is called transaction analysis.
经理的业务决策通常会导致影响财务报表的交易。有时，这些决定也会产生意想不到的后果。例如，在预期重大销售计划的情况下决定以现金购买额外库存，这将增加库存并减少现金。但是，如果对额外库存没有需求，较低的现金余额也会降低公司支付其他义务的能力。由于业务决策通常涉及风险因素，因此管理人员应准确了解交易如何影响财务报表。确定交易效果的过程称为交易分析。
Transaction analysis is the process of studying a transaction to determine its economic effect on the entity in terms of the accounting equation (also known as the fundamental accounting model).
交易分析是研究交易以根据会计方程式（也称为基本会计模型）确定其对实体的经济影响的过程。
Every transaction has at least two effects (dual effects) on the basic accounting equation.
每笔交易对基本会计等式至少有两个影响 （双重影响）。
Every transaction affects at least two accounts.
每笔交易至少影响两个账户。
Correctly identifying those accounts and the direction of the effect (whether an increase or a decrease) is critical.
正确识别这些账户和效果的方向（无论是增加还是减少）至关重要。
The accounting equation must remain in balance after each transaction.
每笔交易后，会计等式必须保持平衡。
That is, total assets (resources) must equal total liabilities and stockholders’ equity (claims to resources).
也就是说，总资产（资源）必须等于总负债和股东权益（对资源的债权）。
Most transactions with external parties involve an exchange by which the business entity both receives something and gives up something in return.
与外部各方的大多数交易都涉及一种交换，通过这种交换，商业实体既收到一些东西，又放弃一些东西作为回报。
Remember that this chapter presents investing and financing transactions that affect only the balance sheet accounts. “Investing” does not just mean buying other companies’ stock and bonds. Investing activities by a company are those in which the company typically buys or sells its noncurrent assets (growing or shrinking its productive capacity) as well as investments (current or noncurrent). Financing activities are those in which the company borrows or repays loans (typically from banks) and sells or repurchases its common stock and pays dividends (activities with stockholders).
请记住，本章介绍的投资和融资交易仅影响资产负债表账户。“投资”不仅仅意味着购买其他公司的股票和债券。公司的投资活动是指公司通常购买或出售其非流动资产（增加或减少其生产能力）以及投资（流动或非流动）的活动。融资活动是指公司借入或偿还贷款（通常来自银行）并出售或回购其普通股并支付股息（与股东的活动）的活动。
Balancing the accounting equation
平衡会计等式
Step 1 Ask — What was received and what was given?
第1 步 询问——收到了什么，又给了什么？
Identify each account affected by title (e.g., cash and notes payable).
确定受所有权影响的每个账户（例如，现金和应付票据）。
Make sure at least two accounts change.
确保至少有两个帐户发生更改。
Classify each account by type (e.g. cash is an asset and notes payable is a liability).
按类型对每个账户进行分类（例如，现金是一种资产，应付票据是一种负债）。
Determine the direction of the effect (e.g. cash increased and notes payable increased).
确定影响的方向（例如，现金增加，应付票据增加）。
Step 2 Verify — Is the accounting equation in balance?
第2 步 验证 — 会计方程式是否平衡？
The three steps in transaction analysis are: (1) determine what the company received: identify and classify accounts and the direction and amount of the effects. (2) determine what the company gave: identify and classify accounts and the direction and amount of the effects. (3) determine that the accounting equation (A = L + SE) remains in balance.
交易分析的三个步骤是：（1） 确定公司收到了什么：识别和分类账户以及影响的方向和数量。（2） 确定公司给予了什么：识别和分类账户以及效果的方向和数量。（3） 确定会计等式 （A = L + SE） 保持平衡。
Each share of common stock usually has a nominal (low) par value printed on the face of the certificate. Par value is a legal amount per share established by the board of directors; it has no relationship to the market price of the stock. Its significance is that it establishes the minimum amount that a stockholder must contribute.
每股普通股通常在证书正面印有名义（低）面值。面值是董事会确定的每股法定金额;它与股票的市场价格无关。其意义在于它确定了股东必须供款的最低金额。
Common Stock The basic voting stock issued by a corporation.
普通股 公司发行的基本有表决权股票。
Par Value (1) The nominal value per share of stock as specified in the corporate charter. (2) Also, another name for bond principal, or the maturity amount of a bond.
面值 （1） 公司章程中规定的每股股票面值。（2） 此外，债券本金的另一个名称，或债券的到期金额。
Additional Paid-In Capital (Paid-In Capital, Contributed Capital in Excess of Par) (the owner-provided financing to the business that represents) The amount of contributed capital less the par value of the stock.
额外实收资本 （实收资本，贡献资本 in 超出面值）（所有者向所代表的企业提供的融资）贡献资本的金额减去股票的面值。
When a corporation issues common (capital) stock, the transaction affects separate accounts:
当公司发行普通股（股本）时，交易会影响单独的账户：
Received from shareholders: Cash or other considerations for the market value of the shares given (100 shares × $3.00 market value per share = $300).
从股东那里收到：现金或其他对价，相当于给定的股票市场价值（100 股×每股 3.00 美元的市场价值 = 300 美元）。
Given to shareholders: Common Stock for the number of shares issued times the par value per share (100 shares × $0.01 par value per share = $1) and Additional Paid-in Capital (or Paid-in Capital or Contributed Capital in Excess of Par) for the excess received above par (100 shares × $2.99 excess over par value per share [that is, $3.00 market value per share - $0.01 par value per share] = $299).
给予股东：已发行股份数量的普通股乘以每股面值（100 股×每股面值 0.01 美元 = 1 美元）和额外实收资本（或实收资本或超过面值的出资资本）对于收到的高于面值的超额部分（100 股×超出每股面值 2.99 美元的 [即， 每股 3.00 美元市值 - 每股面值 0.01 美元] = 299 美元）。
Companies that need cash to buy or build additional facilities often seek funds by selling stock to investors or by borrowing from creditors. Any transactions with stockholders (usually issuing additional stock and paying dividends) and transactions with banks (borrowing and repaying loans) are financing activities.
需要现金购买或建造额外设施的公司通常通过向投资者出售股票或从债权人借款来寻求资金。与股东的任何交易（通常是发行额外股票和支付股息）和与银行的交易（借款和偿还贷款）都是融资活动。
Purchasing and selling property and equipment and investments in the stock of other companies are investing activities.
购买和出售财产和设备以及投资其他公司的股票都是投资活动。
The accounting cycle
会计周期
The primary activities of the accounting cycle performed during the accounting period separately from those that occur at the end of the accounting period.
会计周期的主要活动在会计期间进行，与会计期间结束时发生的活动分开进行。
To handle the multitude of daily transactions that a business generates, companies establish accounting systems, usually computerized, that follow a cycle.
为了处理企业产生的大量日常交易，公司建立了遵循一个周期的会计系统，通常是计算机化的。
Accounting cycle The process used by entities to analyze and record transactions, adjust the records at the end of the period, prepare financial statements, and prepare the records for the next cycle.
会计周期 实体用于分析和记录交易、调整期末记录、准备财务报表以及为下一个周期准备记录的过程。
Journal entries and T-accounts
日记账分录和 T 账户
Journal entries and T-accounts Tools that companies use to keep track of account balances:
日记账分录和 T 账户公司用来跟踪账户余额的工具：
General journal A listing in chronological order of each transaction’s effects. (Journal entries)
General journal （普通日记帐） 按时间顺序列出每笔交易的影响。（日记账分录）
General ledger A record of effects to and balances of each account. (T-accounts)
总账 每个账户的影响和余额的记录。（T 账户）
During the accounting period, transactions that result in exchanges between the company and external parties are analyzed to determine the accounts and effects. The effects are recorded first in the general journal. To determine account balances, the accounts are updated by posting the effects listed in the general journal to the respective accounts in the general ledger.
在会计期间，对导致公司与外部各方之间交换的交易进行分析，以确定账户和影响。效应首先记录在普通日记帐中。为了确定账户余额，通过将总账中列出的影响过账到总账中的相应账户来更新账户。
The Journal Entry – book
日记账分录 – 书
In an accounting system, transactions are recorded in chronological order in a general journal (or, simply, journal). After analyzing the business documents (such as purchase invoices, receipts, and cash register tapes) that describe a transaction, the effects on the accounts are recorded in the journal using debts and credits.
在会计系统中，交易按时间顺序记录在普通日记账（或简称日记账）中。在分析描述交易的业务文档（如采购发票、收据和收银磁带）之后，使用负债和贷方在日记帐中记录对帐户的影响。
Notice the following:
请注意：
It is useful to include a date or some form of reference for each transaction. The debited accounts are written first (on top) with the amounts recorded in the left (debit) column. The credited accounts are written below the debits and are usually intended in manual records; the credited amounts are written in the right column. The order of the debited accounts or credited accounts does not matter, as long as the debits are on top and the credits are on the bottom and intended to the right.
为每个交易记录包含日期或某种形式的引用很有用。借记账户首先写入（顶部），金额记录在左侧（借方）列中。贷记账户写在借方下方，通常用于手动记录;贷记金额将写入右列。借记账户或贷记账户的顺序无关紧要，只要借方在顶部，贷方在底部并且打算向右。
Total debits equal total credits.
总借款等于总信用。
Three accounts are affected by this transaction. Any journal entry that affects more than two accounts is called a compound entry.
三个账户受此交易影响。影响两个以上帐户的任何日记帐分录都称为复合分录。
Specifically identifying an account as an asset (A), a liability (L), or a stockholders’ equity account (SE) clarifies the transaction analysis and makes journal entries easier to write. For example, if Cash is to be increased, we write Cash (+A).
将账户具体标识为资产 （A）、负债 （L） 或股东权益账户 （SE） 可以澄清交易分析并使日记账分录更易于编写。例如，如果要增加 Cash，我们写 Cash （+A）。
Journal entry: the results of transaction analysis in accounting format.
日记账分录：会计格式的交易分析结果。
The T-Account – book
T-Account – 账簿
By themselves, journal entries do not provide the balances in accounts. After the journal entries have been recorded, the bookkeeper posts (transfers) the dollar amounts to each account affected by the transaction to determine the new account balances. (In most computerized accounting systems, this happens automatically.)
日记账分录本身不提供账户中的余额。记录日记账分录后，簿记员将美元金额过帐（转账）到受交易影响的每个账户，以确定新的账户余额。（在大多数计算机化的会计系统中，这是自动发生的。
As a group, the accounts are called a general ledger. In the manual accounting system used by some small businesses, the ledger is often a three-ring binder with a separate page for each account. In a computerized system, accounts are stored on a disk.
作为一个组，这些账户称为总账。在一些小企业使用的手动会计系统中，分类账通常是一个三环活页夹，每个账户都有一个单独的页面。在计算机化系统中，帐户存储在磁盘上。
One very useful tool for summarizing the transaction effects and determining the balances for individual accounts is a T-account, a simplified representation of a ledger account. Notice the following:
用于总结交易效果和确定个人账户余额的一个非常有用的工具是 T 账户，它是分类账户的简化表示。 请注意以下事项：
For Cash, which is classified as an asset, increases are shown on the left and decreases appear on the right side of the T-account. For Common Stock, however, increases are shown on the right and decreases on the left because Common Stock is a stockholders’ equity account.
对于被归类为资产的现金，增加显示在 T 账户的左侧，减少显示在右侧。但是，对于 Common Stock，增加显示在右侧，减少显示在左侧，因为 Common Stock 是股东权益账户。
Every T-account starts with a beginning balance.
每个 T 账户都以期初余额开始。
It is important to include the reference to the journal entry next to the debit or credit in each T-account. For companies, it would be a date. This cross-referencing allows the transactions to be traced between the journal entries and T-accounts.
在每个 T 账户的借方或贷方旁边包含对日记账分录的引用非常重要。对于公司来说，这将是一个日期。这种交叉引用允许在 journal 分录和 T 账户之间跟踪交易。
When all of the transactions have been posted to a T-account, a horizontal line is drawn across it, similar to the line that is drawn in a mathematical problem, to signify that a balance is to be determined.
当所有发生业务都已过账到 T 账户时，会在其上绘制一条水平线，类似于数学问题中绘制的线，以表示要确定余额。
An ending balance is written on the appropriate side of the T-account.
期末余额写入 T 账户的相应一侧。
A word on terminology: The words debit and credit may be used as verbs, nouns, and adjectives.
关于术语的一句话：debit 和 credit 这两个词可以用作动词、名词和形容词。
Transactions analysis model (basic)
交易分析模型（基本）
Debits and Credits
借方和贷方
Transaction effects increase and decrease assets, liabilities, and stockholders’ equity accounts. To reflect these effects efficiently, we need to structure the transaction analysis model in a manner that shows the direction of the effects. Each account is set up as a “T” with the following structure:
交易效应会增加和减少资产、负债和股东权益账户。为了有效地反映这些影响，我们需要以显示影响方向的方式构建事务分析模型。每个账户都设置为具有以下结构的 “T”：
Increases in asset accounts are on the left because assets are on the left side of the accounting equation (A = L + SE)
资产账户的增加在左侧，因为资产位于会计等式的左侧 （A = L + SE）
Increases in liability and stockholders’ equity accounts are on the right because they are on the right side of the accounting equation (A = L + SE).
负债和股东权益账户的增加在右侧，因为它们位于会计等式的右侧 （A = L + SE）。
Also notice that
另请注意，
The term debit (db for short) always refer to the left side of the T
术语 debit （简称 db） 始终指 T 的左侧
The term credit (cr for sort) always refers to the right side of the T.
术语 credit （cr for sort） 总是指向 T 的右侧。
As a consequence:
因此：
Asset accounts increase on the left (debit) side and normally have debit balances. It would be highly unusual for an asset account, such as Inventory, to have a negative (credit) balance.
资产账户在左侧（借方）增加，通常有借方余额。资产帐户（如 Inventory）具有负 （贷方） 余额是非常不常见的。
Liability and stockholders’ equity accounts increase on the right (credit) side and normally have credit balances.
负债账户和股东权益账户在右侧（贷方）增加，通常有贷方余额。
The trail balance
跟踪余额
The trial balance is a listing of the ending balance in each account in the general ledger.
试算表是总账中每个账户的期末余额列表。
List accounts in financial statement order (assets, liabilities, stockholders’ equity, revenues and expenses).
按财务报表顺序列出账户 （资产、负债、股东权益、收入和支出）。
Make sure the debits and credits are equal.
确保借方和贷方相等。
A trial balance lists the names of the T-accounts in one column, with their ending debit or credit balances in the next two columns. Debit balances are indicated in the left column and credit balances are indicated in the right column. Then the two columns are totaled to provide a check on the equality of the debits and credits.
试算表在一列中列出 T 账户的名称，其期末借方或贷方余额在接下来的两列中。借方余额显示在左列中，贷方余额显示在右列n 中。然后，将两个列相加，以提供对借方和贷方相等性的检查。
Classified balance sheet
分类资产负债表
Classified balance sheets classify assets and liabilities into two categories: current and noncurrent.
分类资产负债表将资产和负债分为两类：流动和非流动。
Current
Assets to be used or turned into cash within the upcoming year
来年内使用或转化为现金的资产
Liabilities to be paid or settled within the next 12 months with current assets
在未来 12 个月内用流动资产支付或清偿 的负债
Noncurrent will last longer than one year
非当前将持续一年以上
Also, dollar signs are indicated at the top and bottom of the asset section and top and bottom of the liabilities and shareholders’ equity section. More than that tends to look messy.
此外，美元符号显示在资产部分的顶部和底部以及负债和股东权益部分的顶部和底部。超过这个数字往往看起来很混乱。
The statement includes comparative data. When multiple periods are presented, the most recent balance sheet amounts are usually listed on the left, but not always (look carefully).
该声明包括比较数据。当显示多个期间时，最近的资产负债表金额通常列在左侧，但并非总是如此（仔细查看）。
Most companies do not provide a total liabilities line on the balance sheet. To determine total liabilities on those statements, add total current liabilities and each of the noncurrent liabilities.
大多数公司不在资产负债表上提供总负债行。要确定这些报表上的负债总额，请添加流动负债总额和每个非流动负债。
Current ratio QUANDO è UNDETERMINED?
Current ratioQUANDO è UNDETERMINED？
Creditors and security analysts use the current ratio to measure the ability of the company to pay its short-term obligations with short-term assets. (for a point in time)
Creditors 和证券分析师使用 current ratio 来衡量 公司用短期资产支付短期债务的能力。（对于某个时间点）
Although a ratio above 1.0 indicates sufficient current assets to meet obligations when they come due, many companies with sophisticated cash management systems have ratios below 1.0.
尽管比率高于 1.0 表明流动资产足以履行到期债务，但许多拥有复杂现金管理系统的公司比率低于 1.0。
Generally, the higher the ratio, the more cushion a company has to pay its current obligations if future economic conditions take a downturn. However, a company with a high current ratio might still have liquidity problems if the majority of its current assets consist of slow-moving inventory.
一般来说，如果未来经济状况低迷，公司支付当前义务的缓冲就越大。但是，如果流动比率高的公司的大部分流动资产由周转缓慢的库存组成，则可能仍然存在流动性问题。
Many industries, such as retail companies and manufacturers, historically face difficult times with sustained dips in the economy. They often have a current ratio at 2.0 (twice as many current economic resources as current obligations) or higher to be able to pay employees, suppliers, and other current obligations until the economy recovers.
许多行业，如零售公司和制造商，历来都面临着经济持续下滑的困难时期。他们的流动比率通常为 2.0（当前经济资源是当前债务的两倍）或更高，以便能够支付员工、供应商和其他当前义务，直到经济复苏。
While a ratio above 1.0 normally suggests good liquidity, today, many strong companies use sophisticated management techniques to minimize funds invested in current assets and, as a result, have current ratios below 1.0. Many businesses with strong inflows of cash from customers (like the restaurant industry), also may have a current ratio below 1.0. Likewise, when compared to others in the industry, too high of a ratio may suggest inefficient use of resources.
虽然比率高于 1.0 通常表明流动性良好，但今天，雄厚的公司使用精明的管理技术来最大限度地减少投资于流动资产的资金，因此，流动比率低于 1.0。许多客户现金流入强劲的企业（如餐饮业）的流动比率也可能低于 1.0。同样，与业内其他公司相比，比率过高可能意味着资源利用效率低下。
The current ratio may be a misleading measure of liquidity if significant funds are tied up in assets that cannot be easily converted into cash. A company with a high current ratio still might have liquidity problems if the majority of its current assets consists of slow-moving inventory. Analysts also recognize that managers can manipulate the current ratio by engaging in certain transactions just before the close of the fiscal year. In most cases, for example, the current ratio can be improved by paying creditors immediately prior to the preparation of financial statements.
如果大量资金被困在无法轻易转换为现金的资产中，则流动比率可能是一种误导性的流动性衡量标准。如果流动比率高的公司的大部分流动资产由周转缓慢的库存组成，则仍可能存在流动性问题。分析师还认为，经理可以通过在财年结束前进行某些交易来纵流动比率。 例如，在大多数情况下，可以通过在编制财务报表之前立即向债权人付款来提高流动比率。
There are 2 possible modifications of Current Ratio
Current Ratio 有 2 种可能的修改
Quick ratio = (current assets - inventor) / current liabilities. It deletes the slow-moving inventory.
速动比率 = （流动资产 - 发明人） / 流动负债。它会删除周转缓慢的库存。
Cash ratio = (current assets with cash + short-term investments) / current liabilities.
现金比率 =（含现金的流动资产 + 短期投资）/流动负债。
International perspective
国际视野
GAAP: Stati Uniti.
GAAP： Stati Uniti.
IFRS: Unione Europea, il Canada, l'Australia e diverse economie emergenti.
国际财务报告准则： Unione Europea， il Canada， l'Australia e diverse economie emergenti.
Financial statements prepared using GAAP and IFRS include the same elements (assets, liabilities, revenues, expenses, etc.). However, a single, consistent format has not been mandated. Consequently, various formats have evolved over time, with those in the United States differing from those typically used internationally.
使用 GAAP 和 IFRS 编制的财务报表包括相同的要素（资产、负债、收入、费用等）。但是，尚未强制要求采用单一、一致的格式。因此，随着时间的推移，各种格式不断发展，美国的格式与国际上通常使用的格式不同。
Investing and financing activities on cash flows
现金流量的投融资活动
Companies report cash inflows and outflows over a period in their statement of cash flows, which is divided into three categories: operating, investing, and financing activities. Only transactions affecting cash are reported on the statement. Remember, you must see cash in the transaction for it to affect the statement of cash flows. An important step in constructing and analyzing the statement of cash flows is identifying the various transactions as operating (O), investing (I), or financing (F).
C公司在其现金流量表中报告一段时间内的现金流入和流出，该表分为三类：经营、投资和融资活动。 在对账单上仅报告影响现金的交易。 Remember，您必须在交易中看到现金，才能影响现金流量表。构建和分析现金流量表的一个重要步骤是将各种交易确定为经营 （O）、投资 （I） 或融资 （F）。
3)
Operating Decisions and the Accounting System – book
经营决策和会计系统 – 书籍
Published income statements provide the primary basis for comparing projections to the actual results of operations. To understand how business plans and the results of operations are reflected on the income statement, we need to answer the following questions:
公布的损益表是将预测与实际经营结果进行比较的主要依据。要了解商业计划和运营结果如何反映在损益表上，我们需要回答以下问题：
How do business activities affect the income statement?
商业活动如何影响损益表？
How are business activities measured?
如何衡量商业活动？
How are business activities reported on the income statement?
业务活动如何在损益表上报告？
The Operating Cycle
作周期
The long-term objective for any business is to turn cash into more cash. If a company is to stay in business, this excess cash must be generated from operations (that is, from the activities for which the business was established), not from borrowing money or selling long-lived assets.
任何企业的长期目标都是将现金转化为更多现金。如果一家公司要继续经营，这些多余的现金必须来自运营（即来自公司成立的活动），而不是来自借款或出售长期资产。
Companies (1) acquire inventory and the services of employees and (2) sell inventory or services to customers. The operating (cash-to-cash) cycle begins when a company receives goods to sell, pays for them, and sells to customers (or, in the case of a service company, has employees work to provide services to customers); it ends when customers pay cash to the company. The length of time for completion of the operating cycle depends on the nature of the business.
公司 （1） 收购库存和员工服务，以及 （2） 向客户出售库存或服务。运营（现金到现金）周期从公司收到要销售的商品、付款并销售给客户（或者，在服务公司的情况下，让员工工作为客户提供服务）开始;当客户向公司支付现金时，它结束。完成运营周期的时间长度取决于业务的性质。
Operating (Cash-To Cash) Cycle The time it takes for a company to pay cash to suppliers, sell goods and services to customers, and collect cash from customers.
Operating （Cash-To Cash） Cycle （运营（现金到现金）周期） 公司向供应商支付现金、向客户销售商品和服务以及向客户收取现金所需的时间。
Companies with lower-priced products that sell quickly and in high volume generally have shorter operating cycles than companies with low volume of sales and higher-priced items.
与销量低、商品价格高的公司相比，产品销量低、大批量的公司经营周期短。
A typical business operating cycle for a manufacturer would be as follows: Inventory is purchased, cash is paid to suppliers, the product is manufactured and sold on credit, and the cash is collected from the customer. For a service provider, a typical operating cycle would be as follows: Employee labor would be used, cash is paid to the employees, service is rendered, and the cash is collected from the client.
制造商的典型业务运营周期如下：购买库存，向供应商支付现金，赊销产品和销售产品，并从客户那里收取现金。对于服务提供商，典型的运营周期如下：使用员工劳动力，向员工支付现金，提供服务，并从客户那里收取现金。
The Time Period Assumption
时间段假设
Accounting cycles Relatively short, arbitrary time periods for accountants to provide managers and investors with financial information on a timely basis.
会计周期会计师及时向经理和投资者提供财务信息的相对较短、任意的时间段。
To measure income for a specific period of time, accountants follow the time period assumption.
为了衡量特定时期的收入，会计师会假设时间段。
Time period assumption The long life of a company can be reported in shorter time periods, such as months, quarters, and years.
时间段假设公司的长寿可以用较短的周期来报告，例如月、季度和年。
Two types of issues arise in reporting periodic income to users:
向用户报告定期收入时会出现两类问题：
Recognition issues When should the effects of operating activities be recognized (recorded)?
确认问题何时确认（记录）经营活动的效果？
Measurement issues What amounts should be recognized?
测量问题应确认哪些金额？
Elements of the Income Statement (GAAP)
损益表 （GAAP） 要素
The recent income statement for Chipotle has multiple subtotals, such as operating income and income before income taxes. This format is known as multiple step and is very common. You can tell if a company uses the multiple-step format if you see the Operating Income subtotal (also called Income from Operations).
Chipotle 最近的损益表有多个小计，例如营业收入和所得税前收入。这种格式称为多步骤，非常常见。如果您看到 Operating Income （营业收入） 小计 （也称为 Revenue from Operations （运营收入）），则可以判断公司是否使用多步骤格式。
Consolidated Statement of Income
合并损益表
- Operating section (central focus of business)
- 运营部分（业务中心）
Restaurant sales revenue
餐厅销售收入
Restaurant operating expenses:
餐厅运营费用：
Supplies expense
耗材费用
Wages expense
工资费用
Rent expense
房租费用
Insurance expense
保险费用
Repairs expense
维修费用
Other operating expenses
其他运营费用
General administrative expenses:
一般行政费用：
Training expense
培训费用
Advertising expense
广告费用
Depreciation expense
折旧费用
Loss on disposal of assets
资产处置损失
Total operating expenses
总运营费用
- Other Items section (not central focus of business)
- 其他项目部分（不是业务的中心焦点）
Income from operations
经营收入
Other items:
其他项目：
Interest revenue
利息收入
Interest expense
利息支出
Income before income taxes
所得税前收入
Income tax expense
所得税费用
Net income
净收入
Earnings per share
每股收益
1.Revenues Increases in assets or settlements of liabilities from the major or central ongoing operations of the business.
1.收入 业务主要或主要持续运营的资产增加或负债清偿。
Operating revenues result from the sale of goods or the rendering of services as the central focus of the business. When revenue is earned, assets, usually Cash or Accounts Receivable, often increase. Sometimes if a customer pays for goods or services in advance, often with a gift card, a liability account, usually Unearned (or Deferred) Revenue, is created. At this point, no revenue has been earned. There is simply a receipt of cash in exchange for a promise to provide a good or service in the future. When the company provides the promised goods or services to the customer, then the revenue is recognized and the liability is eliminated.
营业收入来自作为业务中心的商品销售或提供服务。当获得收入时，资产（通常是现金或应收账款）通常会增加。有时，如果客户提前支付商品或服务，通常使用礼品卡，则会创建一个负债账户，通常是未赚取（或递延）收入。此时，尚未获得任何收入。只需一张现金收据，以换取在未来提供商品或服务的承诺。当公司向客户提供承诺的商品或服务时，收入得到确认并消除负债。
Some students confuse the terms expenditures and expenses. An expenditure is any outflow of cash for any purpose, whether to buy equipment, pay off a bank loan, or pay employees their wages. Expenses are outflows or the using up of assets or increases in liabilities from ongoing operations incurred to generate revenues during the period. Therefore, not all cash expenditures (outflows) are expenses, but expenses are necessary to generate revenues.
一些学生混淆了 expenditures 和 expenses 这两个术语。支出 是指出于任何目的流出的现金，无论是购买设备、偿还银行贷款还是支付员工工资。费用是指在此期间为产生收入而发生的持续运营所产生的流出或资产用尽或负债增加。因此，并非所有的现金支出（流出）都是费用，但费用是产生收入所必需的。
2.Expenses Decreases in assets or increases in liabilities from ongoing operations incurred to generate revenues.
2.费用 为产生收入而发生的持续运营的资产减少或负债增加。
Expenses may be incurred before, after, or at the same time as cash is paid. When an expense is incurred, assets such as Supplies decrease (are used up) or liabilities such as Wages Payable or Utilities Payable increase.
费用可能在支付现金之前、之后或同时发生。当产生费用时，供应等资产减少（用完）或应付工资或应付水电费等负债增加。
Supplies Expense
耗材费用
Wages Expense
工资费用
Rent Expense, Insurance Expense, Utilities Expense, and Repairs Expense Renting facilities, insuring property and equipment at the stores, using utilities, and repairing and maintaining facilities and equipment are typical expenses related to operating stores. Usually, rent and insurance are paid before occupying the facilities, but utilities and repairs are paid after occupying the facilities.
租金费用、保险费用、水电费和维修费用租用设施、为商店的财产和设备投保、使用水电费以及维修和维护设施和设备是与经营商店相关的典型费用。通常，房租和保险是在入住设施之前支付的，但水电费和维修费是在入住设施后支付的。
General and Administrative Expenses General and Administrative Expenses include costs of training employees and managers, advertising, and other expenses not directly related to operating stores. These often include expenses such as renting headquarters facilities and paying executive salaries.
一般和管理费用 一般和管理费用包括培训员工和经理的费用、广告以及与商店运营没有直接关系的其他费用。这些费用通常包括租用总部设施和支付高管工资等费用。
Depreciation Expense When a company uses buildings and equipment to generate revenues, a part of the cost of these assets is reported as an expense called Depreciation Expense.
折旧费用当公司使用建筑物和设备产生收入时，这些资产的一部分成本将报告为称为折旧费用的费用。
3.4. Losses (Gains) on Disposal of Assets Companies sell property, plant, and equipment from time to time to maintain modern facilities. When assets other than investments are sold or disposed of for more than their undepreciated cost, gains result. If they are sold or disposed of for less than the undepreciated cost, losses result
3.4. 资产处置的损失（收益） 公司不时出售财产、厂房和设备以维护现代设施。当投资以外的资产以高于其未折旧成本的价格出售或处置时，会产生收益。如果它们以低于未折旧成本的价格出售或处置，则会导致损失
Gains Increases in assets or settlements of liabilities from peripheral transactions.
收益 外围交易的资产增加或负债结算。
Result primarily from disposing of noncurrent assets and investments for more than the reported book value.
主要由于以超过报告账面价值的价格处置非流动资产和投资。
Losses Decreases in assets or increases in liabilities from peripheral transactions.
损失 外围交易导致的资产减少或负债增加。
Result primarily from disposing of noncurrent assets and investments for less than the reported book value cost.
主要由于以低于报告的账面价值成本的价格处置非流动资产和投资。
Note that selling short- or long-term investments above or below cost also results in gains or losses, but these are not reported in the Operating Expenses section of the multiple-step income statement. Instead, they are reported in Other Items.
请注意，以高于或低于成本的价格出售短期或长期投资也会导致收益或损失，但这些不会在多级损益表的运营费用部分报告。相反，这些报告在其他项目中。
Revenues -- The amounts earned and recorded from a company’s day-to-day business activities, mostly when a company sells products or provides services to customers or clients.
Revenues -- 收入 -- 从公司的日常业务活动中赚取和记录的金额，主要是在公司向客户或客户销售产品或提供服务时。
Gains -- Result primarily from the disposal of assets for more than their cost minus the amount of the cost depreciated in the past.
收益 -- 主要由于以高于其成本减去过去折旧的成本金额的价格处置资产而产生的结果。
Expenses -- The costs of operating the business that are incurred to generate revenues during the period.
Expenses -- 在此期间为产生收入而发生的业务运营成本。
Losses -- Result primarily from the disposal of assets for less than their cost minus the amount of the cost depreciated in the past.
Losses （损失） -- 主要由于以低于其成本减去过去折旧的成本金额的价格出售资产而产生的。
Operating Income
营业利润
Operating revenues (net sales) less operating expenses (including cost of goods sold) equals Operating Income (also called Income from Operations) - a measure of the profit from central ongoing operations.
营业收入（净销售额）减去营业费用（包括销售成本）等于营业收入（也称为运营收入）—— 衡量中央持续运营利润的指标。
Operating Revenues
营业收入
Operations of the business The sale of goods or rendering of services as the central focus of the business.
业务运营 以业务中心为中心的商品销售或提供服务。
Revenues Any increases in assets or settlements of liabilities from the major or central ongoing operations of the business.
收入 企业的主要或主要持续运营产生的资产增加或负债结算。
Operating Expenses
运营费用
Operating expenses are outflows or the using up of assets or increases in liabilities from ongoing operations incurred to generate revenues during the period.
运营费用是指在此期间为产生收入而发生的持续运营的流出或资产用尽或负债增加。
Not all cash expenditures are expenses, and vice versa.
并非所有现金支出都是费用，反之亦然。
Other income statement Items
其他损益表 I
Not all activities affecting an income statement are central to ongoing operations. Any revenues, expenses, gains, or losses that result from these other activities are not included as part of operating income but are instead categorized as Other Items.
并非所有影响损益表的活动都是持续运营的核心。这些其他活动产生的任何收入、费用、收益或损失均不包括在营业收入中，而是归类为其他项目。
Interest Revenue (or Dividend/Investment Revenue or Investment Income) Using excess cash to purchase stocks or bonds in other companies is an investing activity. Therefore, any interest or dividends earned on investments in other companies is not included as operating revenue.
利息收入（或 Dividend/nvestment Revenue 或 Investment Income） 使用多余的现金购买其他公司的股票或债券是一种投资活动。 因此，投资于其他公司所赚取的任何利息或股息均不包括在营业收入中。
Interest Expense Likewise, because borrowing money is a financing activity, any cost of using that money (called interest) is not an operating expense. Except for financial institutions, incurring interest expense and earning interest revenue are not the central operations of most businesses, including Chipotle. We say these are peripheral (normal but not central) transactions.
利息 Expense同样，因为借钱是一项融资活动，所以使用这笔钱的任何成本（称为利息）都不是运营费用。除金融机构外，产生利息支出和赚取利息收入并不是大多数企业的核心业务，包括 Chipotle。我们说这些是外围（正常但不是中心）交易。
Gains (or Losses) on Sale of Investments When investments are sold for less (or more) than the original cost, a loss (or gain) results.
出售投资的收益（或损失）当投资以低于（或高于）原始成本的价格出售时，会导致损失（或收益）。
Income Tax Expense (or Provision for Income Taxes) Adding (subtracting) other items to (from) operating income gives the subtotal of Income before Income Taxes (or Pretax Income). Income Tax Expense (also called Provision for Income Taxes) is the last expense listed on the income statement before determining net income. All profit making corporations are required to compute income taxes owed to federal, state, and foreign governments. Income tax expense is calculated as a percentage of pretax income determined by applying the tax rates of the federal, state, local, and foreign taxing authorities.
所得税 Expenense（或所得税准备金）在营业收入中增加（减去）其他项目，得出所得税前收入（或税前收入）的小计。所得税费用（也称为所得税准备金）是损益表上列出的最后一项费用，在确定净收入之前。所有营利性公司都必须计算欠联邦、州和外国政府的所得税。所得税费用按税前收入的百分比计算，该百分比是按联邦、州、地方和外国税务机关的税率确定的。
Earnings per Share (EPS) Corporations are required to disclose earnings per share on the income statement or in the notes to the financial statements. This ratio is widely used in evaluating the operating performance and profitability of a company. At this introductory level, we can compute earnings per share simply as net income divided by the weighted average number of shares of stock outstanding (Net Income ÷ Weighted Average Number of Shares of Stock Outstanding).
收益p er S hare （EPS）公司必须在损益表或财务报表的附注中披露每股收益。该比率广泛用于评估公司的经营业绩和盈利能力。在这个入门级别，我们可以简单地将每股收益计算为净收入除以流通股的加权平均数（净收入÷流通股的加权平均数）。
Cash Basis Accounting
收付收付会计
You probably determine your personal financial position by the cash balance in your bank account. Your financial performance is measured as the difference between your cash balance at the beginning of the period and the cash balance at the end of the period (whether you end up with more or less cash). If you have a higher cash balance, cash receipts exceeded cash disbursements for the period. Many local retailers, medical offices, and other small businesses use cash basis accounting, in which revenues are recorded when cash is received and expenses are recorded when cash is paid, regardless of when the revenues are earned or the expenses incurred.
您可能会通过银行账户中的现金余额来确定您的个人财务状况。您的财务业绩是通过期初的现金余额与期末的现金余额之间的差额来衡量的（无论您最终的现金是多还是少）。如果您的现金余额较高，则现金收入超过该期间的现金支出。许多本地零售商、医疗办公室和其他小企业使用现金收付会计，其中在收到现金时记录收入，在支付现金时记录费用，而不管何时赚取收入或产生费用。
Cash basis accounting...
现金收付会计...
May be adequate for organizations that do not need to report to external users, such as small businesses.
对于不需要向外部用户报告的组织（如小型企业）来说，可能就足够了。
May lead to an incorrect interpretation of future company performance and is not allowed under GAAP.
可能导致对公司未来业绩的错误解释，并且根据GAAP 不允许。
Cash Basis Accounting Income Statement
现金收付收付会计损益表
Accrual basis accounting (compatibilità per competenza)
Accrual basis accounting （compatibilità per competenza）
Financial statements created under cash basis accounting normally postpone or accelerate recognition of revenues and expenses long before or after goods and services are produced and delivered (when cash is received or paid). They also do not necessarily reflect all assets or liabilities of a company on a particular date. For these reasons, cash basis financial statements are not very useful to external decision makers. Therefore, generally accepted accounting principles require accrual basis accounting for financial reporting.
根据收付收付会计编制的财务报表通常会在商品和服务生产和交付之前或之后（收到或支付现金时）推迟或加速确认收入和费用。它们也不一定反映公司在特定日期的所有资产或负债。由于这些原因，收付收付财务报表对外部决策者不是很有用。因此，公认会计原则要求财务报告采用权责发生制会计。
Accrual basis accounting Revenues and expenses are recognized when the transaction that causes them occurs, not necessarily when cash is paid or received. Revenues are recognized when they are earned and expenses when they are incurred to generate revenues.
权责发生制会计 收入和费用在导致收入和费用的交易发生时确认，而不一定在支付或收到现金时确认。 收入在赚取时确认，在为产生收入而发生费用时确认。
GAAP and IFRS require accrual basis accounting.
GAAP和IFRS要求采用权责发生制会计。
The two basic accounting principles that determine when revenues and expenses are recorded under accrual basis accounting are the revenue recognition principle and the expense recognition principle (also called the matching principle).
确定何时在权责发生制会计下记录收入和费用的两个基本会计原则 是收入确认原则和费用再认知原则（也称为匹配原则）。
Revenue recognition principle
收入确认原则
The core revenue recognition principle specifies both the timing and amount of revenue to be recognized during an accounting period.
核心收入确认原则指定了会计期间要确认的收入的时间和金额。
A company must recognize revenue...
公司必须确认收入...
when the company transfers promised goods or services to customers
当公司向客户转让承诺的商品或服务时
in the amount it expects to be entitled to receive.
其预期有权获得的金额。
Revenue recognition principle: scenario 1
收入确认原则：情景 1
If cash is received before the company delivers goods or services, the liability account unearned revenue is recorded.
如果在公司交付商品或服务之前收到现金，则负债账户未实现的收入将被记录下来。
Revenue recognition principle: scenario 2
收入确认原则：情景 2
When cash is received in the same period as the goods or services are delivered.
在货物或服务交付的同一期间收到现金时。
Revenue recognition principle: scenario 3
收入确认原则：情景 3
If cash is received after the company delivers goods or services, an asset accounts receivable is recorded.
如果在公司交付货物或服务后收到现金，则记录资产应收账款。
Companies usually disclose their revenue recognition practices in the financial statement note titled Significant Accounting Policies or in a separate note.
公司通常在标题为“重要会计政策”的财务报表附注中或单独的附注中披露其收入确认做法。
Expense recognition principle
费用确认原则
The expense matching principle (also known as the matching principle) requires that costs incurred to generate revenues be recognized in the same period - a matching of costs with benefits.
费用匹配原则（也称为匹配原则）要求在同一时期确认产生收入所发生的成本 - 成本与收益的匹配。
The costs of generating the revenue include expenses incurred such as these:
产生收入的成本包括产生的费用，例如：
Salaries and wages to employees who worked during the period.
在此期间工作的员工的薪金和工资。
Utilities for the electricity used during the period.
该期间使用的 电力公用事业。
Food, beverage, and packaging supplies used during the period.
在此期间，食品、饮料和包装用品使用了 during。
Facilities rented during the period.
在此期间租用的 设施。
Grills and other equipment used during the period.
在此期间使用的烤架和其他设备。
As with revenues and cash receipts, expenses are recorded as incurred, regardless of when cash is paid. Cash may be paid (1) before, (2) during, or (3) after an expense is incurred. An entry will be made on the date the expense is incurred and another on the date the cash is paid, if they occur at different times.
与收入和现金收入一样，无论何时支付现金，费用都记录为已发生。现金可以在 （1） 发生费用之前、（2） 期间或 （3） 之后支付。如果费用发生之日，将进行一次分录，在现金支付之日进行一次分录，如果它们发生在不同的时间。
Expense recognition principle: scenario 1
费用确认原则：场景 1
Cash is paid before the expense is incurred to generate revenue.
在产生费用以产生收入之前支付现金。
Expense recognition principle: scenario 2
费用确认原则：场景 2
Cash is paid in the same period as the expense is incurred to generate revenue.
现金支付的期间与产生收入的费用相同。
Expense recognition principle: scenario 3
费用确认原则：场景 3
Cash is paid after the expense is incurred to generate revenue.
在产生收入的费用后支付现金。
Expanded transaction analysis model
扩展的交易分析模型
The complete transaction analysis model includes all five elements: assets, liabilities, stockholders’ equity, revenues, and expenses. Recall that the Retained Earnings account is the accumulation of all past revenues and expenses minus any income distributed to stockholders as dividends (that is, earnings not retained in the business). When net income is positive, Retained Earnings increases; a net loss decreases Retained Earnings.
完整的交易分析模型包括所有五个要素：资产、负债、股东权益、收入和支出。 回想一下，留存收益账户是所有过去收入和支出减去作为股息分配给股东的任何收入（即未保留在企业中的收益）的累积。 当净收入为正时，留存收益增加;净亏损减少留存收益。
All accounts can increase or decrease, although revenues and expenses tend to increase throughout a period. For accounts on the left side of the accounting equation, the increase symbol + is written on the left side of the T-account. For accounts on the right side of the accounting equation, the increase symbol + is written on the right side of the T-account, except for expenses, which increase on the left side of the T-account. That is because, as expenses increase, they have an opposite effect on net income, the Retained Earnings account (which increases on the credit side), and thus Stockholders’ Equity.
所有帐户都可以增加或减少，尽管收入和支出在整个期间内往往会增加。对于会计等式左侧的账户，增加符号 + 写在 T 账户的左侧。对于会计等式右侧的账户，增加符号 + 写在 T 账户的右侧，但费用除外，费用在 T 账户的左侧增加。这是因为，随着费用的增加，它们会对净收入、留存收益账户（在贷方增加）以及股东权益产生相反的影响。
Debits (dr) are written on the left of each T-account and credits (cr) are written on the right.
借方 （dr） 写在每个 T 账户的左侧，贷方 （cr） 写在右侧。
Every transaction affects at least two accounts.
每笔交易至少影响两个账户。
When a revenue or expense is recorded, either an asset or a liability will be affected as well:
当记录收入或费用时，资产或负债也会受到影响：
Revenues increase stockholders’ equity through the account Retained Earnings and therefore have credit balances (the positive side of Retained Earnings). Recording revenue requires either increasing an asset (such as Accounts Receivable when selling goods on account to customers) or decreasing a liability (such as Unearned Revenue that was recorded in the past when cash was received from customers before being earned).
收入通过账户留存收益增加股东权益，因此具有贷方余额（留存收益的积极方面）。记录收入需要增加资产（例如，在向客户赊销商品时应收账款）或减少负债（例如，过去从客户处收到现金后再记录的未实现收入）。
Expenses decrease stockholders’ equity through Retained Earnings. As expenses increase, they have the opposite effect on net income, which affects Retained Earnings. Therefore, they have debit balances (opposite of the positive credit side in Retained Earnings). That is, to increase an expense, you debit it, thereby decreasing net income and Retained Earnings. Recording an expense requires either decreasing an asset (such as Supplies when used) or increasing a liability (such as Wages Payable when money is owed to employees).
费用通过留存收益减少股东权益。随着费用的增加，它们对净收入产生相反的影响，从而影响留存收益。因此，他们有借方余额（与留存收益中的正贷方相反）。也就是说，为了增加费用，您将其借记，从而减少净收入和留存收益。记录费用需要减少资产（例如使用时的 Supplies）或增加负债（例如，当欠员工款项时需要支付的 Wages Pay）。
When revenues exceed expenses, the company reports net income, increasing Retained Earnings and stockholders’ equity. However, when expenses exceed revenues, a net loss results that decreases Retained Earnings and thus stockholders’ equity.
当收入超过支出时，公司报告净收入，增加留存收益和股东权益。但是，当费用超过收入时，会导致净亏损，从而减少留存收益，从而减少股东权益。
Revenues and expenses on balance sheet and income statement
资产负债表和损益表上的收入和支出
Transaction analysis steps
交易分析步骤
Step 1 Ask
第 1 步 询问
Was a revenue earned by delivering goods or services?
是否通过交付商品或服务赚取收入？
Was an expense incurred to generate a revenue in the current period?
在当前期间是否产生了产生收入的费用？
If no revenue was earned or expense incurred, what was received and given?
如果没有赚取收入或产生费用，那么收到和给予了什么？
1 Identify each account affected by title. Make sure at least two accounts change.
1 确定受标题影响的每个帐户。确保至少有两个帐户发生更改。
2 Classify each account by type.
2 按类型对每个账户进行分类。
3 Determine the direction of the effect.
3 确定效果的方向。
Step 2 Verify
第 2 步 验证
Is the accounting equation in balance?
会计方程式是否平衡？
Although debits do equal credits, we could have an unadjusted trial balance if no end-of-period adjustments have been made yet to reflect all revenues earned and expenses incurred during the quarter.
虽然借方等于贷方，但如果尚未进行期末调整以反映本季度的所有收入和产生的费用，我们可能会 有未经调整的试算表。
Effect of operating activities on cash flows
经营活动对现金流量的影响
Only transactions affecting cash are reported on the statement of cash flows. Cash flows from operating activities are primarily cash received from operating sources, primarily customers, and cash paid to suppliers and others involved in operations.
在现金流量表上仅报告影响现金的交易。经营活动产生的现金流量主要是从经营来源（主要是客户）收到的现金，以及支付给供应商和参与运营的其他人的现金。
The accounts most often associated with operating activities are current assets, such as Accounts Receivable, Inventories, and Prepaid Expenses, and current liabilities, such as Accounts Payable, Wages Payable, and Unearned Revenue.
最常与经营活动相关的账户是流动资产，例如应收账款、存货和预付费用，以及流动负债，例如应付账款、应付工资和未实现收入。
Companies report cash inflows and outflows over a period of time in their statement of cash flows. This statement is divided into three categories:
C 公司在其现金流量表中报告一段时间内的现金流入和流出。此声明分为三类：
O - Operating activities include those primarily with customers and suppliers, and interest payments and earnings on investments. (appears in the Income Statement too but it’s not the same thing)
O - 经营活动包括主要与客户和供应商合作的活动，以及利息支付和投资收益。 （也出现在损益表中，但不是一回事）
I - Investing activities include buying and selling noncurrent assets and investments.
I - 投资活动包括买卖非流动资产和投资。
F - Financing activities include borrowing and repaying debt, including short-term bank loans; issuing and repurchasing stock; and paying dividends.
F - 融资活动包括借款和偿还债务，包括短期银行贷款;发行和回购股票;以及支付股息。
Only transactions affecting cash are reported on the statement. Remember, if you see Cash in a transaction, it will be reflected on the statement of cash flows.
在对账单上仅报告影响现金的交易。 例如，如果您在交易中看到现金，它将反映在现金流量表上。
斯巴利亚塔
4)
Adjustments, Financial Statements, and the Quality of Earnings
调整、财务报表和收益质量
Managers of most companies understand the need to present financial information fairly so as not to mislead users. However, because end-of-period adjustments are the most complex portion of the annual recordkeeping process, they are prone to error. External auditors examine the company’s records on a test, or sample, basis. To maximize the chance of detecting any errors significant enough to affect users’ decisions, CPAs allocate more of their testing to transactions most likely to be in error. Several accounting research studies have documented the most error-prone transactions for medium-size manufacturing companies. End-of-period adjustment errors, such as failure to provide adequate product warranty liability, failure to include items that should be expensed, and end-of-period transactions recorded in the wrong period (called cut-off errors), are in the top category and thus receive a great deal of attention from auditors.
大多数公司的管理者都明白公平地呈现财务信息的必要性，以免误导用户。但是，由于期末调整是年度记录保存过程中最复杂的部分，因此很容易出错。外部审计师在测试或样本的基础上检查公司的记录。为了最大限度地提高检测到任何足以影响用户决策的重大错误的机会，CPA 将更多的测试分配给最有可能出错的交易。几项会计研究记录了中型制造公司最容易出错的交易。期末调整错误，例如未能提供足够的产品保修责任、未包括应费用化的项目以及在错误期间记录的期末交易（称为截止错误），属于首类，因此受到审计师的极大关注。
Managers are responsible for preparing financial statements that will be useful to investors, creditors, and others. Financial information is most useful for analyzing the past and predicting the future when it is considered by users to be of high quality. High quality information is information that is relevant (that is, material and able to influence users’ decisions) and a faithful representation of what is being reported (that is, complete, free from error, and unbiased in portraying economic reality).
经理负责准备对投资者、债权人和其他人有用的财务报表。当用户认为财务信息质量较高时，财务信息对于分析过去和预测未来最有用。高质量的信息是相关的（即，实质性的并能够影响用户决策）并忠实地反映所报告的内容（即，完整、无错误且公正地描述经济现实）。
Users expect revenues and expenses to be reported in the proper period based on the revenue recognition and expense recognition principles. Revenues are to be recorded when earned, and expenses are to be recorded when incurred, regardless of when cash receipts or payments occur. Many operating activities take place over a period of time or over several periods, such as using insurance that has been prepaid or owing wages to employees for past work. Because recording these and similar activities daily is often very costly, most companies wait until the end of the period (annually, but monthly and quarterly as well) to make adjustments to record related revenues and expenses in the correct period. These entries update the records.
用户希望根据收入确认和费用确认原则在适当的期间报告收入和费用。收入应在赚取时记录，支出应在发生时记录，无论现金收入或付款何时发生。许多经营活动发生在一段时间或多个时期，例如使用已预付的保险或拖欠员工过去 k 的工资。由于每天记录这些活动和类似活动通常非常昂贵，因此大多数公司会等到期间结束（每年，但也要每月和每季度）进行调整 ，以在正确的期间记录相关收入和支出。这些条目将更新记录。
Accounting systems are designed to record most recurring daily transactions, particularly those involving cash. As cash is received or paid, it is recorded in the accounting system. In general, this focus on cash works well, especially when cash receipts and payments occur in the same period as the activities that produce revenues and expenses.
会计系统旨在记录大多数经常性的日常交易，尤其是涉及现金的交易。当收到或支付现金时，它会记录在会计系统中。一般来说，这种对现金的关注效果很好，尤其是当现金收入和支出与产生收入和支出的活动发生在同一时期时。
The purpose of adjustments
调整的目的
Cash is not always received in the period in which the company earns revenue; likewise, cash is not always paid in the period in which the company incurs an expense. How does the accounting system record revenues and expenses when one transaction is needed to record a cash receipt or payment and another transaction is needed to record revenue when it is earned or an expense when it is incurred? The solution to the problem created by such differences in timing is to record adjusting entries at the end of every accounting period, so that
C灰并不总是在公司赚取收入的期间收到;同样，在公司产生费用的期间并不总是支付现金。当需要一笔交易来记录现金收入或付款，而需要另一笔交易来记录赚取的收入或发生时记录费用时，会计系统如何记录收入和支出？解决这种时间差异所造成的问题的方法是在每个会计期间结束时记录调整分录，以便
Revenues are recorded when earned (the revenue recognition principle).
收入在赚取时记录（收入确认原则）。
Expenses are recorded when they are incurred to generate revenue (the expense recognition principle).
当费用发生以产生收入时，将记录费用（费用确认原则）。
Assets are reported at amounts that represent the probable future benefits remaining at the end of the period.
资产报告的金额代表期末可能的未来收益。
Liabilities are reported at amounts that represent the probable future sacrifices of assets or services owed at the end of the period.
负债的报告金额代表期末所欠资产或服务未来可能牺牲的金额。
Companies wait until the end of the accounting period to adjust their accounts in this way because adjusting the records daily would be very costly and time-consuming. Adjusting entries are required every time a company wants to prepare financial statements for external users.
公司等到会计期结束才以这种方式调整他们的账户，因为每天调整记录将非常昂贵和耗时。每次公司想要为外部用户准备财务报表时，都需要调整分录。
Four types of adjustments
四种类型的调整
There are four types of adjustments: two in which cash was already received or paid and two in which cash will be received or paid.
有四种类型的调整：两种是已经收到或支付的现金，两种是将收到或支付现金。
In practice, almost every account, except Cash, could require an adjustment. Cash is never included in an adjusting entry because it was recorded already in the past or will be recorded in the future.
在实践中，除了 Cash 之外，几乎所有账户都可能需要进行调整。 现金永远不会包含在调整分项目中，因为它在过去已经记录或将来将记录。
Adjusting entries that increase revenues:
调整增加收入的分录：
Deferred revenues (unearned revenue) Previously recorded liabilities that were created when cash was received in advance and that must be reduced for the amount of revenue actually earned during the period. (liability)
递延收入（未实现收入） 在提前收到现金时产生的先前记录的负债，必须根据该期间实际赚取的收入金额进行减少。（能力）
Accrued revenues Revenues that have been earned but not yet recorded because cash will be received after the services are performed or goods are delivered. Ex. additional interest on investments may have been earned but not yet received. (asset)
应计收入 已赚取但尚未记录的收入，因为在执行服务或交付货物后将收到现金。 例如，投资的额外利息可能已经赚取但尚未收到。（一个sset）
Adjusting entries that increase expenses
调整增加费用的分录
Deferred expenses (prepaid expenses) Previously recorded assets, such as prepaid rent, supplies, and equipment, that were created when cash was paid in advance and that must be reduced for the amount of expense actually incurred during the period through use of the asset. (asset)
递延费用（预付费用） 在预付现金时产生的先前记录的资产，例如预付的租金、用品和设备，这些资产是在预付现金时产生的，并且必须减去期间通过使用资产实际产生的费用金额。 （资产）
Accrued expenses Expenses that have been incurred but not yet recorded because cash will be paid after the goods or services are used. (liability)
应计费用 已发生但尚未记录的费用，因为将在使用商品或服务后支付现金。（负债）
Mnemonics
记忆术
Recording adjustments
录制调整
Because of the timing of the cash receipts or payments, each of these types of adjustments involves two entries:
由于现金收入或付款的时间，这些类型的调整中的每一种都涉及两个条目：
One for the cash receipt or payment either before or after the end of the period.
一个用于期间结束之前或之后的现金收入或付款。
One for the adjustment to record the revenue or expense in the proper period (the adjusting entry).
一个用于调整，用于记录适当期间的收入或费用（调整条目）。
Three steps in the adjustment process
调整过程的三个步骤
Step 1 Identify unrecorded revenues and expenses
第 1 步 确定未记录的收入和支出
▶ Use prior knowledge of the business
▶ 利用业务的先前知识
▶ Examine balance sheet accounts
▶ 检查资产负债表账户
Step 2 Determine accounts affected
步骤 2：确定受影响的帐户
Step 3 Compute the amount of revenue earned or expense incurred. The amount...
第 3 步 计算赚取的收入金额或产生的费用。金额...
▶ sometimes is given or known
▶ 有时是给定的或已知的
▶ sometimes must be computed
▶ 有时必须计算
▶ sometimes must be estimated
▶ 有时必须估计
Adjustment entries summarized
调整条目汇总
Deferred revenue If cash was received in the past and a liability account (deferred revenue) was recorded in the past, the adjusting entry is
递延收入 如果过去收到了现金，并且过去记录了负债账户（递延收入），则调整分录为
When a customer pays for goods or services before the company delivers them, the company records the amount of cash received in a deferred (unearned) revenue account. This unearned revenue is a liability representing the company’s promise to perform or deliver the goods or services in the future. Recognition of (recording) the revenue is postponed (deferred) until the company meets its obligation.
当客户在公司交付商品或服务之前付款时，公司会在递延（未赚取）收入账户中记录收到的现金金额。这种未实现的收入是一种负债，代表公司承诺在未来履行或交付商品或服务。收入的确认（记录）被推迟（递延），直到公司履行其义务。
Examples of deferred revenues include amount received from customers on gift cards; magazine subscription sales by publishing companies; season tickets sold in advance to sporting events, plays, and concerts by these types of organizations; air flight tickets sold in advance by airlines; and rent received in advance by landlords.
递延收入的示例包括从礼品 CA rds 的客户那里收到的金额;出版公司的杂志订阅销售情况;这类组织提前出售的体育赛事、戏剧和音乐会的季票;航空公司提前出售的机票;以及房东预先收取的租金。
Deferred expense If cash was paid in the past and a deferred expense account (asset) was created, the adjusting entry is
递延费用 如果过去支付了现金，并且创建了递延费用科目（资产），则调整分录为
Assets represent resources with probable future benefits to the company. Many assets are used over time to generate revenues, including supplies, buildings, equipment, and prepaid expenses for insurance, advertising, and rent. These assets are deferred expenses (that is, recording the expenses for using these assets is deferred to the future). At the end of every period, an adjustment must be made to record the amount of the asset that was used during the period.
资产表示可能对公司未来产生好处的资源。随着时间的推移，许多资产被用来产生收入，包括用品、建筑物、设备以及保险、广告和租金的预付费用。这些资产是递延费用（即，记录使用这些资产的费用将推迟到将来）。在每个期间结束时，必须进行调整以记录该期间内使用的资产金额。
Accrued revenue If cash will be received in the future, the adjusting entry is
应计收入 如果将来将收到现金，则调整分录为
Sometimes companies perform services or provide goods (that is, earn revenue) before customers pay. Because the cash that is owed for these goods and services has not yet been received and the customers have not yet been billed, the revenue that was earned may not have been recorded. Revenues that have been earned but have not yet been recorded at the end of the accounting period are called accrued revenues.
有时，公司会在客户付款之前提供服务或提供商品（即赚取收入）。由于尚未收到这些商品和服务所欠的现金，并且尚未向客户开具账单，因此可能尚未记录所赚取的收入。在会计期间结束时已赚取但尚未记录的收入称为应计收入。
Accrued expense If cash will be paid in the future, the adjusting entry is
应计费用 如果将来支付现金，则调整分录为
Deferred expenses: Buildings and equipment
递延费用：建筑物和设备
Buildings and Equipment accounts are listed at cost. Buildings and equipment accounts increase by the cost of the assets when they are acquired and decrease by the cost of the assets when they are sold. However, these assets also are used over time to generate revenue. Thus, a part of their cost should be recorded as an expense in the same period (following the expense recognition principle). Accountants say that buildings and equipment, but not land, depreciate over time as they are used (land does not depreciate or get used up in an accounting sense). In accounting, depreciation is an allocation of the cost of buildings and equipment over their estimated useful lives to the organization.
建筑物和设备帐户按成本列出。建筑物和设备账户在收购时因资产成本而增加，在出售资产时因资产成本而减少。但是，随着时间的推移，这些资产也被用于产生收入。因此，他们的一部分成本应该记录为同一期间的费用（遵循费用确认原则）。会计师表示，建筑物和设备，而不是土地，在使用过程中会随着时间的推移而贬值（从会计意义上讲，土地不会贬值或耗尽）。在会计中，折旧是将建筑物和设备在其估计使用寿命内的成本分配给组织。
To keep track of the asset’s historical cost, the amount that has been used is not subtracted directly from the asset account. Instead, it is accumulated in a new kind of account called a contra account. Contra-accounts are accounts that are directly linked to another account, but with an opposite balance. For Buildings and Equipment, the contra-account for the total cost used to date is called Accumulated Depreciation. Accumulated Depreciation increases with the amount of depreciation expense for the period and decreases when an asset is sold for the portion used in prior periods.
为了跟踪资产的历史成本，已使用的金额不会直接从资产账户中减去。相反，它被积累在一种称为 contra 账户的新型账户中。抵销账户是直接链接到另一个账户但余额相反的账户。对于建筑物和设备，迄今为止使用的总成本的抵销账户称为累计折旧。 累计折旧随着期间折旧费用金额的增加而增加，当资产出售前一期间使用的部分时减少。
Contra-account: An account that is an offset to, or reduction of, the primary account (or contra-asset).
Contra-account：主账户（或反向资产）的抵销或归纳的账户。
We will designate contra-accounts with an X in front of the type of account to which it is related. For example, this first contra-account will be shown as Accumulated Depreciation (XA).
我们将在与其相关的账户类型前面指定带有 X 的对冲账户。例如，第一个抵销账户将显示为累积折旧 （XA）。
Because assets have debit balances, Accumulated Depreciation has a credit balance. On the balance sheet, the amount that is reported for total property and equipment is its net book value (also called the book value or carrying value), which equals the ending balance in the Land, Buildings, and Equipment accounts (total cost of property and equipment) minus the ending balance in the Accumulated Depreciation account (used cost of buildings and equipment).
由于资产具有借方余额，因此 Cumulative Depreciation 具有贷方余额。在资产负债表上，报告的总财产和设备金额是其账面净值（也称为账面价值或账面价值），等于土地、建筑物和设备账户中的期末余额（财产和设备的总成本）减去累计折旧账户中的期末余额（建筑物和设备的已用成本）。
Net Book Value (Carrying Value or Book Value): The acquisition cost of an asset less its accumulated depreciation, depletion, or amortization.
净账面价值（账面价值或账面价值）：资产的购置成本减去其累计折旧、损耗或摊销。
Accrued expenses: Wages
应计费用：工资
Many expenses are incurred in the current period without being paid until the next period. These accrued expenses accumulate (accrue) over time but are not recognized as expenses until the end of the period in an adjusting entry.
许多费用在当前期间发生，直到下一个期间才支付。应计费用随时间累积（应计），但在调整分录中的期间结束之前不会确认为费用。
Common examples include Wages Expense for the wages owed to employees who worked during the period, Interest Expense incurred on debt owed during the period, and Utilities Expense for the water, gas, and electricity used during the period. These accrued expenses accumulate (accrue) over time but are not recognized as expenses with the related liability until the end of the period through an adjusting entry.
常见示例包括在此期间工作的员工的工资支出、期间所欠债务产生的利息支出以及期间使用的水、燃气和电的公用事业费用。 这些应计费用会随着时间的推移而累积（应计），但直到期间结束时通过调整分录才会确认为相关负债的费用。
Accrued expenses: Interest on debt
应计费用：负债利息
There are two components when borrowing (or lending) money: principal (the amount borrowed or loaned) and interest (the cost of borrowing or lending). NOTE: Unless told otherwise, the interest rate on loans to others and debt is always given as an annual percentage.
借（或借）钱时有两个组成部分：本金（借入或借出的金额）和利息（借入或借出的成本）。注意：除非另有说明，否则对他人的贷款和债务的利率始终以年百分比的形式给出。
Relationships among financial statements
财务报表之间的关系
Each adjusting entry always included one income statement account and one balance sheet account. The financial statements are interrelated - that is, the numbers from one statement flow into the next statement.
Each 调整分录始终包括一个损益表账户和一个资产负债表账户。 财务报表是相互关联的 - 也就是说，一个报表中的数字流入下一个报表。
Balance sheet accounts are considered permanent, indicating that they retain their balances from the end of one period to the beginning of the next.
资产负债表账户被认为是永久性的，表示它们从一个期间结束到下一个期间的开始保留余额。
Revenue, expense, gain, and loss accounts are temporary because their balances accumulate for a period but start with a zero balance at the beginning of the next period.
收入、费用、收益和损失账户是临时的，因为它们的余额在一段时间内累积，但在下一个期间开始时余额为零。
Starting on the bottom right, notice that
从右下角开始，请注意
• Revenues minus expenses yields net income (assuming it is positive) on the Income Statement.
• 收入减去费用在损益表上产生净收入（假设为正）。
• Net income (or net loss) and dividends declared to stockholders affect Retained Earnings and any additional issuances of stock during the period affect the balances in Common Stock and Additional Paid-in Capital, all of which appear on the Statement of Stockholders’ Equity.
• 向股东宣布的净收入（或净亏损）和股息会影响留存收益，在此期间额外发行的股票会影响普通股和额外实收资本的余额，所有这些都出现在股东权益表上。
• Stockholders’ Equity is a component of the Balance Sheet.
• 股东权益是资产负债表的一个组成部分。
Thus, if a number on the income statement changes or is in error, it will impact the other statements.
因此，如果损益表上的数字发生变化或出错，它会影响其他报表。
Another way of presenting the relationships among the statements follows.
以下是表示语句之间关系的另一种方式。
Income Statement
损益表
The income statement is prepared first because net income is a component of Retained Earnings.
首先准备损益表，因为净收入是留存收益的一个组成部分。
Earnings per share
每股收益
The earnings per share (EPS) ratio is reported on the income statement. It is widely used in evaluating the operating performance and profitability of a company, and it is the only ratio required to be disclosed on the statement or in the notes to the statements.
每股收益 （EPS） 比率在损益表上报告。它广泛用于评估公司的经营业绩和盈利能力，并且是唯一需要在报表或报表注释中披露的比率。
*If there are preferred dividends (Chapter 11), the amount is subtracted from net income in the numerator. In addition, the denominator is the weighted average of shares outstanding, a complex computation. †Outstanding shares are those that are currently held by the shareholders.
*如果有优先股息（第 11 章），则从分子中的净收入中减去该金额。此外，分母是流通股的加权平均值，这是一个复杂的计算。†流通股是股东目前持有的股票。
The denominator in the EPS ratio is the average number of shares outstanding (the number at the beginning of the period plus the number at the end of the period, divided by 2).
每股收益比率的分母是平均流通股数（期初的数字加上期末的数字，除以 2）。
Statement of Stockholders’ Equity
股东权益声明
The final total from the income statement, net income, is carried forward to the Retained Earnings column of the statement of stockholders’ equity. To this, the additional elements of the statement are added. Dividends declared and an additional stock issuance (Chapter 2) also are included in the statement.
损益表的最终总额，即净收入，被转发到股东权益表的留存收益列。为此，添加了 statement 的其他元素。声明中还包括宣布的股息和额外的股票发行（第 2 章）。
Balance Sheet
资产负债表
The ending balances for Common Stock, Additional Paid-in Capital, Treasury Stock, and Retained Earnings from the statement of stockholders’ equity are included on the balance sheet that follows. The contra-asset account Accumulated Depreciation (used cost) has been subtracted from the total of the land, buildings, and equipment accounts (at cost) to reflect net book value (or carrying value) at period-end for balance sheet purposes. Recall that assets are listed in order of liquidity (from most liquid to least liquid) and liabilities are listed in order of due dates. Current assets are those used or turned into cash within one year (as well as inventory). Current liabilities are obligations to be paid with current assets within one year.
股东权益表中的普通股、额外实收资本、库存股和留存收益的期末余额包含在下面的资产负债表中。 资产抵销账户累计折旧（使用成本）已从土地、建筑物和设备账户（按成本计算）的总额中减去，以反映资产负债表的期末账面净值（或账面价值）。 请注意，资产按流动性顺序列出（从流动性最强到流动性最低），负债按到期日顺序列出。流动资产是指在一年内使用或转化为现金的资产（以及库存）。流动责任是指在一年内用流动资产支付的义务。
Cash Flows from Operations, Net Income, and the Quality of Earnings
运营现金流、净收入和收益质量
The statement of cash flows explains the difference between the ending and beginning balances in the Cash account on the balance sheet during the accounting period. Put simply, the cash flow statement is a categorized list of all transactions of the period that affected the Cash account. The three categories are operating, investing, and financing activities. Because no adjustments made in this chapter affected cash, the cash flow categories identified on the Cash T-account at the end of Chapter 3 remain the same.
现金流量表解释了会计期间资产负债表上现金账户的期末余额和期初余额之间的差额。简而言之，现金流量表是影响现金账户的期间所有交易的分类列表。这三类是运营、投资和融资活动。由于本章中所做的调整不会影响现金，因此第 3 章末尾现金 T 账户上确定的现金流量类别保持不变。
Many standard financial analysis texts warn analysts to look for unusual deferrals and accruals when they attempt to predict future periods’ earnings. They often suggest that wide disparities between net income and cash flow from operations are a useful warning sign.
许多标准的财务分析文本警告分析师在尝试预测未来期间的收益时要寻找不寻常的递延和应计项目。他们通常认为，净收入和运营现金流之间的巨大差异是一个有用的警告信号。
Accounting accruals determining net income rely on estimates, deferrals, allocations, and valuations. These considerations sometimes allow more subjectivity than do the factors determining cash flows. For this reason, we often relate cash flows from operations to net income in assessing its quality. Some users consider earnings of higher quality when the ratio of cash flows from operations divided by net income is greater. This derives from a concern with revenue recognition or expense accrual criteria yielding high net income but low cash flows (emphasis added).
确定净收入的会计应计项目取决于估计、递延、分配和估值。这些考虑有时比决定现金流的因素允许更多的主观性。 因此，在评估其质量时，我们经常将运营现金流与净收入联系起来。当运营现金流除以净收入的比率较大时，一些用户认为收益质量更高。这源于对收入确认或费用应计标准的担忧，即产生高净收入但低现金流（强调后加）。
Closing the books
合上账簿
The balance sheet account balances carry forward from period to period, but the income statement account balances do not carry forward.
资产负债表账户余额从期间结转到另一个时期，但损益表账户余额不会结转。
Closing entries
关闭条目
▶ Transfer net income (or loss) to retained earnings.
▶将净收入（或亏损）转入留存收益。
▶ Establish a zero balance in each of the temporary accounts to start the accumulation in the next accounting period.
▶在每个临时账户中建立零余额，以便在下一个会计期间开始累积。
After adjusting entries are recorded and posted to update the accounts and then the financial statements are prepared, a closing process is needed as the last step in the accounting cycle to mark the end of the current period and the beginning of the next. The ending balance in each asset, liability, and stockholders’ equity account becomes the beginning balance for the next period. These balance sheet accounts are permanent (real) accounts. They are not reduced to a zero balance at the end of the accounting period. For example, the ending Cash balance of the current accounting period is the beginning Cash balance of the next accounting period. The only time a permanent account has a zero balance is when the item it represents is no longer owned or owed.
在记录和过账调整分录以更新账户，然后准备财务报表后，需要将结算过程作为会计周期的最后一步，以标记当前期间的结束和下一个期间的开始。 每个资产、负债和股东权益账户中的期末余额将成为下一期间的期初余额。这些资产负债表账户是永久（真实）账户。它们在会计期间结束时不会减少到零余额。例如，当前会计期间的期末现金余额是下一个会计期间的期初现金余额。永久账户余额为零的唯一情况是它所代表的项目不再拥有或欠款。
On the other hand, revenue, expense, gain, and loss accounts are used to accumulate data for the current accounting period only; these income statement accounts are called temporary (nominal) accounts. Their balances at the beginning of the current year are $0 and increase with financial performance activity throughout the year. However, the balances in income statement accounts need to be $0 to start the next year. Also, the current year’s net income (loss) has not yet been formally added to (subtracted from) the Retained Earnings account. Therefore, the final step in the accounting cycle, closing the books, is done by recording a closing journal entry and posting the effects to the appropriate accounts.
另一方面，收入、费用、损益账户仅用于累积当前会计期间的数据;这些损益表账户称为临时（名义）账户。他们在今年年初的余额为 0 美元，并且随着全年的财务业绩活动而增加。但是，损益表账户中的余额需要为 0 美元才能开始明年。此外，当年的净收入（亏损）尚未正式添加到留存收益账户中（从中扣除）。因此，会计周期的最后一步，即关账，是通过记录期末日记账分录并将影响过账到相应的科目来完成的。
Companies may close income statement accounts to a special temporary summary account, called Income Summary, which is then closed to Retained Earnings.
公司可以将损益表账户关闭到一个特殊的临时汇总账户，称为收入汇总，然后关闭留存收益。
Closing Entries: Made at the end of the accounting period to transfer balances in temporary accounts to Retained Earnings and to establish a zero balance in each of the temporary accounts.
结算分录：在会计期间结束时进行，用于将临时账户中的余额转移到留存收益，并在每个临时账户中建立零余额。
The closing entry (CE) is dated the last day of the accounting period, entered in the usual debits equal-credits format (in the journal), and immediately posted to the ledger (or T-accounts). Temporary accounts with debit balances are credited and temporary accounts with credit balances are debited. The net amount, equal to net income, affects Retained Earnings.
结算分录 （CE） 的日期为会计期间的最后一天，以通常的借方等贷方格式（在日记账中）输入，并立即过账到分类账（或 T 账户）。 具有借方余额的临时账户将被贷记，具有贷方余额的临时账户将被借记。净金额等于净收入，会影响留存收益。
Performance measurement: net income or cash flows from operations
绩效衡量：净收入或运营现金流
Significant difference between cash flow from operations and net income could signal the existence of unusual deferrals, allocations, and/or valuations. Analysts look for unusual deferrals and accruals when they attempt to predict future periods’ earnings.
运营现金流与净收入之间的显著差异可能表明存在异常的递延、分配和/或估值。分析师在试图预测未来期间的收益时，会寻找不寻常的递延和应计项目。
Gross profit and gross profit margin
毛利及毛利率
The gross profit margin ratio measures how effective management is in selling goods and services for more than the costs to purchase or produce them.
毛利率比率衡量的是管理在销售商品和服务方面的效率，其销售成本高于购买或生产它们的成本。
where
哪里
Gross profit = Net sales–Cost of sales.
毛利润 = 净销售额 - 销售成本。
(Net) profit margin ratio
（净额）利润率
The (net) profit margin ratio measures how effective is management in generating profit on every dollar of sales.
（净）利润率衡量管理层在每一美元销售额中创造利润的效率。
A high net profit margin signals efficient management of sales and expenses.
高净利润率表明销售和费用管理有效。
(Total) asset turnover ratio
（总）资产周转率
The (total) asset turnover ratio measures how efficient is management in using its resources to generate sales.
（总）资产周转率衡量管理层利用其资源产生销售的效率。
where
哪里
The higher the asset turnover is the more efficient assets are being utilized to generate revenues. A company’s products or services and business strategy contribute significantly to its asset turnover ratio. However, when competitors are similar, management’s ability to control the firm’s assets is vital in determining its success. Stronger financial performance improves the asset turnover ratio.
资产周转率越高，资产被用于产生收入的效率就越高。 公司的产品或服务以及业务战略对其资产周转率有重大影响。然而，当竞争对手相似时，管理层控制公司资产的能力对于决定其成功至关重要。更强劲的财务表现提高了资产周转率。
Creditors and security analysts use this ratio to assess a company’s effectiveness at controlling both current and noncurrent assets. In a well-run business, creditors expect the ratio on a quarterly basis to fluctuate due to seasonal upswings and downturns. For example, as inventory is built up prior to a heavy sales season, companies need to borrow funds. The asset turnover ratio declines with this increase in assets. Eventually, the season’s high sales provide the cash needed to repay the loans. The asset turnover ratio then rises with the increased sales.
债权人和证券分析师使用此比率来评估公司控制流动和非流动资产的有效性。在经营良好的企业中，债权人预计该比率每季度会因季节性上升和下降而波动。例如，由于库存是在销售旺季之前积累的，因此公司需要借入资金。资产周转率随着资产的增加而下降。最终，本季的高销售额提供了偿还贷款所需的现金。然后，资产周转率随着销售额的增加而上升。
While the total asset turnover ratio may decrease due to seasonal fluctuations, a declining ratio also may be caused by changes in corporate policies leading to a rising level of assets. Examples include relaxing credit policies for new customers or reducing collection efforts in accounts receivable. A detailed analysis of the changes in the key components of assets is needed to determine the causes of a change in the asset turnover ratio and thus management’s decisions.
虽然总资产周转率可能会因季节性波动而下降，但公司政策的变化也可能导致资产水平上升，从而导致总资产周转率下降。示例包括放宽对新客户的信贷政策或减少应收账款的收款工作。需要对资产关键组成部分的变化进行详细分析，以确定资产周转率变化的原因，从而确定管理层的决策。
Return on Assets Analysis: A Framework for Evaluating Company Performance – book
资产回报率分析：A 框架 f或 Ev评估公司绩效 – book
Evaluating company performance is the primary goal of financial statement analysis. Company managers, as well as competitors, use financial statements to better understand and evaluate a company’s business strategy. Analysts, investors, and creditors use these same statements to judge company performance when they estimate the value of the company’s stock and its creditworthiness. The most general framework for evaluating company performance is called return on assets (ROA) analysis.
评估公司绩效是财务报表分析的主要目标。公司经理和竞争对手都使用财务报表来更好地了解和评估公司的业务战略。分析师、投资者和债权人在估计公司股票的价值及其信誉时，使用相同的陈述来判断公司业绩。评估公司绩效的最通用框架称为资产回报率 （ROA） 分析。
Return on assets (ROA)
资产回报率 （ROA）
Return on assets (ROA) measures how well has management used the company’s total investment in assets financed by both debt holders and stockholders.
资产回报率 （ROA） 衡量管理层对债务持有人和股东融资的资产的总投资的利用程度。
where
W在这里
ROA measures how much the firm earned for each dollar of investment in assets. It is the broadest measure of profitability and management effectiveness, independent of financing strategy. Firms with higher ROA are doing a better job of selecting and managing investments, all other things equal. Because it is independent of the source of financing (debt vs. equity), it can be used to evaluate performance at any level within the organization. It is often computed on a division-by-division or product line basis and used to evaluate division or product line managers’ relative performance.
ROA 衡量公司每投资一美元资产赚了多少钱。它是衡量盈利能力和管理有效性的最广泛指标，独立于融资策略。在其他条件相同的情况下，ROA 较高的公司在选择和管理投资方面做得更好。因为它独立于融资来源（债务与股权），所以它可以用来评估组织内任何级别的绩效。它通常是按部门或产品线计算的，用于评估部门或产品线经理的相对绩效。
ROA driver analysis
ROA驱动因素分析
ROA profit driver analysis (also called ROA decomposition or DuPont analysis) breaks down ROA into these two factors shown. These factors are often called profit drivers or profit levers because they describe the two ways that management can improve ROA.
ROA 利润驱动因素分析（也称为 ROA 分解或杜邦分析）将 ROA 细分为所示的两个因素。这些因素通常被称为利润驱动因素或利润杠杆，因为它们描述了管理层可以提高 ROA 的两个因素。
Net profit margin = Net Income ÷ Net Sales
净利润率 = 净收入 ÷ 净销售额
It measures how much of every sales dollar is profit. It can be increased by
它衡量的是每一笔销售额中有多少是利润。它可以通过以下方式增加
a. Increasing sales volume.
一个。销量增加。
b. Increasing sales price.
b.提高销售价格。
c. Decreasing cost of goods sold and operating expenses.
c. 降低销售 goo ds 的成本和运营费用。
Total asset turnover = Net Sales ÷ Average Total Assets
总资产周转率 = 净销售额 ÷ 平均总资产
It measures how many sales dollars the company generates with each dollar of assets (efficiency of use of assets). It can be increased by
它衡量公司每美元资产产生多少销售额（资产使用效率）。它可以通过以下方式增加
a. Centralizing distribution to reduce inventory kept on hand.
一个。集中配送以减少手头库存。
b. Consolidating production facilities in fewer factories to reduce the amount of assets necessary to generate each dollar of sales.
b. 将生产设施整合到更少的工厂中，以减少产生每一美元销售额所需的资产数量。
These two ratios report on the effectiveness of the company’s operating and investing activities, respectively. Successful manufacturers often follow one of two business strategies. The first is a high-value or product-differentiation strategy. Companies following this strategy rely on research and development and product promotion to convince customers of the superiority or distinctiveness of their products. This allows the company to charge higher prices and earn a higher net profit margin. The second is a low-cost strategy, which relies on efficient management of accounts receivable, inventory, and productive assets to produce high asset turnover.
这两个比率分别反映了公司运营和投资活动的有效性。成功的制造商通常遵循以下两种商业策略之一。首先是高价值或产品差异化策略。遵循这一策略的公司依靠研究和开发以及产品推广来说服客户相信他们产品的优越性或独特性。这使公司能够收取更高的价格并获得更高的净利润率。第二种是低成本策略，它依靠对应收账款、库存和生产性资产的有效管理来产生高资产周转率。
A company can take many different actions to try to affect its profit drivers. To understand the impact of these actions, financial analysts disaggregate each of the profit drivers into more detailed ratios. For example, the total asset turnover ratio is further disaggregated into turnover ratios for specific assets such as accounts receivable, inventory, and fixed assets.
公司可以采取许多不同的行动来试图影响其利润驱动因素。为了了解这些行动的影响，金融分析师将每个利润驱动因素分解为更详细的比率。例如，总资产周转率进一步分解为特定资产（如应收账款、存货和固定资产）的周转率。
Effects transactions affect ratios
影响交易影响比率
Changes take time.
更改需要时间。
Changes in ROA and its components can have a major effect on a company’s stock price and interest rates that lenders charge. As a consequence, company managers closely follow the effects of their actual and planned transactions on these same key financial ratios.
ROA 及其组成部分的变化会对公司的股价和贷方收取的利率产生重大影响。因此，公司经理密切关注其实际和计划交易对这些相同关键财务比率的影响。
To determine the effects of transactions on ratios...
要确定交易对比率的影响...
Step 1 Journalize the transaction to determine its effects on various accounts.
步骤 1 将交易记入日记帐以确定其对各种账户的影响。
Step 2 Determine which accounts belong to the financial statement subtotals or totals in the numerator and denominator of the ratio and the direction of their effects.
第 2 步 确定哪些账户属于财务报表小计或比率分子和分母中的总计及其影响方向。
Step 3 Evaluate the combined effects from step 2 on the ratio.
步骤 3 评估步骤 2 对比率的综合效应。
Post-Closing Trial Balance – book
结算后试算表 – 账簿
After the closing process is complete, all income statement accounts have a zero balance. These accounts are then ready for recording revenues and expenses in the new accounting period. The ending balance in Retained Earnings now is up-to-date (matches the amount on the balance sheet) and is carried forward as the beginning balance for the next period. As an additional step of the accounting information processing cycle, a post-closing trial balance should be prepared as a check that debits still equal credits and that all temporary accounts have been closed. It would have the structure of the trial balance with only balance sheet accounts having balances. The income statement accounts should be $0. The accounting cycle for the period is now complete.
结算过程完成后，所有损益表账户的余额为零。然后，这些帐户已准备好在新会计期间记录收入和费用。留存收益中的期末余额现在是最新的（与资产负债表上的金额匹配），并作为下一期间的期初余额结转。作为会计信息处理周期的附加步骤，应准备结算后试算表，以检查借方是否仍然等于贷方，以及所有临时账户是否已关闭。它将具有试算表的结构，只有资产负债表账户有余额。损益表账户应为 0 美元。该期间的会计周期现已完成。
5) most important part!
5）最重要的部分！
Communicating and Interpreting Accounting Information
传达和解释会计信息
Financial statement information will only affect a company’s stock price if the market believes in the integrity of the financial communication process.
只有当市场相信财务沟通过程的完整性时，财务报表信息才会影响公司的股价。
As a publicly traded company, Apple Inc. is required to provide detailed information in regular filings with the Securities and Exchange Commission. As the certifying officers of the company, current President and CEO Timothy Cook and Senior Vice President and Chief Financial Officer Luca Maestri are responsible for the accuracy of the filings. The board of directors and auditors monitor the integrity of the system that produces the disclosures. Integrity in communication with investors and other users of financial statements is key to maintaining relationships with suppliers of capital.
作为一家上市公司，Apple Inc. 需要在向美国证券交易委员会提交的定期文件中提供详细信息。作为公司的认证官，现任总裁兼首席执行官 Timothy Cook 和高级副总裁兼首席财务官 Luca Maestri 负责申报的准确性。董事会和审计师监督产生披露的系统的完整性。与投资者和其他财务报表使用者的诚信沟通是维护与资本供应商关系的关键。
Corporate governance
公司治理
Corporate governance Procedures to ensure that the company is managed in the interests of the shareholders.
公司治理程序，以确保公司以股东的利益为出发点进行管理。
Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002) A law that strengthens U.S. financial reporting and corporate governance regulations for public companies, passed by the Congress.
Sarbanes-Oxley 法案 （2002） 一项加强美国国会通过的上市公司财务报告和公司治理法规。
Three conditions are necessary for financial statement fraud to occur. There must be (1) an incentive to commit fraud, (2) the opportunity to commit fraud, and (3) the ability to rationalize the misdeed. These conditions make up what antifraud experts call the fraud triangle. A good system of corporate governance is designed to address these conditions. Clear lines of responsibility and sure and severe punishment counteract incentives to commit fraud. Strong internal controls and oversight by directors and auditors reduce opportunity to commit fraud. A strong code of ethics, ethical actions by those at the top of the organization, fair dealings with employees, and rewards for whistle-blowing make it more difficult for individuals to rationalize fraud. Financial statement users also have a role to play in preventing fraud. While even the savviest user can still be surprised by fraudulent reports in some cases, accounting knowledge and healthy skepticism are the best protection from such surprises.
发生财务报表欺诈需要满足三个条件 。必须有 （1） 实施欺诈的动机，（2） 实施欺诈的机会，以及 （3） 使不当行为合理化的能力。这些情况构成了反欺诈专家所说的欺诈三角。一个好的公司治理体系就是为了解决这些情况而设计的。明确的责任界限和明确而严厉的惩罚可以抵消欺诈的动机。严格的内部控制以及董事和审计师的监督减少了欺诈的机会。强有力的道德准则、组织高层的道德行为、与员工的公平交易以及对举报的奖励，使个人更难合理化欺诈行为。财务报表用户在防止欺诈方面也可以发挥作用。虽然在某些情况下，即使是最精明的用户仍然会对欺诈报告感到惊讶，但会计知识和健康的怀疑是防止此类意外的最佳保护措施。
Ensuring the integrity of financial information
确保财务信息的完整性
Below the major actors involved in ensuring the integrity of the financial reporting process.
以下是参与确保财务报告流程完整性的主要参与者。
Regulators (SEC, FASB, PCAOB, Stock Exchanges)
监管机构（SEC、FASB、PCAOB、证券交易所）
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Protects investors and maintains the integrity of the securities markets.
证券交易委员会 （SEC） 保护投资者并维护证券市场的完整性。
This U.S. government agency determines the financial statements that public companies must provide to stockholders and the measurement rules that they must use in producing those statements. The SEC staff also reviews the reports filed with it for compliance with its standards, investi gates irregularities, and punishes violators. As part of this mission, the SEC oversees the work of the FASB.
该美国政府机构确定上市公司必须向股东提供的财务报表，以及他们在编制这些报表时必须使用的计量规则。SEC 工作人员还审查提交给其的报告是否符合其标准，调查违规行为，并惩罚违规者。作为这一使命的一部分，SEC 负责监督 FASB 的工作。
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) The private sector body which sets generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).
财务会计准则委员会 （FASB） 采用公认会计原则 （GAAP） 的私营部门机构。
Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) The private sector body which sets auditing standards for independent auditors (CPAs) of public companies.
Public Company Accounting Oversight Board （PCAOB） 公众公司会计监督委员会 （PCAOB）为上市公司的独立审计师 （CPA） 制定审计标准的私营部门机构。
Managers
经理
Managers are primarily responsible for the information in the financial statements and disclosures.
经理主要负责财务报表和披露中的信息。
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) Highest officer of the company
首席执行官 （CEO） 公司的最高官员
Chief Financial Officer (CFO) Highest officer associated with the financial and accounting side of the business
Chief Financial Officer （CFO） 与业务的财务和会计方面相关的最高官员
The CEO and CFO must personally certify that:
首席执行官和首席财务官必须亲自证明：
Each report filed with the SEC does not contain untrue statements or omitted facts.
提交给 SEC 的每份报告均不包含不真实的陈述或遗漏的事实。
There are no significant deficiencies or material weaknesses in the internal controls over financial reporting.
财务报告的内部控制没有重大缺陷或重大弱点。
They have disclosed to the auditors and audit committee any weaknesses in internal controls or fraud involving management or employees who have a role in financial reporting.
他们已向审计师和审计委员会披露了内部控制中的任何弱点或涉及管理层或财务报告员工的欺诈行为。
Executives who knowingly certify false financial reports are subject to a fine of $5 million and a 20-year prison term. The members of accounting staff, who actually prepare the details of the reports, also bear professional responsibility for the accuracy of this information, although their legal responsibility is smaller. Accounting managers responsible for financial statements with material errors are routinely fined and fired and often have difficulty finding other employment.
明知故犯证明虚假财务报告的高管将被处以 500 万美元的罚款和 20 年监禁。 实际准备报告详细信息的会计工作人员也对这些信息的准确性承担专业责任，尽管他们的法律责任较小。负责财务状况的会计经理经常被罚款和解雇，并且通常很难找到其他工作。
Board of directors
董事会
Elected by the stockholders, the board of directors oversees the CEO and other senior management and assures that the long-term interests of shareholders are being served.
董事会由股东选举产生，监督首席执行官和其他高级管理层，并确保为股东的长期利益服务。
It also does the monetary role.
它还起到了货币的作用。
Audit committee The audit committee of the board of directors consists of nonmanagement (independent) directors with financial knowledge, is responsible for ensuring that processes are in place for maintaining the integrity of the company’s accounting, financial statement preparation, and financial reporting, and is responsible for hiring the company’s independent auditors and must meet separately with the auditors to discuss management’s compliance with their financial reporting responsibilities.
审计委员会 董事会的审计委员会由具有财务知识的非管理（独立）董事组成，负责确保制定维护公司会计、财务报表编制和财务报告完整性的流程，并负责雇用公司。的独立审计师，并且必须单独与审计师会面，讨论管理层对其财务报告责任的遵守情况。
Auditors
核 数 师
(Independent) auditors The SEC requires publicly traded companies to have their statements and their control systems over the financial reporting process audited by an independent registered public accounting firm (independent auditor) following auditing standards established by the PCAOB. Many privately owned companies also have their statements audited.
（独立）审计师 SEC要求上市公司由独立的注册会计师事务所审计其报表及其财务报告流程的控制系统。独立审计师）遵循PCAOB 制定的审计标准。 许多私营公司的报表也经过审计。
Independent because they do not work daily.
独立，因为他们不是每天都在工作。
Unqualified (Clean) Audit Opinion Auditor’s statement that the financial statements are fair presentations in all material respects in conformity with GAAP.
无保留（干净）审计意见 审计师声明财务报表在所有重大方面均符合 GAAP 的公允列报。
By signing an unqualified (clean) audit opinion, a CPA firm assumes part of the financial responsibility for the fairness of the financial statements and related presentations. This opinion, which adds credibility to the statements, also is often required by agreements with lenders and private investors. Subjecting the company’s statements to independent verification reduces the risk that the company’s financial condition is misrepresented in the statements. As a result, rational investors and lenders should lower the rate of return (interest) they charge for providing capital.
通过签署无保留（无保留）审计意见，会计师事务所对财务报表和相关陈述的公平性承担部分财务责任。这种意见增加了国家政府的可信度，也经常是与贷方和私人投资者达成的协议所要求的。对公司的报表进行独立验证可以降低公司财务状况在报表中被误报的风险。因此，理性的投资者和贷方应该降低他们为提供资本金收取的回报率（利息）。
The “Big Four”
“四大”
Each of these firm employs thousands of CPAs in offices scattered throughout the world. They audit the great majority of publicly traded companies as well as many that are privately held.
这些公司中的每家都在分散在世界各地的办事处雇用了数千名注册会计师。他们审计绝大多数上市公司以及许多私人持有的公司。
EY Ernst & Young
安永安永
Delloitte Deloitte & Touche
KPMG Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler
毕马威 Klynveld 泥炭 Marwick Goerdeler
PwC Pricewaterhouse Coopers
普华永道会计师事务所
Some public companies and most private companies are audited by smaller CPA firms.
一些上市公司和大多数私营公司由较小的注册会计师事务所审计。
The “Big Five” collapsed: the fall of Arthur Andersen due to the lack of ethics and professional responsibility.
“五巨头”崩溃了：安达信因缺乏道德和职业责任感而垮台。
Information intermediaries: Information Services and Financial Analysts
信息中介机构：信息服务和金融分析师
Students sometimes view the communication process between companies and financial statement users as a simple process of mailing the report to individual shareholders who read the report and then make investment decisions based on what they have learned. This simple picture is far from today’s reality. Now most investors rely on company websites, information services, and financial analysts to gather and analyze information.
学生有时将公司和财务状况用户之间的沟通过程视为将报告邮寄给个人股东的简单过程，个人股东阅读报告，然后根据他们所学到的知识做出投资决策。这幅简单的图景与今天的现实相去甚远。现在，大多数投资者依靠公司网站、信息服务和金融分析师来收集和分析信息。
Company websites and filings with regulators
公司网站和向监管机构提交的文件
Investor relation website
投资者关系网站
SEC’s EDGAR (Electronic Data Gathering, Analysis, and Retrieval)
SEC 的 EDGAR（电子数据收集、分析和检索）
Each fact in the report is now tagged to identify its source and meaning using a language called XBRL. Users can retrieve information from EDGAR within 24 hours of its submission, long before it is available through the mail.
现在，报告中的每个事实都使用一种称为 XBRL 的语言进行标记，以标识其来源和含义。用户可以在提交信息后的 24 小时内从 EDGAR 检索信息，远早于通过邮件提供信息。
Most companies also provide direct access to their financial statements and other information over the web. You can contact Apple at: investor.apple.com.
大多数公司还通过 Web 提供对其财务报表和其他信息的直接访问。 您可以通过以下方式联系 Apple：investor.apple.com。
Information services
信息服务
Fee-based services
收费服务
Google, MarketWatch, Bloomberg
谷歌、MarketWatch、彭博社
Information services allow investors to gather their own information about the company and monitor the recommendations of a variety of analysts. Financial analysts and other sophisticated users obtain much of the information they use from the wide variety of commercial online information services. Fee-based services such as Compustat and Thomson Reuters provide broad access to financial statements and news information. A growing number of other resources offering a mixture of free and fee-based information exist on the web. These include: finance.google.com/finance, finance.yahoo.com, www.marketwatch.com, www.bloomberg.com.
信息服务允许投资者收集有关公司的信息并监控各种分析师的建议。金融分析师和其他资深用户从各种商业在线信息服务中获得他们使用的大部分信息。Compustat 和 Thomson Reuters 等收费服务提供了对财务报表和新闻信息的广泛访问。Web 上存在越来越多的其他资源，这些资源提供了免费和收费信息的混合信息。这些包括：finance.google.com/finance、finance.yahoo.com、www.marketwatch.com www.bloomberg.com。
Financial analysts
金融分析师
Forecasts of financial metrics
财务指标预测
Investment recommendations
投资建议
Financial analysts receive accounting reports and other information about the company from online information services. They also gather information through conversations with company executives and visits to company facilities and competitors. The results of their analyses are combined into analysts’ reports. Analysts’ reports normally include forecasts of future quarterly and annual earnings per share and share price; a buy, hold, or sell recommendation for the company’s shares; and explanations for these judgments.
财务分析师从在线信息服务接收有关公司的会计报告和其他信息。他们还通过与公司高管的对话以及参观公司设施和竞争对手来收集信息。他们的分析结果被合并到分析师的报告中。分析师报告通常包括对未来季度和年度每股收益和股价的预测;对公司股票的买入、持有或卖出建议;以及对这些判决的解释。
Earnings Forecasts Predictions of earnings for future accounting periods, prepared by financial analysts
Earnings Forecasts （收益预测） 由金融分析师编制的未来会计期间的收益预测
In making their earnings forecasts, the analysts rely heavily on their knowledge of the way the accounting system translates business events into the numbers on a company’s financial statements, which is the subject matter of this text. Individual analysts often specialize in particular industries (such as sporting goods or energy companies). Analysts are regularly evaluated based on the accuracy of their forecasts, as well as the profitability of their stock picks.
在进行继承人收益预测时，分析员在很大程度上依赖于他们对会计系统将商业事件转化为公司财务报表数字方式的了解，这是本文的主题。个人分析师通常专注于特定行业（例如体育用品或能源公司）。分析师会根据预测的准确性以及选股的盈利能力定期进行评估。
Analysts often work in the research departments of brokerage and investment banking houses such as Credit Suisse, mutual fund companies such as Fidelity Investments, and investment advisory services such as Value Line that sell their advice to others. Through their reports and recommendations, analysts are transferring their knowledge of accounting, the company, and the industry to customers who lack this expertise.
分析师通常在经纪公司和投资银行（如瑞士信贷）、共同基金公司（如 Fidelity Investments）以及投资咨询服务（如 Value Line）的研究部门工作，这些服务向他人出售他们的建议。通过他们的报告和建议，分析师正在将他们在会计、公司和行业的知识传授给缺乏这些专业知识的客户。
Information Services and Your Job Search – book
信息服务和您的求职 – book
Information services have become the primary tool for professional analysts who use them to analyze competing firms. Information services are also an important source of information for job seekers. Potential employers expect job applicants to demonstrate knowledge of their companies during an interview, and online information services are an excellent source of company information. The best place to begin learning about potential employers is to visit their websites. Be sure to read the material in the employment section and the investor relations section of the site.
信息服务已成为专业分析师使用它们来分析竞争公司的主要工具。信息服务也是求职者的重要信息来源。强大的雇主希望求职者在面试中展示对他们公司的了解，而在线信息服务是公司信息的绝佳来源。开始了解潜在雇主的最佳地点是访问他们的网站。请务必阅读网站就业部分和投资者关系部分的材料。
Users: Institutional and Private Investors, Creditors, and Others
用户：机构和私人投资者、债权人等
Institutional investors Managers of pension, mutual, endowment, and other funds that invest on the behalf of others.
机构投资者 代表他人投资的 pension、mutual、endowment 和其他基金的经理。
These institutional stockholders usually employ their own analysts, who also rely on the information intermediaries just discussed. Institutional shareholders control the majority of publicly traded shares of U.S. companies. For example, at the time this chapter was written, institutional investors own 62 percent of Apple stock.
这些机构股东通常雇用自己的分析师，这些分析师也依赖于刚才讨论的信息中介机构。 机构股东控制着美国公开交易的大部分股票。 公司。 例如，在撰写本章时，机构投资者拥有 62% 的 Apple 股票。
Most small investors own stock in companies such as Apple indirectly through mutual and pension funds.
大多数小投资者直接通过共同基金和笔基金持有苹果等公司的股票。
Private investors Individuals, including large individual investors such as venture capitalists or retail investors, who purchase shares in companies.
私人投资者 购买公司股票 的个人，包括大型个人投资者，如风险资本家或散户投资者。
They often rely on the advice of information intermediaries or turn their money over to the management of mutual and pension funds (institutional investors).
他们通常依赖信息中介的建议，或者将资金交给共同基金和养老基金（机构投资者）的管理。
Lenders or creditors Suppliers, banks, commercial credit companies, and other financial institutions that lend money to companies.
贷款人或债权人 向公司提供贷款的供应商、银行、商业信贷公司和其他金融机构。
Lending officers and financial analysts in these organizations use the same public sources of information. They also use additional financial information (e.g., monthly statements) that companies often agree to provide as part of the lending contract. Lenders are the primary external user group for financial statements of private companies. Institutional and private investors also become creditors when they buy a company’s publicly traded bonds.
这些组织中的贷款员和金融分析师使用相同的公共信息来源。 他们还使用公司通常同意作为贷款合同的一部分提供的额外财务信息（例如，月度报表）。贷款人是私营公司财务报表的主要外部用户组。机构和私人投资者在购买公司的公开交易债券时也成为债权人。
Financial statements also play an important role in the relationships between suppliers and customers. Customers evaluate the financial health of suppliers to determine whether they will be reliable, up-to-date sources of supply. Suppliers evaluate their customers to estimate their future needs and ability to pay debts. Competitors also attempt to learn useful information about a company from its statements. The potential loss of competitive advantage is one of the costs of public financial disclosures. Accounting regulators consider these costs as well as the direct costs of preparation when they consider requiring new disclosures. Cost-effectiveness requires the benefits of accounting for and reporting information to outweigh the costs. Small amounts do not have to be reported separately or accounted for precisely according to GAAP if they would not influence users’ decisions. Accountants usually designate such items and amounts as immaterial. Determining material amounts (Amounts that are large enough to influence a user’s decision) is often very subjective.
财务报表在供应商和客户之间的关系中也起着重要作用。客户评估供应商的财务状况，以确定他们是否是可靠、最新的供应来源。供应商评估他们的客户，以估计他们未来的需求和偿还债务的能力。竞争对手还试图从公司的声明中了解有关公司的有用信息。竞争优势的潜在损失是公开财务披露的成本之一。会计监管机构在考虑要求新的披露时，会考虑这些成本以及准备的直接成本。成本效益需要会计和报告信息的好处超过成本。如果小额资金不会影响用户的决策，则无需单独报告或根据 GAAP 精确核算。会计师通常将此类项目和金额指定为非重要项目和金额。确定 material amounts（大到足以影响用户决策的金额）通常是非常主观的。
The disclosure process
披露流程
SEC regulation FD, for “Fair Disclosure,” requires that companies provide all investors equal access to all important company news. Managers and other insiders also are prohibited from trading their company’s shares based on nonpublic (insider) information so that no party benefits from early access.
SEC 法规 FD 代表“公平披露”，要求公司为所有投资者提供平等的机会来获取所有重要的公司新闻。经理和其他内部人员也被禁止根据非公开 （内幕） 信息交易其公司的股票，因此任何一方都不会从抢先体验中受益。
Press Release A written public news announcement normally distributed to major news services.
Press Release （新闻稿） 通常分发给主要新闻机构的书面公共新闻公告。
Public companies announce quarterly and annual earnings through a press release as soon as the verified figures (audited for annual and reviewed for quarterly earnings) are available. Many companies follow these press releases with a conference call during which senior managers answer analysts’ questions about the results.
一旦获得经过验证的数据（年度审计和季度收益审查），上市公司就会通过新闻稿宣布季度和年度收益。许多公司在这些新闻稿之后召开电话会议，高级管理人员在电话会议期间回答分析师关于业绩的问题。
These calls are open to the investing public. Listening to these recordings is a good way to learn about a company’s business strategy and its expectations for the future, as well as key factors that analysts consider when they evaluate a company.
这些电话会议对投资大众开放。收听这些录音是了解公司业务战略及其对未来的期望以及分析师在评估公司时考虑的关键因素的好方法。
Stock markets’ reaction to earnings announcements
股市对财报公告的反应
For actively traded companies, most of the stock market reaction (stock price increases and decreases from investor trading) to news in the press release usually happens quickly.
对于交易活跃的公司，大多数股市反应（投资者交易的股价上涨和下跌）对新闻稿中的新闻通常发生得很快。
The market reacts not to the amount of earnings, but to the difference between expected and actual earnings. This amount is called unexpected earnings.
市场对收益金额的反应不是对收益金额，而是对预期收益和实际收益之间的差额做出反应。此金额称为意外收入。
Companies such as Apple also issue press releases concerning other important events such as new product announcements. Press releases related to annual earnings and quarterly earnings often precede the issuance of the quarterly or annual report by 15 to 45 days. This time is necessary to prepare the additional detail and to distribute those reports.
Apple 等公司还会发布有关新产品发布等其他重要事件的新闻稿。与年度收益和季度收益相关的新闻稿通常会在季度报告或年度报告发布之前 15 到 45 天发布。这段时间是准备额外详细信息并分发这些报告所必需的。
Annual reports and Form 10-K
年度报告和 10-K 表格
For privately held companies, annual reports are relatively simple documents photocopied on white paper. They normally include only the following:
对于私营公司，年度报告是复印在白纸上的相对简单的文件。它们通常仅包括以下内容：
1 Four basic financial statements.
1 四个基本财务报表。
2 Related notes (footnotes).
2 相关注释（脚注）。
3 Report of independent accountants (auditor’s opinion) if the statements are audited.
3 如果报表经过审计，则为独立会计师的报告（审计师意见）。
The annual reports of public companies (Form10-K) have additional SEC reporting requirements such as these components:
上市公司的年度报告 （Form10-K） 具有额外的SEC 报告要求，例如以下组成部分：
Item 1 Business: Description of business operations and company strategy
第1 项业务：业务运营和公司战略描述
Item 6 Selected financial data: Summarized financial data for a 5-year period
第6项 选定财务数据：5 年期间的汇总财务数据
Item 7 Management’s discussion and analysis (MD&A) of financial condition and results of operations: Management’s views on the causes of its successes and failures during the reporting period and the risks it faces in the future.
第7 项 管理层对财务状况和经营业绩的讨论与分析 （MD&A）：管理层对报告期内成功和失败的原因以及未来面临的风险的看法。
Item 8 Financial statements and supplemental data: The four basic financial statements and related notes, the report of management, and the auditor’s report (Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm).
第 8 项 财务报表及补充资料：四项基本财务报表及相关附注、管理层报告、核数师报告（独立注册会计师事务所报告）。
Quarterly and other SEC reports
季度报告和其他 SEC 报告
Quarterly reports for private companies, usually prepared for lenders, include less information than annual reports and are not audited. So they are marked unaudited.
私营公司的季度报告通常是为贷款人准备的，包含的信息比年度报告少，并且不经过审计。 因此，它们被标记为 unaudited。
Public companies file their quarterly reports on Form 10-Q with the SEC. The Form 10-Q contains most of the information items provided in the financial section of the 10-K and some additional items.
上市公司以 10-Q 表格形式向 SEC 提交季度报告 。表格 10-Q 包含 10-K 文件部分提供的大部分信息项目和一些附加项目。
Public companies must file other reports with the SEC. These include the current events report Form 8-K, which is used to disclose any material event not previously reported that is important to investors (e.g., auditor changes, mergers).
上市公司必须向 SEC 提交其他报告。其中包括时事报告 8-K 表，用于披露任何以前未报告但对投资者很重要的重大事件（例如，审计师变更、合并）。
Financial statements and disclosure formats
财务报表和披露格式
Additional characteristics of financial statements and related disclosures that make them more useful:
财务报表和相关披露的其他特征使其更有用：
Comparative financial statements: To allow users to compare performance from period to period, companies report financial statement values for the current period and one or more. Apple and most U.S. companies present two years’ balance sheets and three years’ income statements, cash flow statements, and statements of stockholders’ equity.
比较财务报表：为了允许用户比较不同时期的绩效，公司报告当前期间的财务报表价值以及一个或多个。 Apple 和大多数美国公司提供两年的资产负债表和三年的损益表、现金流量表和股东权益表。
Additional subtotals and classifications in financial statements: You should not be confused when you notice slightly different statement formats used by different companies.
财务报表中的其他小计和分类： 当您注意到不同公司使用的报表格式略有不同时，您不应该感到困惑。
Additional disclosures: Most companies present voluminous notes that are necessary to understand a company’s performance and financial condition. In addition, certain complex transactions require additional statement disclosures.
额外披露：大多数公司都提供了大量必要的 notes 来了解公司的业绩和财务状况。此外，某些复杂的交易作需要额外的声明披露。
Classified balance sheet – book
分类资产负债表 – 账面
Analysis (e.g., the current ratio in Chapter 2). Apple’s balance sheet contains an item that is worthy of additional discussion. Intangible assets (discussed in Chapter 8) have no physical existence and a long life. Examples are patents, trademarks, copyrights, franchises, and goodwill from purchasing other companies. Most intangibles (except goodwill, trademarks, and other intangibles with indefinite lives) are amortized as they are used in a manner similar to the depreciation of tangible assets (Amortization Expense is debited and the contra-asset Accumulated Amortization is credited). Just as tangible fixed assets are reported net of accumulated depreciation, intangible assets are reported net of accumulated amortization on the balance sheet. Goodwill is a more general intangible asset representing the excess of the price paid for another company over the value of its identifiable assets. It is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8.
分析（例如，第 2 章中的流动比率）。Apple 的资产负债表包含一个值得进一步讨论的项目。无形资产（在第 8 章中讨论）没有物理存在，但寿命很长。例如，通过购买其他公司获得的专利、商标、版权、特许经营权和商誉。大多数资产（商誉、商标和其他具有无限期生命的无形资产除外）以类似于有形资产折旧的方式进行摊销（借记摊销费用，贷记对价资产累计摊销）。正如有形固定资产是扣除累计折旧后报告的一样，无形资产是资产负债表上累计摊销的净额。商誉是一种更一般的无形资产，代表为另一家公司支付的价格超过其可辨认资产的价值。第 8 章将对此进行更详细的讨论。
Also recall our discussion of deferred revenues from Chapter 4. These are liabilities created when customers pay for goods or services before the company delivers them. In Apple’s balance sheet, deferred revenues show up in two places: current liabilities and noncurrent liabilities. They both relate primarily to product warranties that Apple includes with its products. The deferred revenues related to repairs Apple expects to provide during the next year are classified as current. Those that relate to repairs to be provided in later years are classified as noncurrent. When you first look at a new set of financial statements, try not to be confused by differences in terminology. When interpreting line items you have never seen before, be sure to consider their description and their classification.
还记得我们在第 4 章中对递延收入的讨论。这些是客户在公司交付商品或服务之前支付商品或服务时产生的负债。在 Apple 的资产负债表中，递延收入显示在两个位置：流动负债和非流动负债。它们都主要与 Apple 包含在其产品中的产品保修有关。Apple 预计明年提供的与维修相关的递延收入被归类为当期收入。那些与以后几年提供的维修相关的被归类为非当前维修。当您第一次查看一组新的财务报表时，尽量不要被术语的差异所迷惑。在解释您以前从未见过的行项目时，请务必考虑它们的描述和分类。
Classified income statement
分类损益表
Gross profit Manufacturing and merchandising companies that sell goods report this subtotal. Gross profit (also called gross margin) is the difference between net sales and cost of goods sold (also called cost of sales).
毛利润 销售商品的制造和销售公司报告此小计。毛利（也称为毛利率）是净销售额与销售成本（也称为销售成本）之间的差额。
It is important to note that regardless of whether a company reports a gross profit subtotal, the income statement presents the same information.
需要注意的是，无论公司是否报告毛利小计，损益表都会提供相同的信息。
Operating income (another subtotal also called Income from Operations) is computed by subtracting operating expenses from gross profit.
营业收入（称为营业收入的另一个小计）是通过从毛利润中减去营业费用来计算的。
Nonoperating (other) items are revenues, expenses, gains and losses that do not relate to the company’s primary operations. These items are added to or subtracted from operating income to obtain Income before Income Taxes, also called Pretax Earnings.
经营外（其他）项目是指与公司主要业务无关的收入、费用、损益。这些项目被添加到或减去营业收入中，以获得收入 Taxes 之前的 Income，也称为税前收益。
Examples include interest income, interest expense, and gains and losses on the sale of investments.
示例包括利息收入、利息支出以及出售投资的损益。
Provision for Income Taxes (Income Tax Expense) is subtracted from Income before Income Taxes to obtain Net Income.
从所得税前收入中减去收入 T轴（所得税 Expense）的准备金，得到净收入。
Some companies show fewer subtotals on their income statements. No difference exists in the revenue, expense, gain, and loss items reported using the different formats. Only the categories and subtotals differ.
一些公司在其损益表上显示的小计较少。使用不同格式报告的收入、费用、收益和损失项目不存在差异。只有类别和小计不同。
When a major component of a business is sold or abandoned, income or loss from that component earned before the disposal, as well as any gain or loss on disposal, is included as Discontinued Operations. The item is presented separately because it is not useful in predicting the future income of the company given its nonrecurring nature. If discontinued operations are reported, an additional subtotal is presented before this item for Income from Continuing Operations.
当企业的主要组成部分被出售或放弃时，该组成部分在出售前获得的收入或损失，以及出售的任何收益或损失，都包括在终止经营业务中。该项目单独列出，因为鉴于其非经常性，它对预测公司的未来收入没有用。如果报告了已终止经营业务，则在持续经营收入的此项目之前会显示一个额外的小计。
Finally, Earnings per Share is reported.
最后，报告每股收益。
The statement of stockholders’ (shareholders’) equity
股东（股东）权益表
The statement of stockholders’ (shareholders’) equity reports the changes in each of the company’s stockholders’ equity accounts during the accounting period.
股东（股东）权益表报告了会计期间公司每个股东权益账户的变化。
The statement has a column for each stock holders’ equity account and one for the effect on total stockholders’ equity. The first row of the statement starts with the beginning balances in each account, which correspond to the prior year’s ending balances on the balance sheet. Each row that follows lists each event that occurred during the period that affected any stockholders’ equity accounts. Note that the number of shares and the dollar amount are both listed. It is important not to confuse them.
该报表有一列用于每个股东的权益账户，另一列用于对总股东权益的影响。对账单的第一行以每个账户的期初余额开头，这些余额与资产负债表上上一年的期末余额相对应。后面的每一行列出了在影响 y 个股东权益账户的期间内发生的每个事件。请注意，股数和美元金额都已列出。重要的是不要混淆它们。
Public companies must present information for the prior three years in their statements of stockholders’ equity.
上市公司必须在其股东权益表中提供过去三年的信息。
Statement of comprehensive income
全面收益表
Both the FASB and the IASB require an additional statement entitled the Statement of Comprehensive Income, which can be presented separately or in combination with the income statement.
美国财务会计准则理事会 （FASB） 和国际会计准则理事会 （IASB） 要求在 ComprehensiveIncome 声明中增加一份声明，该声明可以单独列出，也可以与损益表一起列出。
When presented separately, the statement starts with Net Income, the bottom line of the income statement. Following this total would be the components of other comprehensive income. The Net Income and Other Comprehensive Income items are then combined to create a total called Comprehensive Income (the bottom line for this statement).
当单独呈现时，该报表以净收入开头，这是损益表的底线。在此总额之后将是其他综合收益的组成部分。然后将净收入和其他综合收入项目合并成一个称为综合收入的总额（本声明的底线）。
Gross Profit Percentage – libro
毛利率百分比 – libro
The key subtotals on the income statement also play a major role in financial ratio analysis. Net sales less cost of goods sold equals the subtotal gross profit or gross margin. Analysts often examine gross profit as a percentage of sales (the gross profit or gross margin percentage).
损益表上的关键小计在财务比率分析中也起着重要作用。 净销售额减去销售成本等于小计毛利或毛利率。分析师通常将毛利润视为销售额的百分比（毛利润或毛利率百分比）。
The gross profit percentage measures a company’s ability to charge premium prices and produce goods and services at low cost. All other things equal, a higher gross profit results in higher net income. Business strategy, as well as competition, affects the gross profit percentage. Companies pursuing a product-differentiation strategy use research and development and product promotion activities to convince customers of the superiority or distinctiveness of the company’s products. This allows them to charge premium prices, producing a higher gross profit percentage. Companies following a low-cost strategy rely on more efficient management of production to reduce costs and increase the gross profit percentage. Managers, analysts, and creditors use this ratio to assess the effectiveness of the company’s product development, marketing, and production strategy.
毛利率衡量公司收取高价并以低成本生产商品和服务的能力。所有其他条件相同，毛利润越高，净收入越高。商业战略和竞争都会影响毛利率。追求产品差异化战略的公司利用研发和产品推广活动来让客户相信公司产品的优越性或独特性。这使他们能够收取溢价，从而产生更高的毛利率。遵循低成本战略的公司依靠更有效的生产管理来降低成本并提高毛利率。经理、分析师和债权人使用此比率来评估公司产品开发、营销和生产战略的有效性。
To assess the company’s ability to sustain its gross profits, you must understand the sources of any change in the gross profit percentage. For example, an increase in margin resulting from increased sales of high-margin new products can be eroded by actions of competitors or increases in component costs for popular products. Also, higher prices must often be sustained with higher R&D and advertising costs, which reduce net income and can offset any increase in gross profit.
要评估公司维持毛利润的能力，您必须了解毛利率百分比任何变化的来源。例如，高利润新产品的销售增加带来的利润率增加可能会因竞争对手的行为或热门产品的零部件成本增加而受到侵蚀。此外，更高的价格往往必须通过更高的研发和广告成本来维持，这会降低净收入，并且可以抵消毛利润的任何增长。
Statement of cash flows
现金流量表
The statement of cash flows is divided into three sections:
现金流量表分为三个部分：
operating, cash flows associated with earning income
与收入相关的运营现金流
investing, associated with the purchase and sale of productive assets (other than inventory) and investments in other companies
投资，与购买和出售生产性资产（库存除外）以及投资其他公司有关
financing, related to financing the business through borrowing and repaying loans from financial institutions, stock (equity) issuances and repurchases, and dividend payments.
融资，涉及通过向金融机构借款和偿还贷款、股票（股票）发行和回购以及股息支付来为企业提供资金。
Cash flows from operating activities can be reported using either the direct or indirect method.
经营活动产生的现金流量可以使用直接或间接方法报告。
For Apple, this first section is reported using the indirect method, which presents a reconciliation of net income on an accrual basis to cash flows from operations.
对于 Apple，第一部分使用间接方法报告，该方法表示应计制净收入与运营现金流的调节表。
The Operating Activities section prepared using the indirect method helps the analyst understand the causes of differences between a company’s net income and its cash flows. Net income and cash flows from operating activities can be quite different. Remember that the income statement is prepared under the accrual concept. Revenues are recorded when earned without regard to when the related cash flows occur. Likewise, expenses are matched with revenues and recorded in the same period without regard to when the related cash flows occur.
使用间接方法编制的经营活动部分有助于分析师了解公司净收入与其现金流之间差异的原因。经营活动的净收入和现金流可能大不相同。请记住，损益表是根据权责发生制编制的。收入在赚取时记录，而不考虑相关现金流的发生时间。同样，费用与收入相匹配并在同一时期记录，而不考虑相关现金流量发生的时间。
In the indirect method, the Operating Activities section starts with net income computed under the accrual concept and then eliminates noncash items, leaving cash flow from operating activities:
在间接法中，经营活动部分从根据权责发生制概念计算的净收入开始，然后扣除非现金项目，留下经营活动的现金流：
The items listed between these two amounts explain the reasons they differ.
这两个金额之间列出的项目解释了它们不同的原因。
Notes to financial statements
财务报表附注
All financial reports include additional information in notes that follow the statements. Different types of information:
所有财务报告都在报表后面的注释中包含其他信息。 不同类型的信息：
1 Descriptions of the key accounting rules applied in the company’s statements.
1 公司报表中应用的关键会计规则的描述。
2 Additional detail supporting reported numbers.
2 支持报告数据的其他详细信息。
3 Relevant financial information not disclosed on the statements.
3 报表中未披露的相关财务信息。
Additional Detail Supporting Reported Numbers – book
支持报告数字的其他详细信息 – book
The second category of notes provides supplemental information concerning the data shown on the financial statements. Among other information, these notes may show revenues broken out by geographic region or business segment, describe unusual transactions, and/or offer expanded detail on a specific classification.
第二类附注提供有关财务报表上显示的数据的补充信息。除其他信息外，这些注释可能会显示按地理区域或业务部门细分的收入，描述异常交易，和/或提供有关特定分类的扩展详细信息。
Relevant Financial Information Not Disclosed on the Statements – book
报表中未披露的相关财务信息 – 账簿
The final category includes information that impacts the company financially but is not shown on the statements. Examples include information on legal matters and contractual agreements that do not result in an asset or liability on the balance sheet.
最后一类包括对公司财务有影响但未显示在报表上的信息。示例包括有关不会导致资产或负债出现在资产负债表上的法律事务和合同协议的信息。
Voluntary Disclosures – book
自愿披露 – 书籍
GAAP and SEC regulations set only the minimum level of required financial disclosures. Many companies provide important disclosures beyond those required.
GAAP 和 SEC 法规仅规定了所需的财务披露的最低水平。许多公司提供超出要求的重要披露。
Differences in Accounting Methods Acceptable under IFRS and U.S. GAAP – book
IFRS 和美国 GAAP 可接受的会计方法差异 – 帐簿
Financial accounting standards and disclosure requirements are adopted by national regulatory agencies. Many countries, including the members of the European Union, have adopted International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). IFRS are similar to U.S. GAAP, but there are several important differences. A partial list of the differences at the time this chapter was written is presented below, along with the chapter in which these issues will be addressed:
财务会计准则和披露要求受到国家监管机构的采用。许多国家，包括欧盟成员国，都采用了国际会计准则委员会 （IASB） 发布的国际财务报告准则 （IFRS）。IFRS 与美国 GAAP 类似，但存在几个重要差异。下面列出了撰写本章时的部分差异，以及将解决这些问题的章节：
The FASB and IASB are working together to eliminate some of these differences.
FASB 和 IASB 正在共同努力消除其中一些差异。
6)
Reporting and Interpreting Sales Revenue, Receivables, and Cash
报告和解释销售收入、应收账款和现金
Revenue recognition principle
收入确认原则
The revenue recognition principle requires that revenues be recorded (recognized):
收入确认原则要求收入被记录（确认）：
when the company transfers goods and services to customers
当公司向客户转让商品和服务时
in the amount the company expects to be entitled to receive.
公司预期有权获得的金额。
Revenue recognition and Incoterms
收入确认和国际贸易术语解释通则
For sellers of goods, sales revenue is recorded when title and risks of ownership transfer to the buyer.
对于商品卖方，当所有权和所有权风险转移给买方时，将记录销售收入。
The point at which title (ownership) changes hands is determined by the shipping terms in the sales contract.
所有权（所有权）易手的时间由销售合同中的运输条款决定。
When goods are shipped FOB (free on board) shipping point, title changes hands at shipment and the buyer normally pays for shipping.
当货物在 FOB（船上交货）运输点发货时，所有权在装运时易手，买方通常支付运费。
When they are shipped FOB destination, title changes hands on delivery and the seller normally pays for shipping.
当他们被运送到 FOB 目的地时，所有权在交付时易手，卖家通常会支付运费。
Revenues from goods shipped FOB shipping point are normally recognized at shipment.
FOB 装运点 发货的货物收入通常在装运时确认。
Revenues from goods shipped FOB destination are normally recognized at delivery.
FOB 目的地发货的货物 收入通常在交货时确认。
Incoterms The point at which title changes hands is determined by Incoterms (International Commercial Terms), such as:
国际贸易术语名称易手的时间由Incoterms（国际商业术语）确定，例如：
FOB Destination The title of the goods changes hands on delivery (more risks)
FOB 目的地 货物所有权变更 交手（更多风险）
FOB Shipping point The title of the goods changes hands at the shipping date
FOB 装运点 货物所有权在发货日期易手
Service companies most often record sales revenue when they have provided services to the buyer. Companies disclose the revenue recognition rule they follow in the footnote to the financial statements entitled Summary of Significant Accounting Policies.
服务公司在向买方提供服务时最常记录销售收入。公司在题为“重要会计政策摘要”的财务报表的脚注中披露了他们所遵循的收入确认规则。
Skechers’s revenue recognition policy (2023 10-K)
斯凯奇的收入确认政策 （2023 10-K）
NOTES TO CONSOLIDATED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS
合并财务报表附注
Summary of Significant Accounting Policies
重要会计政策摘要
Revenue Recognition
收入确认
The Company derives income from the sale of footwear and apparel and royalties earned from licensing the Skechers brand. The Company recognizes sale revenue, net of estimated returns and excluding sales and value added taxes. Revenue is recognized at point of sale or upon shipment, the point in tome where control transfers to customer.
该公司的收入来自鞋类和服装的销售以及从 Skechers 品牌许可中获得的特许权使用费。 公司确认销售收入，扣除估计回报，不包括销售税和增值税。Revenue 在销售点或装运时得到认可，这是控制权转移给客户的时间点。
Wholesale sales are recognized upon shipment. Direct-to-consumer revenues are recognized at the point of sale for transactions with customers at the Company’s retail stores and recognized upon shipment for sales made through its websites.
批发销售在发货时得到确认。对于在公司零售店与客户的交易，直接面向消费者的收入在销售点确认，并通过其网站进行的销售在发货时确认。
Sales are reduced by an estimate of customer merchandise returns, which is calculated based on historical experience. The Company reserves for potential disputed amounts or chargebacks from its customers. The Company’s chargeback reserve is based on a collectability percentage calculated using factors such as historical trends, current economic conditions and nature of the chargeback.
销售额会因买家商品退货的估计值而减少，该估计值是根据历史经验计算的。公司保留客户可能出现的争议金额或退款。公司的退款准备金基于使用历史趋势、当前经济状况和退款性质等因素计算的可收回百分比。
The Company earns royalty income from symbolic licensing arrangements in which third parties sell product with the Company’s brand. Upon signing a new licensing agreement, the Company receives up-front fees, which are generally characterized as prepaid royalties. These fees are initially deferred and recognized based on sales of licensed product when the Company expects royalties to exceed the minimum guarantee. For those arrangements in which the Company does not expect royalties to exceed the minimum guarantee, an estimate of the royalties expected to be recouped is recognized on a straight-line basis over the license term.
公司从第三方销售具有公司品牌的产品的象征性许可安排中赚取特许权使用费收入。签署新的许可协议后，公司会收到预付费用，通常称为预付的特许权使用费。当公司预计特许权使用费超过最低保证时，这些费用最初会根据许可产品的销售进行递延和确认。对于公司预计特许权使用费不会超过最低保证的安排，预期可收回的特许权使用费的估计值将在许可期限内按直线法确认。
Motivating sales and collections
激励销售和收藏
Companies use a variety of methods to motivate businesses and consumers to buy their products and make payments for their purchases, including:
公司使用多种方法来激励企业和消费者购买他们的产品并为他们的购买付款，包括：
Allowing consumers to use credit cards to pay for purchases.
允许消费者使用信用卡支付购物费用。
Providing business customers direct credit and discounts for early payment.
为企业客户提供直接信贷和提前付款的折扣。
Direct credit is an electronic transfer of funds through the ACH - Automated Clearing House - system. The payment is initiated by the payer, which sends funds directly into the bank account of the payee. Settlement usually occurs within one or two business days.
Direct credit 是通过 ACH - 自动清算所 - 系统的电子资金转账。付款由付款人发起，付款人将资金直接汇入收款人的银行账户。结算通常在一到两个工作日内完成。
Allowing returns from all customers under certain circumstances.
在某些情况下允许 所有买家退货。
These methods affect the way companies compute net sales revenue.
这些方法会影响公司计算净销售收入的方式。
Credit card sales to consumers
面向消费者的信用卡销售
Retailers accept credit cards (mainly Visa, Mastercard, and American Express) for a variety of reasons:
零售商接受信用卡（主要是 Visa、Mastercard 和 American Express）的原因有很多：
To increase customer traffic.
增加客户流量。
To avoid the costs of providing credit directly to customers, including recordkeeping and bad debts.
避免直接向客户提供信贷的成本，包括记录保存和坏账。
To lower risks due to bad checks.
降低 因空头支票而带来的风险。
To avoid losses due to fraudulent credit card sales.
避免因欺诈性信用卡销售而造成的损失。
As long as the retailer follows the credit card company’s verification procedure, the credit card company [e.g., Visa] absorbs any losses.
只要零售商遵循信用卡公司的验证程序，信用卡公司 [例如 Visa] 就会承担任何损失。
To receive payment quicker.
为了更快地收到付款。
The accounting by the retailer is the same when a consumer uses a contactless mobile payment app such as Google Pay or Apple Pay to charge a purchase to one of their credit cards.
当消费者使用非接触式移动支付应用程序（如 Google Pay 或 Apple Pay）向他们的信用卡收费时，零售商的会计处理是相同的。
When credit card sales are made, the company must pay the credit card company a fee for the service it provides. This fee is called a credit card discount.
进行信用卡销售时，公司必须向信用卡公司支付 其提供的服务费用。这笔费用称为信用卡折扣。
For example, if the credit card company is charging a 3 percent fee for its service and Skechers’ online credit card sales are $3,000 for January 2, Skechers will record a journal entry showing a debit to cash, a debit to the credit card discount, and a credit to sales revenue.
例如，如果信用卡公司对其服务收取 3% 的费用，而 Skechers 的在线信用卡销售额在 1 月 2 日为 3,000 美元，则 Skechers 将记录一个日记账分录，显示现金借记、信用卡折扣借记和销售收入贷记。
Sales discounts to businesses
向企业提供销售折扣
Companies often sell to other businesses on open account (without a formal written promissory note or credit card). Companies may offer a sales discount as an early payment incentive.
公司通常以赊账方式向其他企业销售 产品（无需正式的书面本票或信用卡）。公司可能会提供销售折扣作为提前付款的激励措施。
In some cases, a sales discount (often called a cash discount) is granted to the purchaser to encourage early payment.
在某些情况下，会向采购员提供销售折扣（通常称为现金折扣）以鼓励提前付款。
For example, Skechers could offer terms of 2/10, n/30, which means that the customer may deduct 2 percent from the invoice price if cash payment is made within 10 days from the date of sale. If cash payment is not made within the 10-day discount period, the full sales price (less any returns) is due within a maximum of 30 days. Companies offer this sales discount to encourage customers to pay more quickly. This pro vides two benefits:
例如，斯凯奇可以提供 2/10、n/30 的条款，这意味着如果在销售之日起 2 天内以现金付款，客户可以从发票价格中扣除 10%。如果未在 10 天折扣期内支付现金，则应在最多 30 天内支付全部销售价格（减去任何退货）。公司提供此销售折扣是为了鼓励客户更快地付款。这提供了两个好处：
Prompt receipt of cash from customers reduces the necessity to borrow money to meet operating needs.
及时收到客户的现金减少了借款以满足运营需求的必要性。
Because customers tend to pay bills providing discounts first, a sales discount also decreases the chances that the customer will run out of funds before the company’s bill is paid.
由于客户倾向于先支付提供折扣的账单，因此销售折扣还降低了客户在支付公司账单之前耗尽资金的可能性。
Companies commonly record sales discounts taken by subtracting the discount from sales if payment is made within the discount period.
如果在折扣期内付款，公司通常会通过从销售额中减去折扣来记录销售折扣。
Assume that credit sales of $1,000 are recorded with terms 2/10, n/30, and payment is made within the discount period.
假设使用条款 2/10、n/30 记录了 1,000 美元的信用销售额，并且在折扣期内付款。
If payment is made after the discount period, the full $1,000 would be reported as net sales.
如果在折扣期之后付款，则全额 $1,000 将报告为净销售额。
Implied interest rate in the early payment incentive
提前付款激励中的隐含利率
With discount terms of 2/10, n/30, a customer saves $2 on a $100 purchase by paying on the 10th day instead of the 30th day.
以2 年 10 月 30 日的折扣条款，客户在第 2 天而不是第10 天付款，购买 100 澳元可节省 30 美元。
20 days = the actual period of time the customer is taking advantage of the discount. The discount is offered to customers who pay 20 days earlier, from day 30 to day 10. So, 20 days represents the period during which the customer "finances" the purchase2 by paying later and receiving a discount for early payment.
20 天 = 客户享受折扣的实际时间段。折扣提供给提前 20 天（第 30 天到第 10 天）付款的客户。因此，20 天表示客户通过稍后付款并获得提前付款的折扣来“资助”购买 2 的时间段。
Sales Returns and Allowances
销售退货和津贴
Retailers and customers have a right to return unsatisfactory or damaged merchandise and receive a refund or an adjustment to their bill. These returns are accumulated in a separate account called Sales Returns and Allowances and must be deducted from gross sales revenue in determining net sales.
零售商和客户有权退回不满意或损坏的商品，并获得退款或调整账单。这些回报累积在一个名为 Sales Returns 和Allowances 的单独账户中，在确定净销售额时，必须从总销售收入中扣除。
This account informs a company’s managers of the volume of returns and allowances and thus provides an important measure of the quality of customer service.
该账户通知公司的经理退货和津贴的数量，从而提供衡量客户服务质量的重要指标。
Assume that Fontana’s shoes, buys 40 pairs of shoes from Skechers for $2,000 on account. On the date of sale, Skechers makes the following journal entry:
假设 Fontana 的鞋子以 40 美元的价格从 Skechers 购买了 2,000 双鞋。在销售日期，Skechers 进行以下日记账分录：
Before paying for the shoes, however, Fontana’s discovers that 10 pairs of shoes are not the color ordered and returns them to Skechers. On that date Skechers records:
然而，在支付鞋子之前，Fontana's 发现 10 双鞋不是订购的颜色，并将它们退回给 Skechers。 在那一天，Skechers 记录道：
Cost of goods sold related to the 10 pairs of shoes also would be reduced.
与 10 双鞋相关的销售商品成本也将降低。
Reporting Net Sales
报告净销售额
Companies record credit card discounts, sales discounts, and sales returns and allowances separately to allow management to monitor the magnitude of these transactions.
公司分别记录信用卡折扣、销售折扣以及销售退货和津贴，以便管理层监控这些交易的规模。
“Less” part is not mandatory under GAAP. When it is not present, sales revenue are net sales.
根据 GAAP，“更少”部分不是强制性的。如果不存在，则销售收入为净销售额。
Material revenue misstatements at Monsanto
孟山都的重大收入错报
Monsanto had materially misstated company revenue and earnings by improperly accounting for volume discounts and rebates offered to retailers and distributers of its product Roundup.
孟山都公司错误地计算了向零售商和分销商提供的产品 Roundup 的批量折扣和回扣，从而严重误报了公司收入和收益。
▶ Monsanto delayed recording rebates until the following year, overstating net sales and earnings before taxes by $44.5 million and $48 million, respectively, over two years.
▶ 孟山都将记录退税推迟到第二年，在两年内分别高估了净销售额和税前利润 4450 万美元和 4800 万美元。
▶ Monsanto also improperly accounted for additional rebates as expense instead of a reduction in net sales.
▶ 孟山都还错误地将额外的回扣作为费用而不是净销售额的减少。
Revenue recognition for bundled goods and services
捆绑商品和服务的收入确认
Bundling of goods and services within one sales contract is common in a variety of industries. When a seller promises to provide more than one good or service in a single sales contract, FASB standards specify a five-step process to determine the amount to be recognized as revenue.
在一份销售合同中捆绑商品和服务在各种行业中都很常见。 当卖方承诺在一份销售合同中提供不止一种商品或服务时，FASB 标准规定了一个五步流程来确定要被认定为转售的商品或服务。
Five steps to recognizing revenue for more complex customer contracts.
为更复杂的客户合同确认收入的 5 个步骤。
Step 1 Identify the contract between the company and the customer.
第 1 步 确定公司与客户之间的合同。
Step 2 Identify the performance obligations (promised goods and services).
第 2 步 确定履约义务（承诺的商品和服务）。
Step 3 Determine the transaction price.
步骤 3 确定交易价格。
Step 4 Allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations.
第 4 步 将交易价格分配给履约义务。
Step 5 Recognize revenue when each performance obligation is satisfied (or over time if a service is provided over time).
第 5 步：在履行每项履约义务时确认收入（如果随着时间的推移提供服务，则随着时间的推移确认收入）。
Classification of receivables
应收账款的分类
Receivables may be classified in three common ways.
应收账款可以分为三种常见方式。
First, they may be classified as either an account receivable or a note receivable. An accounts receivable is created by a credit sale on an open account. A notes receivable is a promise in writing (a formal document) to pay (1) a specified amount of money, called the principal, at a definite future date known as the maturity date and (2) a specified amount of interest at one or more future dates. The interest is the amount charged for use of the principal.
首先，它们可以分类为应收账款或应收票据。应收账款由赊销在赊账帐户上创建。 应收票据是书面承诺（正式文件），承诺在未来确定的日期（称为到期日）支付指定金额的款项（称为本金），以及 （2） 在未来一个或多个日期支付指定金额的利息。利息是收取本金的金额。
Second, receivables may be classified as trade or nontrade receivables. A trade receivable is created in the normal course of business when a sale of merchandise or services on credit occurs. A nontrade receivable arises from transactions other than the normal sale of merchandise or services. For example, if Skechers loaned money to a new vice president to help finance a home at the new job location, the loan would be classified as a nontrade receivable.
其次，应收账款可分为贸易应收账款或非贸易应收账款。贸易应收账款是在正常业务过程中发生赊销商品或服务时产生的。非贸易应收账款来自正常商品或服务销售以外的交易。 例如，如果 Skechers 向新副总裁借款，以帮助为新工作地点的房屋提供资金，则该贷款将被归类为非贸易应收账款。
Third, in a classified balance sheet, receivables also are classified as either current or noncurrent (short term or long term), depending on when the cash is expected to be collected.
第三，在分类资产负债表中，应收账款也被分类为流动或非流动（短期或长期），具体取决于预计何时收取现金。
Foreign currency receivables
外币应收账款
When a buyer pays in its local currency, the resulting accounts receivable is denominated in a foreign currency. This amount cannot be added to other accounts receivable under the reporting currency. Companies must convert the amount to the reporting currency using the end-of-period exchange rate between the two currencies.
当买方以其当地货币付款时，生成的应收账款以外币计价。此金额不能添加到申报币种下的其他应收账款中。公司必须使用两种货币之间的期末汇率将金额转换为申报货币。
Accounting for bad debts
坏账会计
Subsidiary account Customer-level accounts receivable account kept by companies.
子账户 公司维护的客户级应收账款账户。
When Skechers extends credit to its commercial customers, it knows that some of these customers will not pay their debts.
当 Skechers 向其商业客户提供信贷时，它知道其中一些客户不会偿还债务。
Bad debts Accounts receivable won’t be paid by customers regardless of collection efforts.
坏账无论收款工作如何，客户都不会支付应收账款。
Problem The expense recognition principle requires recording of bad debt expense in the same accounting period in which the related sales are made, but companies may not learn which particular customers will not pay until later. This presents an important accounting problem.
问题 费用确认原则要求在进行相关销售的同一会计期间记录坏账费用，但公司可能无法了解具体情况客户稍后才会付款。这提出了一个重要的会计问题。
Companies use the allowance method to measure (estimate) bad debt expense.
公司使用津贴法来计量（估计）坏账费用。
▶ Make end-of-period adjusting entry to record bad debt expense.
▶ 进行期末调整以记录坏账费用。
▶ Write off specific accounts determined to be uncollectible during the period.
▶ 注销在此期间被确定为无法收回的特定账户。
Recording bad debt expense
记录坏账费用
An adjusting journal entry at the end of the accounting period records the bad debt estimate.
会计期间末的调整日记账分录记录坏账估计。
Skechers estimated bad debt expense for 2022 to be $32,362 (in thousands) and made the following adjusting entry:
斯凯奇估计 2022 年的坏账费用为 32,362 美元（单位：千美元），并进行了以下调整：
Allowance for doubtful accounts A contra-asset account subtracted from accounts receivable on the balance sheet.
呆账准备金 从资产负债表上的应收账款中减去的备抵资产账户。
Bad debt expense (doubtful accounts expense, uncollectible accounts expense, provision for uncollectible accounts) The expense associated with estimated uncollectible accounts receivable.
坏账费用（呆账费用、无法收回的费用、无法收回的账款准备金） 与估计的 uncollectible 应收账款相关的费用。
It is Included in the category “General and Administrative” expenses on the income statement. It decreases net income and stockholders’ equity. Accounts Receivable could not be credited in the journal entry because there is no way to know which customers’ accounts receivable are involved. So the credit is made, instead, to a contra-asset account called Allowance for Doubtful Accounts (Allowance for Bad Debts or Allowance for Uncollectible Accounts). As a contra-asset, the balance in Allowance for Doubtful Accounts is always subtracted from the balance of the asset Accounts Receivable. Thus, the entry decreases the net book value of Accounts Receivable and total assets.
它包含在损益表的“一般和 A行政”费用类别中。它减少了净收入和股东权益。无法在日记帐分录中贷记应收账款，因为无法知道涉及哪些客户的应收账款。因此，贷方被贷记到一个名为 Allowance for Doubtful Accounts （Allowance for Bad Debts 或 Allowance for Uncollectible Accoun ts） 的备抵资产账户。作为对资产，呆账准备金中的余额总是从资产应收账款的余额中减去。因此，该分录会降低应收账款和总资产的账面净值。
Writing off specific uncollectible accounts
注销特定的无法收回的账户
Throughout the year, when it is determined that a customer will not pay its debts (e.g., due to bankruptcy), the company writes off that individual bad debt through a journal entry.
全年，当确定客户无法偿还其债务（例如，由于破产）时，公司会通过日记账分录注销该个人坏账。
Now that the specific uncollectible customer account receivable has been identified, it can be removed with a credit. At the same time, we no longer need the related estimate in the contra asset Allowance for Doubtful Accounts, which is removed by a debit.
现在，已确定特定的无法收回的客户应收账款，可以使用贷方将其删除。同时，我们不再需要备抵资产 Allowance for Doubtful Accounts 中的相关估计，该估计已被借方删除。
Skechers’ total write-offs for 2022 were $35,574.
斯凯奇 2022 年的总核销额为 35,574 美元。
This transaction neither affect the income statement nor change the net book value of accounts receivable.
该交易既不影响损益表，也不改变应收账款的账面净值。
It did not record a bad debt expense because the estimated expense was recorded with an adjusting entry in the period of sale. Also, the entry did not change the net book value of accounts receivable because the decrease in the asset account (Accounts Receivable) was offset by the decrease in the contra asset account (Allowance for Doubtful Accounts). Thus, it also did not affect total assets.
它没有记录坏账费用，因为估计费用是在销售期间通过调整分录记录的。此外，该分录没有改变应收账款的账面净值，因为资产账户 （应收账款） 的减少被抵销资产账户 （呆账准备金） 的减少所抵消。因此，它也不会影响总资产。
Bad debt-related T-accounts
与坏账相关的 T-account
Bad debt recoveries
坏账追讨
When a company receives a payment on an account that has already been written off, the journal entry to write off the account is reversed to put the receivable back on the books and then the collection of cash is recorded.
当公司收到已核销账户的付款时，用于核销账户的日记账分录将被冲销，以将应收账款放回账簿上，然后记录现金收款。
Assume the previously written-off amount was $726, the following two entries are entered:
假设之前注销的金额为 726 美元，则输入以下两个条目：
Again, this transaction (REC) neither affect the income statement nor change the net book value of accounts receivable. Only the estimate of bad debts affects these amounts.
同样，该交易 （REC） 既不影响损益表，也不会影响应收账款的账面净值。只有坏账的估计会影响这些金额。
Summary of the Accounting Process
会计流程摘要
It is important to remember that accounting for bad debts is a two-step process:
重要的是要记住，坏账会计处理是一个两步过程：
Accounts Receivable (Gross) includes the total accounts receivable, both collectible and uncollectible. The balance in the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts is the portion of the accounts receivable balance the company estimates to be uncollectible. Accounts Receivable (Net) reported on the balance sheet is the portion of the accounts the company expects to collect (or its estimated net realizable value)
应收账款（总额）包括应收账款总额，包括应收账款和不可收回账款。呆账准备金中的余额是公司估计无法收回的应收账款余额部分。资产负债表上报告的应收账款（净额）是公司预期汇集的应收账款部分（或其估计的可变现净值）
The amounts of bad debt expense and accounts receivable written off for the period, if material, are reported on a schedule that publicly traded companies must include in their Annual Report Form 10-K filed with the SEC.
该期间的坏账费用和应收账款核销金额（如果重要）按时间表报告，上市公司必须将其包含在向 SEC 提交的年度报告 Form 10-K 中。
Estimating bad debt expense
估算坏账费用
The bad debt expense amount is estimated based on either: a percentage of total credit sales for the period or an aging of accounts receivable. Both methods are acceptable under GAAP and are widely used.
坏账费用金额的估计依据是：当期信贷销售总额的百分比或应收账款的账龄。这两种方法在 GAAP 下都是可以接受的，并且被广泛使用。
The percentage of credit sales method is simpler to apply, but the aging method is generally more accurate. Many companies use the simpler method on a weekly or monthly basis and use the more accurate method on a monthly or quarterly basis to check the accuracy of the earlier estimates. Rarely occurs in practice that both methods produce exactly the same estimate.
赊销百分比法更容易应用，但账龄法通常更准确。许多公司每周或每月使用更简单的方法，并每月或每季度使用更准确的方法来检查早期估计的准确性。在实践中，两种方法都会产生完全相同的估计值。
Estimating bad debt: Percentage of credit sales method
坏账估算 ： 赊销百分比法
The percentage of credit sales method bases bad debt expense on the historical percentage of credit sales that result in bad debts.
赊销百分比法根据导致坏账的赊销历史百分比计算坏账费用。
The percentage of credit sales method is a simple one-step pro cess where the current period’s bad debt expense is directly estimated.
赊销百分比法是一个简单的一步式过程，其中直接估计当期的坏账费用。
The average percentage of credit sales that result in bad debts can be computed by dividing total bad debt losses by total credit sales. A company that has been operating for some years has sufficient experience to project probable future bad debt losses.
导致坏账的信贷销售的平均百分比可以通过将总坏账损失除以总信贷销售来计算。一家已经运营了几年的公司有足够的经验来预测未来可能的坏账损失。
This amount would be directly recorded as Bad Debt Expense (and an increase in Allowance for Doubtful Accounts) in the current year.
该金额将直接记录为当年的坏账支出（以及对呆账的允许增加）。
Estimating bad debt: Aging of accounts receivable
估计坏账：应收账款的账龄
The aging of accounts receivable method estimates uncollectible accounts based on the age of each accounts receivable.
应收账款的 a ging of Accounts Receivable 方法根据每个应收账款的年龄估计无法收回的账户。
It relies on the fact that, as accounts receivable become older and more overdue, it is less likely that they will be collected. For example, a receivable that was due in 30 days but has not been paid after 120 days is less likely to be collected, on average, than a similar receivable that remains unpaid after 45 days.
它依赖于这样一个事实，即随着应收账款的年龄和逾期时间的增加，它们被收回的可能性越来越小。例如，平均而言，与 45 天后仍未支付的类似应收账款相比，应在 30 天内到期但 120 天后仍未支付的应收账款被收回的可能性更小。
The aging of accounts receivable method is a three-step process where (1) the estimated ending balance in the allowance is calculated, (2) which is compared to the current balance, (3) to compute the bad debt expense adjust ment for the period.
应收账款账龄法是一个三步过程，其中 （1） 计算备抵金中的估计期末余额，（2） 与当前余额进行比较，（3） 计算该期间的坏账费用调整。
Comparison of the two methods
两种方法的比较
Percentage of credit sales directly computes the amount of Bad Debt Expense on the income statement for the period in the adjusting journal entry.
信贷销售百分比直接计算调整日记账分录中损益表上该期间的坏账 E xpense 金额。
Aging of accounts receivable computes the estimated ending balance in the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts on the balance sheet after making the necessary adjusting entry. The difference between the current balance in the account and the estimated balance is recorded as the adjusting entry for Bad Debt Expense for the period.
应收账款账龄在进行必要的调整分录后，计算资产负债表上可疑 A 的 A llowanc e 中的刺激期末余额。账户中的当前余额与估计余额之间的差额被记录为 该期间坏账 Expense 的调整分录。
Actual write-offs compared with estimates
实际核销与估计值相比
Skechers’ Form 10-K provides clear information on its approach to estimating uncollectible accounts.
斯凯奇的 10-K 表格提供了有关其估算未收回账户的方法的明确信息。
If uncollectible accounts actually written off differ from the estimated amount previously recorded, a higher or lower amount of bad debt expense is recorded in the next period to make up for the previous period’s error in estimate.
如果实际核销的坏账与之前记录的估计金额不同，则在下一期间记录更高或更低的坏账费用金额，以弥补上一期间的估计错误。
When estimates are found to be inaccurate, financial statement values for prior annual accounting periods are not corrected.
当发现估计不准确时，不会更正先前年度会计期间的财务报表值。
Practices that can help minimize bad debts
有助于减少坏账的做法
Many managers forget that extending credit will increase sales volume, but unless the related receivables are collected, they do not add to the bottom line. Companies that emphasize sales without monitoring the collection of credit sales soon find much of their current assets tied up in accounts receivable. The following practices can help minimize bad debts:
马ny 经理忘记了提供信贷会增加销量，但除非收集到相关的应收账款，否则它们不会增加底线。强调销售而不监控赊销收集的公司很快就会发现他们的大部分当前资产都被应收账款所束缚。以下做法有助于最大限度地减少坏账：
Require approval of customers’ credit history by a person independent of the sales and collections functions.
要求独立于销售和收款职能的人员批准客户的信用记录。
Age accounts receivable periodically and contact customers with overdue payments.
定期对应收账款进行账龄处理，并联系逾期付款的客户。
Reward both sales and collections personnel for speedy collections so they work as a team.
奖励销售和收款人员的快速收集，以便他们作为一个团队工作。
To assess the effectiveness of overall credit-granting and collection activities, managers and ana lysts often compute the receivables turnover ratio.
为了评估整体信贷授予和收款活动的有效性，经理和分析员通常会计算应收账款周转率。
Receivables turnover ratio
应收账款周转率
Receivables turnover ratio measures how many times average trade receivables are recorded and collected for the year.
应收账款周转率衡量当年记录和收取贸易应收账款的平均次数。
. The higher the ratio, the faster the collection of receivables. A higher ratio benefits the company because it can invest the money collected to earn interest income or reduce borrow ings to reduce interest expense. Overly generous payment schedules and ineffective collection methods keep the receivables turnover ratio low. Analysts and creditors watch this ratio because a sudden decline may mean that a company is extending payment deadlines in an attempt to prop up lagging sales or is even recording sales that will later be returned by customers.
。比率越高，应收账款的回收速度越快。更高的比率对公司有利，因为它可以将收集到的钱用于赚取利息收入或减少借款以减少利息支出。过于慷慨的付款时间表和无效的收款方法使应收账款周转率保持在较低水平。分析师和债权人关注这个比率，因为突然下降可能意味着公司正在延长付款截止日期以试图支撑滞后的销售，甚至记录了稍后将由客户退回的销售。
Many managers and analysts compute the related number, average collection period or average days sales in receivables. Relatedly,
许多经理和分析师会计算应收账款的相关数字、平均收款期或平均销售天数。与此相关的是，
Because differences across industries and between firms in the manner in which cus tomer purchases are financed can cause dramatic differences in the ratio, a particular firm’s ratio should be compared only with its prior years’ figures or with other firms in the same industry following the same financing practices.
由于不同行业和企业之间客户购买融资方式的差异会导致比率的巨大差异，因此应仅将特定公司的比率与其前几年的数据或同一行业中遵循相同融资做法的其他公司进行比较。
Accounts receivable on cash flows
现金流量的应收账款
The change in accounts receivable can be a major determinant of a company’s cash flow from operations. While the income statement reflects the revenues of the period, the cash flow from operating activities reflects cash collections from customers.
应收账款的变化可能是公司运营现金流的主要决定因素。损益表反映了该期间的收入，而经营活动产生的现金流量反映了来自客户的现金收入。
Because sales on account increase the balance in accounts receivable and cash collections from customers decrease the balance in accounts receivable, the change in accounts receivable from the beginning to the end of the period is the difference between sales and collections.
由于分期销售额会增加应收账款余额，而客户的现金收款会减少应收账款余额，因此应收账款从期初到期末的变化就是销售额和收款之间的差额。
When there is a net decrease in accounts receivable for the period, cash collected from customers is more than revenue; thus, the decrease must be added in computing cash flows from operations. When a net increase in accounts receivable occurs, cash collected from customers is less than revenue; thus, the increase must be subtracted in computing cash flows from operations.
当期间应收账款净减少时，从客户那里收取的现金超过收入;因此，在计算运营产生的现金流量时，必须将减少额相加。当应收账款出现净增长时，从客户那里收取的现金少于收入;因此，在计算运营现金流时必须减去增加。
Cash and cash equivalents
现金和现金等价物
Cash is money or any instrument that banks will accept for deposit and immediate credit to a company’s account, such as check, money order, bank draft, etc.
现金是货币或银行接受用于存款并立即存入公司账户的任何工具，例如支票、汇票、银行汇票等。
Cash equivalents are investments with original maturities of three months or less that are readily convertible to cash and whose value is unlikely to change (i.e., they are not sensitive to interest rate changes), such as bank certificates of deposit, treasury bills that U.S. government issues to finance its activities, etc.
现金等价物是指原始期限为三个月或更短时间、随时可兑换成现金且价值不太可能改变（即对利率变化不敏感）的投资，例如银行存款证、美国政府发行的国库券等。
Most companies combine all of its bank accounts and cash equivalents into one amount, Cash and Cash Equivalents, on the balance sheet.
大多数公司将其所有银行账户和现金等价物合并为资产负债表上的一个金额，即现金和现金等价物。
Cash management
现金管理
Many businesses receive a large amount of cash, checks, and credit card receipts from their customers each day. Anyone can spend cash, so management must develop procedures to safeguard the cash it uses in the business. Effective cash management involves more than protecting cash from theft, fraud, or loss through carelessness. Other cash management responsibilities include:
许多企业每天都会从他们的客户那里收到大量现金、支票和 credit 卡收据。任何人都可以使用现金，因此管理层必须制定程序来保护其在业务中使用的现金。有效的现金管理不仅仅涉及保护现金免遭盗窃、欺诈或因粗心大意而丢失。其他现金管理职责包括：
Accurate accounting so that reports of cash flows and balances may be prepared.
准确的会计核算，以便准备现金流量和余额的报告。
Controls to ensure that enough cash is available to meet current operating needs, maturing liabilities, and unexpected emergencies.
控制措施，确保有足够的现金来满足当前的运营需求、到期的负债和意外的紧急情况。
Prevention of the accumulation of excess amounts of idle cash.
防止积累过多的闲置现金。
Internal control of cash
现金内部控制
Because cash is the asset most vulnerable to theft and fraud, a significant number of internal control procedures should focus on cash. Internal control refers to the process by which a company...
由于现金是最容易受到盗窃和欺诈的资产，因此大量内部控制程序应侧重于现金。 内部控制是指公司...
▶ safeguards its assets
▶ 保护其资产
▶ provides reasonable assurance regarding
▶提供合理的保证
The reliability of the company’s financial reporting,
公司财务报告的可靠性，
The effectiveness and efficiency of its operations,
其运营的有效性和效率，
Its compliance with applicable laws and regulations.
遵守适用的法律和法规。
Internal control is reviewed by the outside independent auditor and should extend to all assets.
外部控制由外部独立审计师审查，并应扩展到所有资产。
Effective internal control of cash
有效的现金内部控制
At most movie theaters, one employee sells tickets and another employee collects them. Having one employee do both jobs would be less expensive, but that single employee could easily steal cash and admit a patron without issuing a ticket. If different employees perform the tasks, a successful theft requires the participation of both.
在大多数电影院，一名员工卖票，另一名员工取票。让一名员工同时做这两项工作会更便宜，但该员工很容易偷走现金并在不开票的情况下让顾客入场。如果不同的员工执行任务，成功的盗窃需要双方的参与。
Effective internal control of cash should include the following:
有效的现金内部监控应包括以下内容：
Separation of duties
职责分离
▶ Separate jobs of receiving cash and disbursing cash.
▶接收现金和支付现金的工作分开。
▶ Separate procedures of accounting for cash receipts and cash disbursements.
▶现金收入和现金支出的单独会计程序。
▶ Separate the physical handling of cash and all phases of the accounting function.
▶将现金的实际处理和会计职能的所有阶段分开。
Prescribed policies and procedures
订明的政策和程序
▶ Require that all cash receipts be deposited in a bank daily. Keep cash on hand under strict control.
▶要求每天将所有现金收据存入银行。将手头现金保持在 strict控制之下。
▶ Require separate approval of the purchases and the actual cash payments.
▶需要单独批准购买和实际现金付款。
▶ Assign responsibilities for cash payment approval and check-signing to different individuals.
▶将现金付款审批和支票签署的责任分配给不同的个人。
▶ Require monthly reconciliation of bank accounts with the cash accounts on the company’s books.
▶要求每月将银行账户与公司账簿上的现金账户进行对账。
Ethics and the Need for Internal Control – book
道德与内部控制的必要性 – 书籍
Some people are bothered by the recommendation that all well-run companies should have strong internal control procedures. These people believe that control procedures suggest that management does not trust the company’s employees. Although the vast majority of employees are trustworthy, employee theft does cost businesses billions of dollars each year. Interviews with convicted felons indicate that in many cases they stole from their employers because they thought that it was easy and that no one cared.
有些人对所有经营良好的公司都应该有强大的内部控制程序的建议感到不安。这些人认为，控制程序表明管理层不信任公司的员工。尽管绝大多数员工都值得信赖，但员工盗窃每年给企业造成数十亿美元的损失。对被定罪重罪犯的采访表明，在许多情况下，他们从雇主那里偷东西，因为他们认为这很容易，而且没有人关心。
Many companies have a formal code of ethics that requires high standards of behavior in dealing with customers, suppliers, fellow employees, and the company’s assets. Although each employee is ultimately responsible for his or her own ethical behavior, internal control procedures can be thought of as important value statements from management.
许多公司都有正式的道德准则，要求在与客户、供应商、同事和公司资产打交道时采取高标准的行为。尽管每个员工最终都对自己的道德行为负责，但内部控制程序可以被视为管理层的重要价值声明。
Bank statement reconciliation
银行对账单对账
Not required
不需要