Teaching Literature 文學教學

2 Literature and experience
文學與經驗

2.0 Introduction 2.0 導論

In this second chapter we ask readers to consider the following questions under these general headings:
在第二章中，我們請讀者在以下幾個大方向下思考這些問題：

Literature and life 文學與生活

Do literary texts directly reflect experience of what happens in the world? If they don’t, should they? Would you say that most literary texts reflect the world we live in and our experience of it indirectly rather than directly?
文學作品是否直接反映了我們對現實世界的體驗？如果沒有，它們應該這樣做嗎？你會說大多數文學作品是以間接而非直接的方式，反映我們所處的世界與生活經驗嗎？

Relevance 相關性

Clearly, our reading of literary texts is enhanced and enriched if it can be related to our own experience of the world. How often does the literature read by our students do this?
顯然，如果我們能將文學作品的閱讀與自身的生活經驗相連結，這樣的閱讀體驗將會更加豐富且深刻。然而，學生們所接觸的文學作品，有多少能真正達到這樣的效果呢？

The role of the teacher
教師的角色

It is probably the case that the less the literature is directly relevant to the students, the more the teacher has to find ways of linking the two, that is, of building bridges between the experiences of the students and the experiences described in the work of literature. What are the best ways of achieving this?
當文學作品與學生的直接關聯性越低時，教師就越需要找到方法將兩者連結起來，也就是在學生的生活經驗與文學作品所描述的情境之間搭建橋樑。要達成這個目標，最好的方法是什麼呢？

In this chapter we focus on ways of motivating students to read literature and we explore the role of student-centred, activity-based processes in developing the student’s interest in and experiences of different literary texts.
在本章節中，我們著重探討如何激發學生閱讀文學作品的動機，並研究以學生為中心、活動導向的教學方法，如何培養學生對不同文學文本的興趣與體驗。

2.1

Representing experience 代表經驗

In this section we discuss the relation between your own experience and the way experience is conveyed by the cultural products which surround you. The following questions aim to prompt the discussion.
在本節中，我們將探討個人經驗與周遭文化產品所傳遞的經驗之間的關聯。以下問題旨在引導討論。

Question A 《沉浸式翻譯 - AI 驅動的 PDF 翻譯：公式辨識，表格辨識，多欄支援，一鍵匯出》

A man wakes up one morning to find he has turned into a beetle. His family are not surprised by this and continue to treat him in the way they have always treated him.
一個男人某天早晨醒來，發現自己變成了一隻甲蟲。他的家人對此並不感到驚訝，依然用一貫的方式對待他。

What would be your reaction if you were to read a novel about this situation?
如果你讀到一本關於這種情況的小說，會有什麼反應？

Commentary 《沉浸式翻譯 - AI 驅動的 PDF 翻譯：公式辨識，表格辨識，多欄支援，一鍵匯出》

Question B 問題 B

Look at the advertisement in Figure 1 on page 14. What kind of experience does the advertisement appeal to?
請看第 14 頁圖 1 中的廣告。這則廣告訴求的是什麼樣的體驗？

Would you be likely to have such an experience?
你是否有可能擁有這樣的體驗？

Question C 問題 C

Is the picture in Figure 2 on page 15 a realistic one? If so, why? If not, why not?
第 15 頁圖 2 中的圖片是否真實？如果是，為什麼？如果不是，又為什麼不真實？
Question A: The situation is depicted in a novella by the German writer Franz Kafka. The novella is called The Metamorphosis and was published in 1914. On one level, the situation is impossible; on another level, Kafka could be saying that the family had always treated him as if he were an insect. Kafka is not depicting the situation directly or realistically. But indirectly he could be said to be representing the truth of the situation.
問題 A：這個情境描繪自德國作家法蘭茲·卡夫卡的中篇小說。該小說名為《變形記》，出版於 1914 年。從某個層面來看，這個情境是不可能的；但從另一個層面來說，卡夫卡或許想表達這個家庭一直以來都把他當作昆蟲對待。卡夫卡並非直接或寫實地描繪這個情境，但間接地可以說他呈現了這個情境的真相。
Question B: The advertisement works by appealing to an experience that many people would like to have. Maybe it is an experience we all aspire to have, even if we do not want to admit it openly. However, is it likely that such an experience will ever come true? Is it only a dream with no real relation to life as we know it?
問題 B：這則廣告之所以有效，是因為它訴諸許多人渴望擁有的體驗。或許這是我們都嚮往的經歷，即使我們不願公開承認。然而，這樣的體驗真的有可能實現嗎？這是否只是與我們所知的生活毫無關聯的夢想？
Question C: The reality which is depicted is not one we see everyday. Perhaps we see it only in dreams, or nightmares. How easy is it to explain or interpret what is being represented here? Is it too far from experiences we can identify with? Is it more or less realistic than the story narrated in The Metamorphosis? Is the reality depicted here more or less realistic than that depicted in the advertisement in Figure 1?
問題 C：這裡描繪的現實並非我們日常所見。或許我們只在夢境或噩夢中見過。要解釋或詮釋這裡呈現的內容有多容易？它是否與我們能認同的經驗相距太遠？比起《變形記》中敘述的故事，這裡的現實描繪是更真實還是更不真實？與圖 1 廣告中描繪的現實相比，這裡呈現的現實是更真實還是更不真實？

2.1.1

Literature: fact or fiction?
文學：真實還是虛構？

Does literature represent events which are true to life or to a reader’s experience? The question is a complex one and has attracted numerous commentaries over many centuries. To answer the question we must also first ask: What is meant by literary representation? How is a literary representation different from a non-literary one?
文學是否呈現符合現實生活或讀者經驗的事件？這個問題相當複雜，數百年來已引發無數評論。要回答這個問題，我們必須先釐清：文學再現的意義為何？文學再現與非文學再現有何不同？

The answer is complicated because several established literary texts deal with events which really happened. Tolstoy’s War and Peace contains reference to the French invasion of Russia by Napoleon in 1812. Truman Capote’s novel In Cold Blood (1962) contains direct reference to characters awaiting execution by electric chair for murders they committed. The author bases his novel on interviews he conducted personally with men facing the death penalty and on data he gathered from research in the prisons prior to the execution of the prisoners. In Alexander Solzhenitsyn’s novel The First Circle one of the main characters is the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (1879-1953).
答案之所以複雜，是因為許多經典文學作品確實處理了真實發生的事件。托爾斯泰的《戰爭與和平》提及 1812 年拿破崙入侵俄國的史實。楚門·卡波提的小說《冷血》（1962 年）直接描寫了因犯下謀殺罪而等待電椅處決的角色。作者根據他親自訪談死刑犯的內容，以及在囚犯處決前於監獄中蒐集的研究資料創作這部小說。在亞歷山大·索忍尼辛的小說《第一圈》中，蘇聯領導人約瑟夫·史達林（1879-1953 年）正是主要角色之一。

However, the existence of real-life events or characters does not guarantee a true-to-life literary representation. The main criterion here is the capacity of the author to create contexts with which readers can identify. If readers can identify with events or characters and project themselves into them imaginatively then a certain truth to experience can have been created. It is this imaginative, truthful re-creation of experience which is often taken to be a distinguishing characteristic of established literary texts. Writers can hold a mirror up to experience or can ensure that their works contain numerous. accurate facts; but the result may be that the work is no more than a
然而，現實生活中的事件或人物存在，並不能保證文學作品就能真實呈現。這裡的主要標準在於作者能否創造出讓讀者產生共鳴的情境。如果讀者能對事件或人物產生認同感，並在想像中將自己投射其中，那麼某種經驗的真實性便得以建立。正是這種富有想像力、真實重現經驗的能力，常被視為經典文學作品的鮮明特徵。作家可以如實反映經驗，或確保作品包含大量精確事實；但結果可能導致作品僅止於

Figure 1 圖 1

Figure 2 圖 2

Conversation with a Bird 與鳥對話
Caroline Hands © Published by CDP 14B CANNS DOWN PRESS
Caroline Hands © 由 CDP 14B CANNS DOWN PRESS 出版

2.2
Processes of reading
2.2 閱讀過程

documentary. A direct reflection of the world or of experiences of the world does not automatically guarantee that the work has a literary character.
紀錄片式寫作。直接反映世界或對世界的體驗，並不能自動保證作品具有文學性。

On the other hand, writers can exaggerate the picture they draw. The work can contain information which cannot be true. (Take for example, the plot of The Metamorphosis outlined in 2.1.) But readers can still read it as if it were true. The actions or events can even sufficiently imitate those we might identify as true and readers can make the imaginative leap necessary to recreate it as true. Critics use the term fiction to describe literary texts such as novels. But if the fictional world has its own internal coherence then it can achieve a unique truth of its own.
另一方面，作家可以誇大他們描繪的圖景。作品可能包含不真實的資訊（以 2.1 節概述的《變形記》情節為例）。但讀者仍能將其視為真實來閱讀。這些行為或事件甚至能充分模仿我們認為真實的事物，讀者也能透過必要的想像力躍進，將其重構為真實。評論家使用「虛構」一詞來描述小說等文學文本。但如果虛構世界具有內在一致性，它就能達成自身獨特的真實性。

It is important that teachers and students of literature should recognise that a balance between fact and fiction is necessary in literary texts. Experience which is fictionalised is not necessarily experience which is untrue or unrecognisable. Readers need to be able to identify it as true and to recognise it as belonging, even if indirectly, to a recognisable world.
文學教師與學生必須認知到，在文學作品中保持事實與虛構之間的平衡至關重要。經過虛構處理的經驗，未必就是不真實或難以辨識的經驗。讀者需要能夠辨識其真實性，並認可這些經驗即使間接地，仍屬於可辨識的世界。

When we read we are usually sitting down. We are usually inactive and the surroundings in which we read are quiet. We do not seem to be doing anything. Yet reading is probably not the passive process we take it to be. It involves us in several ways.
當我們閱讀時，通常都是坐著的。我們通常處於靜止狀態，閱讀環境也十分安靜。表面看來我們似乎無所作為。然而閱讀很可能並非如我們所想是被動的過程。它其實以多種方式讓我們參與其中。
Reading involves us in:
閱讀使我們參與以下活動：
1 sharing in the world the writer has created. This occurs as a result of the imaginative leaps we make in order to fit the created world with the world we know.
1. 共享作者創造的世界。這發生在我們透過想像力躍進，將創造的世界與我們所知的世界相互契合的過程中。
2 relating the experience of the text to experiences we ourselves have undergone or can imagine ourselves undergoing. This occurs as a result of an active shuttling back and forth between the ‘fictional’ world and the ‘real’ world.
2 將文本的體驗與我們自身經歷或能夠想像經歷的事物相連結。這種連結是透過在「虛構」世界與「真實」世界之間積極往返穿梭而產生的。
3 interpreting what the texts might mean. The literary representation of experience is not a direct one; it is frequently indirect. This forces the reader to make connections, to read between the lines, to seek for explanations and meanings. In literary texts such meanings are rarely stated directly.
3 解讀文本可能的意涵。文學對經驗的呈現並非直接，而往往是間接的。這迫使讀者必須建立連結、解讀字裡行間的意涵，並尋求解釋與意義。在文學作品中，這類意義很少被直接陳述。
Reading may be more active a process than we think. Teaching approaches which reinforce the activity of reading and which activate the reader in different ways may be appropriate approaches.
閱讀可能比我們想像的更具主動性。強化閱讀活動並以不同方式激發讀者參與的教學方法，或許是更為適切的教學途徑。

Students need to see a point to reading, particularly to "eading extended texts. Many school pupils have grown up in a world dominated by television, magazines, comics, and pulp romantic or adventure stories. These media tend to provide immediate short-term satisfaction, they switch topic or scene rapidly and do not demand sustained concentration; they are invariably of a short time span. Reading literary texts requires concentration over a period of time, it requires hard work from the reader (often the text will need to be read more than once), and it requires considerable patience. Many teachers rightly see the task of encouraging students to read literature as a difficult and demanding
學生需要明白閱讀的意義，尤其是閱讀長篇文本的價值。許多學童成長於一個由電視、雜誌、漫畫，以及通俗浪漫或冒險故事主導的世界。這些媒體往往提供即時的短期滿足，它們快速切換主題或場景，不需要持續專注；這些內容通常時間跨度都很短。閱讀文學作品則需要在一段時間內保持專注，它要求讀者付出努力（通常文本需要反覆閱讀），並且需要相當的耐心。許多教師正確地將鼓勵學生閱讀文學視為一項艱鉅且要求嚴格的任務。

2.3

Motivating the student 激發學生動機
one. In several places in this book we discuss the question of motivating students to read.
在本書多處，我們都討論了如何激勵學生閱讀的問題。

One important principle is that students will be motivated to read if the process of reading is related to them as individuals. A good starting point may, therefore, be to elicit from students as many of their own ideas, feelings and attitudes as possible before they begin reading. One activity here may be especially useful. It is called ‘vote a quote’.
一個重要原則是：如果閱讀過程能與學生個人產生連結，他們就會有動力閱讀。因此，良好的起點可能是在開始閱讀前，盡可能引導學生表達自己的想法、感受和態度。其中一項活動特別有用，稱為「名言投票」。

A class is given a list of quotations from established literary authors, or proverbs or well-known sayings. They have to choose two from the list:
老師給學生一份清單，上頭列有知名文學作家的引文、諺語或名言佳句。他們必須從中挑選兩則：

One which they would like to have framed in a place of honour in their own home. It should express a thought or idea of which they approve.
一則是想裱框起來，掛在家中顯眼處的。這則引文應能表達他們認同的思想或理念。
One which would be engraved on their tombstone. It should express a key feature of their own personality.
另一則則是希望刻在自己墓碑上的。這則引文應能展現自己性格的關鍵特質。

No man, but a blockhead, ever wrote for money.
只有蠢蛋才會為了錢而寫作。
(Dr. Johnson) (強森博士)
Human kind cannot bear very much reality.
人類無法承受過多的現實。
(T.S. Eliot) (艾略特)

I have spread my dreams under your feet. Tread softly for you tread on my dreams.
我已將夢想鋪展在你腳下。請輕柔地踩踏，因為你正踏在我的夢想上。
(W.B. Yeats) (W.B. 葉慈)

And forgive us our trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us.
免我們的債，如同我們免了人的債。
(The Lord’s Prayer)  (主禱文)
Words are, of course, the most powerful drug used by mankind.
言語無疑是人類所使用最強效的藥物。
(Rudyard Kipling)  （魯德亞德·吉卜林）
But at my back I always hear Time’s winged chariot hurrying near.
但我總聽見時間的飛車在背後逼近。
(Andrew Marvell)  （安德魯·馬維爾）
Beware that you do not lose the substance by grasping at the shadow.
當心別為了抓住影子而丟失了實質。
(Aesop)  (伊索)
Those who can do; those who can’t teach.
能者做事，不能者教書。
(G.B. Shaw)  (蕭伯納)

A classic is something everyone wants to have read and no one wants to read.
經典就是人人都希望自己讀過，卻沒人真正想讀的東西。
(Mark Twain) （馬克·吐溫）
All men are created equal.
人人生而平等。
But some are more equal than others.
但有些人比其他人更平等。
(George Orwell) （喬治·歐威爾）

The aim here is to show students that literature is something we can relate to as individuals. It represents our experience and can, effectively and economically, put into words what we feel about things.
這裡的目的是讓學生明白，文學是我們每個人都能產生共鳴的事物。它代表著我們的經驗，並能有效且精煉地用文字表達我們對事物的感受。

Another ‘pre-reading’ activity which can be more specifically targeted towards a particular text is called ‘pyramid discussion’. In this activity students are invited to select from a list of statements on a particular theme those with which they most agree. Here the satements relate to the themes of ‘war’ and ‘neighbourliness’ which are the topics of the poems we discuss at 2.4.1 and 2.4.2. Students should select three on war and three on neighbours. They should then work in pairs and agree on two for each topic. They should then work in groups of five or six and agree one quotation for each topic which they would accept as a member of the whole group. The whole class might then vote on one statement for each topic. The vote will probably involve class discussion of pros and cons and will draw on ideas which will have been exchanged in pairs and in groups. The ‘pyramid’ idea reflects the move from a broad base to a single point at the top.
另一種更針對特定文本的「閱讀前」活動稱為「金字塔討論」。在這個活動中，學生被邀請從一個特定主題的陳述清單中，選出他們最認同的幾項。這裡的陳述涉及「戰爭」與「睦鄰」主題，這些正是我們在 2.4.1 和 2.4.2 節討論的詩歌主題。學生應選出三項關於戰爭和三項關於鄰居的陳述。接著他們應兩人一組，就每個主題達成兩項共識。然後五到六人一組，針對每個主題商定一句全組都能接受的引文。最後全班可對每個主題投票選出一句代表性陳述。投票過程可能引發全班討論正反意見，並匯集先前小組討論時交換的觀點。「金字塔」概念體現了從廣泛基礎逐步聚焦至單一頂點的過程。

NEIGHBOURS 睦鄰關係

A Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
A 己所不欲，勿施於人。

B

Never be friends with your neighbour.

B

千萬別和鄰居做朋友。

D Everyone should mind their own business.
D 各人自掃門前雪。

E Neighbourliness is next to godliness.
E 睦鄰之德近乎神聖。

F You should always have one neighbour you can rely on.
你總該有個可以信賴的鄰居。

WAR 戰爭
A War is nothing more than the continuation of politics by other means.
戰爭不過是政治以另一種手段的延續。

B War is futile. 戰爭徒勞無益。
C National Service should be abolished.
C 國民服役制度應該廢除。

F We should go to war in defence of our country.
F 我們應該為保衛國家而戰。
G War is another form of patriotism.
G 戰爭是愛國主義的另一種形式。

2.4

Preparing the student 為學生做準備
2.4.1
‘Neighbours’ 〈鄰居〉

In this section one main principle has emerged. This principle is that students will be better motivated to read a literary text if they can relate it to their own experience. In the first instance this means that they should be able to relate it to themselves as individuals, that is, to their own ideas, feelings, opinions and perceptions; then they should be able to relate it to their own experience of the world and, in particular, of the society in which they live. ‘Vote a quote’ and ‘pyramid discussion’ and other preparatory activities are important in giving students an appropriate orientation and a motivation to read a particular text in some depth.
在本節中，一個主要原則已然浮現。這個原則是：如果學生能將文學作品與自身經驗產生連結，他們將更有動力閱讀文本。首先，這意味著他們應該能夠將作品與個人自我產生關聯，也就是與自己的想法、感受、意見和認知相連結；接著，他們應該能夠將作品與自身對世界的體驗，特別是對所處社會的體驗產生聯繫。「票選名言」和「金字塔討論」等準備活動，對於引導學生建立適當的閱讀取向，並激發他們深入閱讀特定文本的動機至關重要。

We have benefited from suggestions given to us by Jean Greenwood in connection with ‘vote a quote’ and ‘pyramid discussion’ activities. For further elaboration, see Jean Greenwood, 1989 Class Readers OUP.
我們受益於 Jean Greenwood 針對「票選名言」和「金字塔討論」活動所提供的建議。更詳細的說明請參閱 Jean Greenwood 於 1989 年由牛津大學出版社出版的《Class Readers》。

The poem which follows is by the contemporary British poet, Kit Wright. It is entitled ‘Neighbours’ and explores indirectly some of the attitudes we have towards our neighbours. The theme of ‘neighbours’ or ‘neighbourliness’ is an accessible one. Everyone has a neighbour. This can be the person we live next to, or the person we sit next to at work or in the classroom. We can even think of the people who live in an adjacent village or town or country as our neighbours. Thus, we all probably have experience of neighbours. In preparing students for reading this poem, a starting point may be to try to activate this experience. This can ensure that they approach the poem with the right mental set. In particular, it can be useful to concentrate on sensitising students to problems that can occur with neighbours and to prompt them to think about their experiences and to project themselves imaginatively into situations which might occur and which would involve them with the issue of neighbours.
以下這首詩出自當代英國詩人基特·萊特之手，題為〈鄰居〉，間接探討了我們對鄰居的某些態度。「鄰居」或「睦鄰」這個主題相當貼近生活。每個人都有鄰居——可能是住在隔壁的人，也可能是工作場所或教室裡坐在旁邊的人。我們甚至可以把相鄰村莊、城鎮或國家的人們視為鄰居。因此，我們都可能有與鄰居相處的經驗。在引導學生閱讀這首詩之前，可以嘗試喚起這類經驗作為切入點。這能確保他們以正確的心態來理解詩作，尤其有助於讓學生敏銳察覺鄰里間可能出現的問題，促使他們回想自身經歷，並發揮想像力置身於可能發生的鄰里情境中。

Examples of situations involving neighbours which appropriately prepare students could be:
適合用來引導學生的鄰里情境範例包括：

1 Your neighbour’s television is on every night, late into the night. It is also at a high volume. You find it very difficult to sleep at night. Do you
1 你鄰居的電視每晚都開著，直到深夜。而且音量還開得很大。你發現晚上很難入睡。你會
a) sleep with your head under the pillow?
a) 把頭埋在枕頭下睡覺？
b) keep your own T.V. on very loudly every morning?
b) 每天早上也把自己的電視開得很大聲？
c) speak to your neighbour and ask him to be more considerate?
c) 和鄰居談談，請他多為別人著想？

2 You do not usually see much of the family who live in the flat next door to yours. They are very private and keep themselves to themselves. They have three children. One of their children is suddenly taken very ill. It is obvious to you that the family cannot cope with the other children. Do you offer to help to look after the other two children
2 你平常不太會見到住在隔壁公寓的那家人。他們非常注重隱私，總是獨來獨往。他們有三個孩子。其中一個孩子突然病得很重。你明顯看得出來這家人無法同時照顧其他孩子。你會主動提出幫忙照顧另外兩個孩子嗎？
a) occasionally? a) 偶爾幫忙？
b) every day for a couple of hours?
b) 每天幫忙照顧幾個小時？
c) not at all?
c) 完全不幫忙？

3 Your neighbour, whom you never speak to, comes home one evening covered in bandages and with two walking sticks. Should you ask what is wrong or keep quiet?
3 你那位從未交談過的鄰居，某天晚上回家時全身纏滿繃帶，還拄著兩根拐杖。你該詢問發生了什麼事，還是保持沉默？

You can probably think of other similar dilemmas which would stimulate discussion and interest with your own students.
你或許能想到其他類似的兩難情境，這些都能激發學生的討論興趣。

Now read the following poem:
現在請閱讀以下這首詩：

Neighbours 鄰居

I first noticed the neighbours were getting smaller
我最初注意到鄰居們變得越來越矮小
When driving away, he had to stand To put his foot on the clutch.
開車離開時，他必須站起來才能踩到離合器。
She leant on tiptoe,
她踮起腳尖，
Getting the rubbish into the garbage bin.
將垃圾丟進垃圾桶。
That evening, returning from work,
那天傍晚，下班回家時，
He set his shoulder to his briefcase.
他將公事包扛在肩上。
Scraping it up the garden path
沿著花園小徑刮擦著
And reached to the heavens with his house-key.
舉起家門鑰匙直指天際
Later we heard through the kitchen wall
稍後我們隔著廚房牆壁聽見
Their quarrels like kittens mewing for milk.
他們的爭吵像小貓咪咪叫著要奶喝。
Later we heard them through the bedroom wall Their tiny cries of love like cries for help.
稍後我們隔著臥室牆壁聽見他們微弱的愛之呢喃如同求救呼喊

Soon we’d be putting out birdseed for them: But who was I to interfere?
很快我們就要為牠們撒鳥食了：但我又有什麼資格干涉呢？
For I was growing longer, day by night.
因為我正逐漸變長，日以繼夜。
When I shaved 當我刮鬍子時
In the nude In the morning, The mirror reflected the wrong hair. Soon I slept with my head up the chimney, Feet out the window, And outfaced the treetops, tip to tip.
赤身裸體在清晨，鏡子映照出錯誤的髮型。很快我就頭朝煙囪而睡，雙腳伸出窗外，與樹梢頂端相對而視。

And when it changed and I grew lower, My chin on the basin, chest at the toilet top, And my voice grew slower and weaker And lesser as theirs grew louder In sudden authority with their new-found height.
當一切改變而我逐漸矮小，下巴抵著洗臉盆，胸口貼著馬桶邊緣，我的聲音變得愈發緩慢微弱，而他們的聲音卻愈發響亮，突然間充滿權威，伴隨著新獲得的高度。

I prayed they would do me no harm
我祈求他們不會傷害我
As I had done them no harm, Nor tread on a neighbour in or out of sight.
我從未傷害過他們，也未曾有意或無意間踩踏鄰人。

Kit Wright 基特·萊特

What questions would you put to your students after they have read this poem? How can you relate the poem to their own experiences of ‘neighbours’? Which of the preparatory questions would be the most successful in sensitising students to the way the subject is represented in the poem? How can a student’s experience be extended as a result of reading the poem?
學生讀完這首詩後，你會向他們提出哪些問題？如何將這首詩與他們自身對「鄰居」的經驗連結？在引導學生感受詩中主題的呈現方式時，哪些預設問題會最有效？閱讀這首詩後，如何延伸學生的個人經驗？
Ways in which students’ experience could be extended might include:
擴展學生經驗的方式可能包括：
1 They should be invited to consider how their country would react if a neighbouring country were invaded.
1 應該邀請他們思考，如果鄰國遭到入侵，自己的國家會如何反應。
2 They should discuss in groups whether one country should go to war on behalf of another neighbouring country.
2 他們應該分組討論一個國家是否應該為另一個鄰國發動戰爭。

3 They should consider whether they would offer help to a neighbour whom they did not know and to whom they had not been introduced.
3 他們應該思考是否會幫助一個不認識且未曾被介紹過的鄰居。
4 They should discuss whether they feel greater obligations to a neighbour at school (e.g. someone they sit next to and work with every day) or a neighbour whom they live next to at their home.
4 他們應該討論，對於學校裡的鄰居（例如每天坐在一起並一起工作的人）和家裡的鄰居，是否感到有更大的責任。

The aim of these explorations is to discuss neighbours in a literal sense (someone we live next door to) and to extend the understanding of the concept in a more metaphorical sense of, for example, neighbouring countries. Readers might like to consider other alternatives which are more relevant to their own students’ experiences.
這些探索的目的在於討論字面意義上的鄰居（與我們比鄰而居的人），並將這個概念的理解延伸至更隱喻的層面，例如鄰近國家。讀者或許可以思考其他更貼近學生自身經驗的替代方案。

2.4.2

‘Futility’ 「徒勞」
The next poem we examine for preparatory teaching is ‘Futility’ by the First World War poet, Wilfred Owen. Teaching the poem raises a number of issues of appropriate preparation and relevant pre-reading activities. Read the poem first.
接下來我們要為教學準備而檢視的詩作，是第一次世界大戰詩人威爾弗雷德·歐文的〈徒勞〉。教授這首詩會引發許多關於適當準備與相關預讀活動的議題。請先閱讀這首詩。

Futility 徒勞

Move him into the sun Gently its touch awoke him once, At home, whispering of fields unsown. Always it woke him, even in France, Until this morning and this snow. If anything might rouse him now The kind old sun will know.
將他移至陽光下輕柔的觸碰曾將他喚醒在家鄉，低語著未播種的田野總是能喚醒他，即便在法蘭西直到今晨與這場雪若還有什麼能喚醒他此刻那慈祥的老太陽會知曉

Think how it wakes the seeds, Woke, once, the clays of a cold star. Are limbs, so dear-achieved, are sides, Full-nerved - still warm - too hard to stir? Was it for this the clay grew tall? - $O$ what made fatuous sunbeams toil To break earth’s sleep at all?
想想它是如何喚醒種子，曾一度喚醒那冰冷星辰的黏土。這些肢體，如此珍貴造就的身軀，充滿神經——仍溫熱——卻難以動彈？難道黏土長高就為了這般？——啊！為何讓愚昧的陽光費力，去打破大地的沉睡？

Wilfred Owen 威爾弗雷德·歐文

If you were preparing to teach this poem, consider the four approaches listed below and decide which one would be the most suitable with your students. Would one approach be more suitable with one group of students than with another? What are the relevant factors?
若您準備教授這首詩，請思考以下四種教學方法，並判斷哪種最適合您的學生。是否某種方法更適合特定學生群體？相關考量因素為何？

1 Teachers may consider that the poem cannot be adequately taught without students having knowledge of the First World War. Relevant factual knowledge includes: the conditions of battle in the trenches in northern France and Belgium during the period 1914-1918; the numbers of soldiers, especially young men, killed during these years; Wilfred Owen’s own involvement as an artillery captain; the fact of Owen’s own death in battle four days before the Armistice was signed in 1918.
1. 教師可能認為，若學生不具備第一次世界大戰的相關知識，將難以充分教授此詩。相關背景知識包括：1914 至 1918 年間法國北部與比利時壕溝戰的作戰環境；這些年間陣亡士兵（特別是年輕士兵）的數量；威爾弗雷德·歐文本人作為砲兵上尉的參戰經歷；以及歐文於 1918 年停戰協議簽署前四日戰死沙場的事實。
2 Teachers may consider that pictures of First World War battles or even of slaughtered soldiers would stimulate students to participate imaginatively in the situation depicted in the poem.
2 教師可能會認為，展示第一次世界大戰戰場的照片，甚至是陣亡士兵的影像，能夠激發學生對詩中描繪情境的想像參與。

3 Teachers may consider that students should be prepared for the treatment of individual death in the poem. This is a much more sensitive subject; but consideration might be given to the futility of life in a world where death is frequent and where life is in any case tragically short.
3 教師可能會考慮讓學生對詩中處理的個體死亡主題有所準備。這是個更為敏感的議題；但可以引導學生思考在一個死亡頻仍、生命本就短暫得可悲的世界中，生命的徒然無意義。
4 Teachers may consider that the students should be prepared by being asked to consider the futility of death at an early age. They can be asked if the death of a young person is more or less futile if it takes place during a war.
4 教師或許會認為，應該讓學生透過思考早逝的徒然來做準備。可以詢問學生：年輕人在戰爭中喪生，是否讓這種死亡顯得更為或較不徒然。
Of these four starting points number 4 is the most immediate and possibly closest to most students’ own experiences. It is the preparatory context which is also most similar to that suggested for preparing students ‘experientially’ for reading the poem ‘Neighbours’. But approaches 1-3 locate the poem more directly in relation to its historical background.
在這四個切入點中，第四點最直接，也可能最貼近多數學生的自身經驗。這種準備情境與為《鄰居》一詩所做的「體驗式」閱讀準備最為相似。但方法 1 至 3 更能直接將這首詩定位在其歷史背景中。

2.5
Relating prereading activities to text
2.5 預讀活動與文本的關聯

Pre-reading activities of the kind we have discussed above should be coherent as activities and consistent with one another. But they are not designed to be self-contained. Their purpose is to direct attention to a text. The pyramid discussion activities and preparatory questions examined in 2.4 were principally selected in order to sensitise students to ideas and themes embodied in the two texts and to encourage students to relate them to their own experience. In the case of ‘Futility’ for example, the attitude of the narrator in the poem is significant. Here questions are raised not simply about the death of an individual soldier; the questions concern a perceived universal futility, a pointlessness in everything. This is especially marked in the second stanza and in the three questions which conclude the poem but to which no answers are given or appear to be available.
我們前面討論的這類預讀活動應該作為連貫的活動，並且彼此保持一致。但它們並非設計為獨立存在，其目的是引導注意力指向文本。2.4 節中探討的金字塔討論活動和準備性問題，主要是為了讓學生對兩篇文本所體現的思想和主題產生敏感度，並鼓勵學生將其與自身經驗相聯繫。以〈徒勞〉這首詩為例，敘述者的態度就非常重要。這裡提出的問題不僅僅是關於一名士兵的死亡；這些問題涉及一種被感知的普遍徒勞感，一種萬事皆無意義的狀態。這一點在第二節詩中特別明顯，尤其是結尾三個沒有給出答案、也似乎無解的問題。

Of course, not all pre-reading activities need to be related to theme. They can reinforce perceptions of language and style, the particular point of view from which a text is written or the cultural factors embedded in the text. In the case of cultural factors there may be particular difficulties which pre-reading activities can ease. For example, different conditions and perceptions of neighbourliness obtain in different countries and cultures. The attitudes explored in Wright’s poem may be markedly British and may need demystifying by preliminary statements about the British character or by contrasting photographs of different kinds of proximity in different types of housing in Britain and other countries. More basically, pre-reading activities for ‘Futility’ could be oriented to the winter setting of the poem, the weakness of the sun at that time of the year as well as the appropriate symbolic connotations of winter with death, or of ‘sleep’ with death, which may not be shared intercultural associations.
當然，並非所有的預讀活動都必須與主題相關。它們可以強化對語言和風格的感知、文本寫作的特定觀點，或是文本中蘊含的文化因素。就文化因素而言，可能存在某些特殊困難，而預讀活動能幫助緩解這些問題。例如，不同國家和文化對於鄰里關係的條件與認知各有差異。萊特詩中所探討的態度可能具有鮮明的英國特色，或許需要透過對英國性格的初步說明，或是對比英國與其他國家不同類型住宅中鄰近關係的照片來加以闡釋。更基礎地說，針對〈徒勞〉這首詩的預讀活動，可以聚焦於詩中的冬季背景、該季節陽光的微弱，以及冬季與死亡、「睡眠」與死亡之間可能並非跨文化共通的象徵意涵。

In a related way connections can and should be established with follow-up reading which students might undertake. For example, Robert Frost’s poem ‘Mending Wall’ (which contains the line ‘good fences make good neighbours’) would make an interesting point of extension from Kit Wright’s ‘Neighbours’.
同樣地，我們可以且應該建立與學生後續閱讀的連結。例如，羅伯特·佛洛斯特的詩作〈修牆〉（其中包含「好籬笆造就好鄰居」這句詩）可以作為基特·萊特〈鄰居〉的有趣延伸點。

There are many ways in which individual experiences can be utilised by teachers for reading literary works though the process does not, of course, apply to all texts. Some texts represent the world in such a way that it is difficult to find appropriate links between the reader’s experience and the writer’s
教師可以透過多種方式運用學生的個人經驗來閱讀文學作品，當然這個過程並不適用於所有文本。有些文本呈現世界的方式，使得讀者經驗與作者意圖之間難以找到適當的連結。

representation. (For example, Kafka's The Metamorphosis (above), or the
再現。（例如，卡夫卡的《變形記》（如上所述），或

kinds of supernatural events which occur in folk tales or in some children’s stories.) Some literary texts deal with abstract and philosophical issues which students may not have encountered; or they may raise political issues which it is difficult to experience, even imaginatively. (For example, imprisonment in a Soviet labour camp.)
民間故事或某些兒童故事中出現的超自然事件。）有些文學作品探討學生可能未曾接觸的抽象哲學議題；或是觸及難以親身體驗（甚至想像）的政治議題。（例如：蘇聯勞改營的囚禁生活。）

The above points lead on to questions other than how to prepare students for reading a particular text. For example, one question is that of the criteria teachers should use when selecting texts for their students). Questioning strategies are discussed in more detail in sections 3.1-3.4. However, the basic point we want to make in this introductory chapter is this:
上述觀點引出了除了如何為學生準備閱讀特定文本之外的其他問題。例如，其中一個問題是教師在為學生選擇文本時應使用的標準（詳見 3.1-3.4 節對提問策略的討論）。然而，我們在本章導論中要強調的基本要點是：
Students need to be prepared for reading a literary text. The initial preparation should be as concrete and specific as possible. Teachers should try, where possible, to help students to use their own actual experiences.
學生需要為閱讀文學文本做好準備。初始準備應盡可能具體明確。教師應盡可能幫助學生運用自身實際經驗。

2.6
Teacher-centred literature classes
2.6 以教師為中心的文學課堂

In many parts of the world the teaching of literature has traditionally been a teacher-centred process. By this we mean that much of the classroom time is taken up by the teacher talking to the learners. At its best this process has worked well, because clearly no learners received all their literature in this fashion. It probably stimulated pupils to go and read more widely, and subsequently develop their own judgements and opinions from the initial stimulus of the wise and learned teacher. Of course, at the opposite extreme, there must indeed have been teachers who created a real aversion to literature among learners who might otherwise have enjoyed it, even if not as an academic subject. This was not necessarily because the teachers themselves were without knowledge of their subject. The two most likely faults were a dreary manner of presentation, and a selection of texts, whether externally imposed or not, which failed to arouse the interest and motivation of the students.
在世界許多地方，文學教學傳統上都是以教師為中心的過程。這意味著課堂上大部分時間都是由教師向學生講授。在最佳情況下，這種方式運作良好，因為顯然沒有學生完全以這種方式接觸文學。這種方式很可能激發學生去更廣泛地閱讀，並從博學教師的初始啟發中發展出自己的判斷和觀點。當然，在另一個極端，肯定也存在一些教師讓原本可能喜歡文學（即使不是作為學科）的學生對文學產生真正的厭惡。這未必是因為教師本身缺乏學科知識。最可能的兩個缺點是枯燥的呈現方式，以及無論是否由外部強加的文本選擇，都未能激發學生的興趣和動機。

2.6.1
Classroom presentation of literature
2.6.1 文學的課堂呈現

You may have noticed in the last paragraph that we used the phrase ‘manner of presentation’. This was a deliberate attempt to avoid the words ‘method’ and ‘methodology’, which have acquired very specific meaning in the teaching of English as a foreign language. There are, clearly, many important links between the teaching of the language and the teaching of literature but the assumed orthodoxy of language teaching methodology is not one of them. The greater the invention and enthusiasm of the literature teacher, the greater the likelihood that learners will like, or come to like, the literary text which has been presented, and from there proceed to look at further texts and teach themselves to like them too.
你可能已經注意到上一段我們使用了「呈現方式」這個詞組。這是刻意避免使用「方法」和「方法論」這兩個詞，因為在英語作為外語的教學中，這些詞已具有非常特定的含義。顯然，語言教學與文學教學之間存在許多重要聯繫，但語言教學方法論的既定正統性並不在其中。文學教師的創造力與熱情越充沛，學習者就越有可能喜歡或逐漸喜歡所呈現的文學文本，進而繼續探索更多文本，並學會自主欣賞它們。

In the teaching of literature the infectious enthusiasm of a teacher can be crucial. We can enthuse about a literary text in a way few other subject teachers have an opportunity to do. (The teacher of engineering may enthuse about an engine/bridge, etc., the archaeologist about a ‘dig’, the chemist about an original experiment, but none of these is likely to be presented in the classroom as part of their normal and everyday material.)
在文學教學中，教師那種富有感染力的熱情至關重要。我們能以其他學科教師鮮有機會做到的方式來激發對文學文本的熱情。（工程學教師可能對引擎/橋梁等充滿熱情，考古學家對「挖掘現場」興致勃勃，化學家則對原創實驗津津樂道，但這些都不太可能作為日常教學材料在課堂上呈現。）

The other issue is the selection of texts, which is a complex and difficult topic, to be addressed further in 7.1. One obvious difficulty here is that decision-taking is not always the province of the teacher. The selection has probably been determined by a higher authority, often regardless of its suitability for the learners themselves, and reflects a taste, or preference, which might be quite inappropriate to either the language competence or the literary sophistication of the learners. This is why the phrase ‘set texts’ has come to have sinister overtones, and also explains, in part, the lines above where we said that the teaching of literature had not been a very student-centred process.
另一個問題是文本的選擇，這是一個複雜且困難的議題，將在 7.1 節進一步討論。這裡一個明顯的困難在於，決策權並非總是掌握在教師手中。文本選擇很可能已由更高層級決定，往往不考慮其對學習者本身的適切性，而反映了某種品味或偏好，這可能與學習者的語言能力或文學素養完全不相符。這就是為什麼「指定文本」這個詞帶有負面意涵，也部分解釋了我們前文所說「文學教學一直不是一個以學生為中心的過程」的原因。
2.6.2

Developing 發展中
learner response 學習者反應

A common variation of the teacher-centred literature class involves the teacher in ‘working through’ the text, and asking a long series of questions, usually related to the meanings of words or phrases, the incidence of metaphors, etc., or even slightly higher order questions of the type ‘Why does (a character) do/ say that?’ This is almost certainly a common process in the literature classroom, and is perhaps broadly associated with ‘explaining’ the text. At first sight the process may be quite unobjectionable. It is clearly some way removed from a lecture and there is a dialogue of sorts between the teacher and the learners. However, there are dangers.
以教師為中心的文學課堂中，常見的一種變體是教師「逐段解析」文本，並提出一連串問題，這些問題通常涉及字詞或片語的意義、隱喻的出現等，甚至會提出稍高階的問題，例如「（某角色）為什麼要這樣做／說？」這幾乎可以肯定是文學課堂中的普遍過程，或許大致上與「解釋」文本相關。乍看之下，這個過程可能相當無可厚非。它顯然與講課有些不同，並且在教師與學習者之間存在某種對話。然而，這其中也存在風險。

The first of these is that the process constantly focuses on the small unit, the discrete point; at its worst the class spends a lot of time worrying or agonising about a single word which may have no great significance in an appreciation of the whole work. Secondly, it can become as teacher-centred as the lecture; all decision-taking is in the hands of the teacher, and the questioning seldom relates the text to the learners’ wider experience outside the classroom. Thirdly, if such a process is the regular, or frequent mode of presentation it seems designed rather for what we might call the ‘short-term pay-off’ than the longer term growth of the literary text as a ‘treasured object’. In short, language learners, expect a pay-off from what they are learning; they hope to be able to put it to use in the short term, and learn better if they see this as a prospect. No such pay-off is likely or possible in the literature class. It is better perhaps that the text should ‘stay with the learners’ for a long period, and that they remember it as one of their favourite poems, plays or novels. The teacher for whom the text is also a favourite will be aiming for a sharing of interest, with possible additional long-term benefits in words acquired, and language skills. This seldom happens instantly. Over-detailed explanation in the interests of an instant pay-off may obscure the more lengthy process by which a hard-earned text is remembered and enjoyed well after the learner has finished his or her literature classes.
首先，這種過程持續聚焦於小單位、個別點；最糟的情況下，課堂會花費大量時間糾結於單一字詞，而這個字詞對整體作品的欣賞可能無關緊要。其次，它可能變得像講課一樣以教師為中心；所有決策權都掌握在教師手中，且提問很少將文本與學習者在課堂外的廣泛經驗連結起來。第三，如果這種過程成為常規或頻繁的呈現模式，它似乎更適合我們所謂的「短期回報」，而非將文學文本作為「珍貴物件」的長期成長。簡言之，語言學習者期望從所學中獲得回報；他們希望能在短期內加以運用，若能看到這種前景，會學得更好。但在文學課堂中，這種回報不太可能實現。或許更好的情況是，文本應長期「伴隨學習者」，讓他們記住這是最喜愛的詩歌、戲劇或小說之一。對於同樣喜愛文本的教師來說，他們會致力於分享興趣，並可能帶來額外的長期效益，例如詞彙的累積和語言技能的提升。這種效果很少能立即見效。過於詳細的解釋雖然追求即時回報，卻可能掩蓋了更為漫長的過程——在學生結束文學課程後，那些經過努力理解的文本仍能被記住並享受其中。

2.7

Student-centred literature classes
以學生為中心的文學課堂

2.7.1

Engaging with the text
與文本互動

Teacher-centred literature classes imply, at least, that learners are allowed too little opportunity to formulate their own feelings about a literary text and that too much of the formulation comes directly from the teacher, who also does most of the talking. We should not assume from this that in student-centred literature classes the teacher is phased out, and the learners do most of the talking. A student-centred literature class is one which allows more exploration of the literary text by the learners and invites learners to develop their own
以教師為中心的文學課堂至少意味著，學生很少有機會形成自己對文學文本的感受，而太多感受直接來自教師，且主要由教師講述。我們不應因此認為，在以學生為中心的文學課堂中，教師的角色被淡化，而主要由學生發言。以學生為中心的文學課堂是讓學生更多探索文學文本，並鼓勵他們發展自己的
responses and sensitivities. It leads learners to make their own judgements and to refine and develop their techniques for doing this so that they can apply them to a wider range of texts for their own benefit. This means, first and foremost, a careful and preferably uninterrupted reading. Learners submit their individual or collective judgements for approval either to their peers or to the teacher. But, first of all, the learners must be very clear about what they have to do, and a large part of this book is devoted to this topic.
回應與敏感度。這引導學習者做出自己的判斷，並精進與發展相關技巧，使他們能將這些技巧應用於更廣泛的文本，從中獲益。這意味著首先且最重要的是進行仔細且最好是不間斷的閱讀。學習者將個人或集體的判斷提交給同儕或教師認可。但首先，學習者必須非常清楚自己需要做什麼，而本書大部分內容都致力於這個主題。

The big difference here, of course, is that learners have been able to make judgements in the first place instead of merely accepting the judgements of the teacher. This in no way implies that any viewpoint presented by the teacher is wrong. But there is always a danger that a viewpoint (or judgement) presented by an authority becomes more important than the text itself. If learners develop their own viewpoints then they must most certainly have read the text, and the reading should have been in itself a literary experience.
當然，這裡最大的差異在於學習者能夠首先做出判斷，而不僅僅是接受教師的判斷。這絕不意味著教師提出的任何觀點是錯誤的。但總存在一種危險，即權威提出的觀點（或判斷）變得比文本本身更重要。如果學習者發展出自己的觀點，那麼他們肯定必須閱讀過文本，而這種閱讀本身應該是一種文學體驗。

2.7.2

Finding your way into poetry
探索詩歌之道

The teacher is by no means superceded. She or he will have set up the process, and possibly indicate features to look for or to note, and ‘teaching’ will continue to be necessary to develop procedures for exploring texts more thoroughly. An example might be useful at this point. In 1987 Inspectors of Schools in England issued a report which criticised the present ‘superficial’ approach to poetry teaching and urged that pupils should be encouraged to ‘read and experience’ poetry for themselves. This, of course, was for native speakers, but the concern of the inspectors was with the ‘approach’ or mode of presentation. This was reported in the press item quoted as follows:
教師的角色絕非可有可無。他或她必須建立教學流程，可能還需指出值得注意的文本特徵，而為了發展更深入探索文本的方法，「教學」仍是不可或缺的。此時舉個例子或許有所助益。1987 年，英格蘭的學校督學發布一份報告，批評當時「流於表面」的詩歌教學方式，並呼籲應鼓勵學生自行「閱讀與體驗」詩歌。當然，這是針對母語學習者，但督學們關注的是「教學方法」或呈現模式。以下摘錄當時媒體對此的報導：

Schools, the inspectors say, should be encouraging children to explore their own ‘feel’ for poems. Instead, there is a continual effort to fill them with paraphrasable chunks that are intended to help them pass exams. Too many school libraries are crammed with exam-orientated ‘crib’ booklets. What children need is a good range of anthologies that they can discover and peruse independently.
督學們表示，學校應鼓勵孩子探索自己對詩歌的「感受」。然而現狀卻是持續灌輸他們可被改寫的片段內容，目的只是幫助他們通過考試。太多學校圖書館塞滿了應試導向的「速成」手冊。孩子們真正需要的，是能讓他們自主探索與細讀的優質詩選集。
Poetry can be revived, the inspectors say, and they spell out how: abolish rote-learning of selected stanzas; bring in group discussion. They cite the discussion (see below) of a Ted Hughes poem, ‘The Warm and The Cold’, between 13- and 14-year-olds at an Oxfordshire school as an example of how it should be done. The pupils start by interpreting a phrase in the third stanza . . .
監察員們表示，詩歌教學可以重獲新生，並具體說明方法：廢除死記硬背特定詩節的教學方式，引入小組討論。他們以牛津郡一所學校 13 至 14 歲學生討論泰德·休斯詩作《溫暖與寒冷》的過程（見下文）為範例，展示應如何進行。學生們從解讀第三節中的一個短語開始......

THE POEM 詩作原文

THE DISCUSSION 討論過程

Freezing dusk is closing  暮色漸沉寒意逼人
Like a slow trap of steel
如同鋼鐵的緩慢陷阱
On trees and roads and hills and all
在樹木、道路、山丘與一切
That can no longer feel.
已無法感受的事物上。
But the carp is in its depth Like a planet in its heaven.
但鯉魚潛於深處，猶如行星居於天際。
And the badger in its bedding
而那獾在牠的窩裡
Like a loaf in the oven.
像爐中的一條麵包。
And the butterfly in its mummy
而那蝴蝶在牠的繭中
Like a viol in its case.
像琴盒裡的一把提琴。
And the owl in its feathers
貓頭鷹披著羽毛
Like a doll in its lace.
如同洋娃娃穿著蕾絲
Freezing dusk has tightened
凜冽的暮色緊縮
Like a nut screwed tight
像顆擰緊的堅果
On the starry aeroplane Of the soaring night.
在繁星點點的夜空中翱翔的飛機上
But the trout is in its hole
但鱒魚仍藏身於洞穴
Like a chuckle in a sleeper.
如同睡夢中的輕笑
The hare strays down the highway
野兔沿著公路漫遊
Like a root going deeper.
如同根鬚往深處延伸
The snail is dry in the outhouse
蝸牛在戶外廁所裡乾枯
Like a seed in a sunflower.
猶如向日葵中的種子
The owl is pale on the gatepost
貓頭鷹在門柱上顯得蒼白
Like a clock on its tower.
宛如高塔上的時鐘
Moonlight freezes the shaggy world
月光凝結了這片蓬亂的世界
Like a mammoth of ice -
如同一頭冰封的猛獁象
The past and the future
過去與未來
Are the jaws of a steel vice.
鋼鐵虎鉗的鉗口
But the cod is in the tide-rip
但鱈魚仍在潮汐激流中
Like a key in a purse.
如同錢包中的鑰匙
The deer are on the bare-blown hill
鹿群佇立在光禿禿的山丘上
Like smiles on a nurse.
如同護士臉上的微笑
The flies are behind the plaster
蒼蠅躲在灰泥後方
Like the lost score of a jig.
彷彿遺失的吉格舞曲樂譜
Sparrows are in the ivy-clump
麻雀藏身於常春藤叢中
Like money in a pig.
像豬撲滿裡的錢
Such a frost  如此嚴寒
The flimsy moon  那脆弱的月亮
Has lost her wits.
已失去理智
A star falls.  一顆星星墜落。
The sweating farmers  汗流浹背的農夫們
Turn in their sleep
在睡夢中翻身
Like oxen on spits.
像烤叉上的牛隻。

Graham: So the lost score, the score is what it’s written on - it’s the music.
葛拉罕：所以遺失的樂譜，就是寫在上面的東西——那就是音樂。

Zoe: So they lost it, nobody knows what it is.
柔伊：所以他們弄丟了，沒人知道那是什麼。

Tom: Eh? 湯姆：呃？
Nick: Everything’s coming to an end at the end of the day.
尼克：說到底，所有事情終究會結束。
Tom: Oh yes sort of -
湯姆：對啊，有點像是——
Nick: Everything’s sort of slowing down till it stops.
尼克：一切都在慢慢減速，直到完全停止。
Tom: Yeah! 湯姆：沒錯！
Graham: The day, the day’s sort of a dance.
葛拉罕：這一天，這一天有點像在跳舞。

Tom: and dusk’s the last bit of it.
湯姆：而黃昏是它的最後一抹。
Graham: ‘The deer on the . . .’ What about ‘the deer on the bareblown hill/like smiles on a nurse’?
葛瑞漢：「山坡上的鹿……」改成「光禿山坡上的鹿／像護士臉上的微笑」如何？

Zoe: I don’t get that.
柔伊：我不懂這句的意思。
Graham: No, it doesn’t seem like all this. The others kind of relate - the cod, and the key in the purse, kind of relate more than ‘the deer on . . .’.
葛瑞漢：是啊，感覺跟其他部分不太搭。其他意象還算有關聯——鱈魚、錢包裡的鑰匙，這些都比「山坡上的鹿……」更有關聯性。

Tom: Yeah, What is . . . I mean it’s got fish in all three here - ‘the carp’s in its depth/like a planet in its heaven’ then ‘the trout’s in its hole/like a chuckle in a sleeper’ . . . erm, and ‘the cod’s in the tide-rip/like a key in a purse’. It must all relate somehow.
湯姆：對啊，這是...我是說這三句都有提到魚——「鯉魚在深處/如同行星在其天際」，然後「鱒魚在洞中/如同睡夢中的輕笑」...呃，還有「鱈魚在潮湧中/如同錢包裡的鑰匙」。這些肯定都有關聯。

Graham: The first verse is always fish.
葛拉漢：第一段總是在講魚。

Tom: You know, the first bit of it.
湯姆：你知道的，就是開頭那部分。
Graham: Yes, the first line, up here you’ve got the first four lines then you’ve got fish.
葛拉漢：沒錯，第一行，你看這裡前四行，然後就提到魚了。
Zoe: The last one’s always - a bird.
柔伊：最後一個總是——一隻鳥。

Tom: Yeah, and then you’ve got . . .
湯姆：對啊，然後你就會看到...

Zoe: Badger and all the mammals.
柔伊：獾和所有的哺乳動物。

Tom: Yeah and you’ve got a lot about steel in there as well - ‘the slow trap of steel’ . . . erm You got badger ‘jaws of a steel vice’.
湯姆：沒錯，而且裡面還有很多關於鋼鐵的描述——「鋼鐵的緩慢陷阱」...呃，還有獾「鋼鐵虎鉗般的下顎」。
Graham: Badger.  格雷厄姆：獾。
Zoe: Hare.  柔伊：野兔。
Lucy: and deer.  露西：還有鹿。
Tom: We’re paying a lot of attention to what he’s said.
湯姆：我們非常關注他所說的話。
Nick: and music as well. (Inaudible) . . . things 'cos you’ve got a clock in its tower -
尼克：還有音樂也是。（聽不清楚）...因為鐘樓上有個時鐘——

Graham: It’s all natural.
葛拉罕：這都很自然。
Nick: - and sparrows in the key clump.
尼克：——還有麻雀在鍵盤上跳來跳去。
Tom: Yeah, what about.
湯姆：對啊，那又怎樣。
Nick: - then it’s got ‘doll in its lace’.
尼克：—然後還有「蕾絲中的娃娃」。

Zoe: It’s sort of all relating.
柔伊：這些都有某種關聯性。
Tom: Yeah and music as well ‘like a viol in its case’ . . . erm -
湯姆：對啊還有音樂也是「像琴匣裡的小提琴」...呃—
Graham: It all matches as if -
葛拉罕：這一切都相互呼應，就像—
Tom: and . . . erm - ‘lost score of a jig’.
湯姆：還有...呃—「吉格舞曲的失落樂譜」。
Graham: Apart from the flies behind the plaster, that sounds quite different.
葛拉罕：除了灰泥後面的蒼蠅，聽起來完全不一樣。

Tom: Yeah, I can’t understand that.
湯姆：對啊，我搞不懂這句。

Zoe: and the smiles on the nurse, I don’t understand.
柔伊：還有護士臉上的笑容，我也不明白。

Graham: ‘The flies are behind the plaster’ is different, the rest of them are -
葛拉罕：「蒼蠅躲在灰泥後面」這句不一樣，其他都是──

Tom: Yeah, I don’t understand things like ‘The deer on the bare blown hill/like smiles on a nurse’. I mean what are they?
湯姆：對啊，我搞不懂像「光禿山丘上的鹿／像護士臉上的微笑」這種句子。這到底是什麼意思？
(from a report in the Daily Telegraph, March 17th 1987)
（摘自 1987 年 3 月 17 日《每日電訊報》報導）

2.7.3 In spite of the difference in situation for most readers of this book, this report is
The role of the teacher of great interest for 'student-centred literature classes'. It will be observed at once that the four speakers are unsophisticated students of literature, and that all they succeed in doing is imposing some elementary order on a poem in which a large number of apparently heterogenous items are arbitrarily linked together. In this, they are relatively successful. This suggests some possible first principles for the student-centred literature class: it is exploratory, it is simple, it is text-based, and it uses a limited range of technical terms. These principles should remain the same for classes with non-native speakers.
The second point about the above discussion is that it is largely unstructured. It need not be so and many parts of this book are devoted to suggesting frames, some easy and some more complex, within which learners can 'discuss' and so avoid any silences caused by the open endedness of the task or the limitation of the learners' language competence. But the pupils here do not require any supporting structure at this stage.
Thirdly, the learning is entrusted largely to the learners themselves. The teacher has to decide on the process which is most appropriate to making the text more accessible and the teacher will certainly not try to impose his or her own interpretation of the text on the learners as being 'correct'. It is the responsibility of the teacher however, to ensure that the interpretations, which are produced, are valid.
We are not providing a recipe for removing the teacher from the classroom. Things do not always develop in the ways illustrated in the above report, and, in order to underline basic points of principle, we are conscious of begging some questions. For example, there are times where technical terms are helpful and enabling. Later in the book there is discussion of how limited a critical metalanguage can or should be in classroom explorations of literature and in teaching literature for examinations. There are also times when a teacher needs to intervene in a group discussion to provide further prompts and further stimulus. (These questions are also examined further in sections 3.13.4.)
2.7.3 儘管本書多數讀者所處情境不同，這份報告對於「以學生為中心的文學課堂」具有極大參考價值。我們可以立即注意到，這四位發言者都是文學領域的初學者，他們僅能對一首詩作進行基礎層面的解讀——這首詩中大量看似不相關的元素被隨意串聯在一起。就這點而言，他們的表現已屬難能可貴。這為以學生為中心的文學課堂揭示了若干基本原則：探索性、簡明性、文本本位性，以及有限專業術語的使用。這些原則對於非母語學習者的課堂同樣適用。上述討論的第二個特點在於其高度非結構化。這種情況並非必然，本書許多章節都致力於提供討論框架（有些簡單、有些較複雜），讓學習者能在既定架構中「討論」，從而避免因任務開放性或語言能力限制導致的冷場。但此處的學員在此階段並不需要任何輔助架構。第三，學習過程主要交由學習者自行負責。教師必須決定最適合讓文本更易理解的教學流程，且絕不會試圖將自己對文本的詮釋強加於學生，宣稱這是「正確答案」。然而，教師有責任確保學生產生的解讀具有合理性。我們並非提倡將教師從課堂中抽離的教學公式。實際教學情況未必會如前述報告案例般發展，為強調基本原則，我們刻意保留某些問題未深入探討。例如，專業術語在某些情境下確實能發揮輔助功效。本書後續章節將探討：在文學課堂探索及應試文學教學中，批判性後設語言的使用範疇該如何界定。此外，當小組討論陷入停滯時，教師亦需適時介入，提供更多引導與啟發。（這些議題將於 3.13.4 節進一步剖析）

2.7.4

The teacher, the student and the text: some preliminary conclusions
教師、學生與文本：一些初步結論

The discussion so far has pointed to differences between teacher-centred and student-centred approaches to teaching literary texts. We should remind ourselves, of course, that although the approaches are different, they are not mutually exclusive. There is a continuum between the poles which allows for a mixing of approaches. Similarly, even so-called student-centred classes require the active involvement of the teacher. We need to remember also that the acceptability of teacher-centred and student-centred presentation of literature varies from one culture to another. In some countries, for example, teachers and students may feel that the teacher loses respect and authority if studentcentred teaching becomes a norm. Most important of all, such methods of presentation have to be related to the purposes of the literature classes. As noted above, the short-term needs of passing examinations which may require knowledge about literature in the form of facts, dates, or an ability to name literary tropes, may have to conflict with a longer-term pay-off for students in the form of personal engagement with literature and a lasting enjoyment in reading and interpreting for oneself. Of course, some examinations can involve
到目前為止的討論已指出以教師為中心與以學生為中心的文學文本教學方法之間的差異。當然我們必須提醒自己，雖然這些方法有所不同，但它們並非互相排斥。在兩個極端之間存在著連續性，允許方法的混合運用。同樣地，即使是所謂以學生為中心的課堂，也需要教師的積極參與。我們還需記住，以教師為中心或以學生為中心呈現文學的方式，在不同文化中的接受度也有所不同。例如在某些國家，教師和學生可能會認為，若以學生為中心的教學成為常態，教師將失去尊重與權威。最重要的是，這些呈現方法必須與文學課程的目的相關聯。如前所述，為通過考試所需的短期需求——可能要求以事實、日期等形式掌握文學知識，或能夠指認文學修辭——或許會與學生長期收穫產生衝突，後者體現為個人對文學的投入，以及持續享受自主閱讀與詮釋的樂趣。當然，某些考試可以同時涵蓋
both overall aims at the same time: context questions which demand knowledge about literature and more general questions which demand an overall response to a text from students. Further discussion of these issues is undertaken at 7.5.
這兩種整體目標：需要文學知識的上下文題目，以及要求學生對文本做出整體回應的較一般性問題。關於這些議題的進一步討論將在 7.5 節進行。

We need to stress the following:
我們需要強調以下幾點：
1 Teacher-centred and student-centred approaches are convenient descriptions of particular pedagogic orientations. They are not necessarily incompatible.
1. 以教師為中心和以學生為中心的教學法是對特定教學取向的便利描述，兩者未必互不相容。
2 There are occasions where such approaches should be combined; and there are cultures and situations where such combinations are necessary.
2 在某些情況下，這些教學方法應當相互結合；而在某些文化背景與教學情境中，這樣的結合更是不可或缺的。
3 We reiterate our belief, however, that student-centred approaches, appropriately controlled and monitored by the teacher, are more likely to deliver a lasting enjoyment of literature and a competence to read literature for oneself.
3 但我們仍要重申信念：在教師適當引導與監督下，以學生為中心的教學法，更能培養學生持久的文學賞析能力，使其具備獨立閱讀文學作品的素養。

4 However, in the literature class one component underlies successful engagement with the literature: this is a teacher’s enthusiasm for literature and his or her ability to convey this enthusiasm to the students and to help them respond with the same enjoyment and pleasure.
4 然而在文學課堂中，成功的文學互動有一個關鍵要素：那就是教師自身對文學的熱忱，以及將這份熱情傳遞給學生、引導他們以同等愉悅感回應作品的能力。
5 It is also important to stress that teacher-centredness should not be confused with occasional teacher intervention. There are many occasions in the literature class where the teacher needs to intervene relevantly and creatively in order to augment the students’ experience and to help them to respond appropriately to a text.
5 必須強調的是，以教師為中心不等同於偶發性的教師介入。文學課堂中常有需要教師適時且具創造性地介入的時刻，這能深化學生的學習體驗，幫助他們對文本做出恰當回應。

2.8 Experiencing language: elementary stylistics
2.8 體驗語言：基礎文體學

We have suggested that students should, where feasible and appropriate, be prepared for reading literary texts by questions or activities which put them in the right frame of mind for exploring the text. The kinds of preparation we have suggested focus on the themes of the text and aim to prepare students for further engagement with the writer’s representation of his or her subject matter.
我們建議，在可行且適當的情況下，應透過問題或活動讓學生為閱讀文學文本做好準備，使他們能以正確的心態探索文本。我們所建議的準備方式聚焦於文本主題，旨在讓學生能更深入參與作者對其主題的呈現。

However, the principle of pre-reading cannot be confined to the reading of literary texts. The principle can be applied to reading all texts, though we feel it is especially important in the case of literature.
然而，預讀原則不僅限於文學文本的閱讀。此原則可應用於所有文本的閱讀，儘管我們認為在文學作品上尤為重要。

One of the differences between literary and non-literary material lies in the way in which material is represented in literary texts. Frequently, this involves the writer deploying form and language in such a way that the reader is able to establish an organic relation between what is said and how it is said. Form and style can help to underscore or reinforce a message. A good example is the poem ‘Forty-Love’ by Roger McGough (see practical task below p. 33). Formally, the poem is divided on the page by two lines which serve to represent a tennis court, with a net dividing the court into two halves. The reader reads across either side of the net in a way parallel to the movement of a tennis ball across the net from one partner to another. A kind of tennis dialogue is established which is reinforced linguistically by the poem’s title which belongs to the register of scoring in tennis; this is also a pun on the words ‘love’ and ’ 40 ’ (middle age), love in middle age being the specific subject matter represented in the poem.
文學與非文學素材的差異之一，在於文學作品中素材的呈現方式。作家經常透過形式與語言的巧妙運用，讓讀者能在所述內容與表達形式之間建立有機連結。形式與風格往往能強化或凸顯訊息，羅傑·麥高夫（Roger McGough）的詩作〈四十之愛〉（參見第 33 頁實作練習）便是絕佳範例。該詩在頁面上以兩條線分割，象徵網球場的球網將場地一分為二。讀者閱讀時視線需如網球般在球網兩側來回移動，形成一種網球對話的意象。這種效果更透過詩名獲得語言層面的強化——「四十之愛」採用網球計分術語（forty-love），同時巧妙雙關「愛」與「四十」（中年）字義，精準呼應詩中探討的中年愛情主題。

This approach does not exclude taking canonical lines from English literature and discussing how they create particular metaphoric or musical effects: ‘The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune’ (Shakespeare: Hamlet) and ‘Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness’ (Keats: ‘Ode to Autumn’) are now well-known lines. The former line sets up an analogy between being attacked by weapons and being pursued by considerable misfortune. The second line aims to produce a feeling of autumn in the long, slow and replete movement of the line. The latter example also demonstrates that the relation between language and experience is necessarily a close one; for the experience of the language here may be difficult for, say, a student in Singapore who may not have experienced an English autumn. The line may have a verbal impact, but it may not have a simultaneous experiential impact.
這種方法並不排除從英國文學中擷取經典詩句，並討論它們如何創造特定的隱喻或音樂效果：「命運暴虐的毒箭」（莎士比亞：《哈姆雷特》）與「霧靄氤氳的豐饒時節」（濟慈：《秋頌》）如今已是耳熟能詳的詩句。前者將遭受武器攻擊與被巨大不幸追擊之間建立了類比關係；後者則透過詩行悠長緩慢而飽滿的節奏，試圖營造出秋天的氛圍。後一例證同時也說明了語言與經驗之間必然存在緊密聯繫——因為此處的語言體驗對於（比方說）未曾經歷過英國秋季的新加坡學生而言可能難以共鳴。詩句或許能產生文字衝擊，卻未必能同步引發經驗層面的共鳴。

The discussion here is of what we might term ‘elementary stylistics’. However, it would be a mistake to assume that the practice is valuable only in relation to canonical literary texts. Advertisements, jokes and puns are a rich source for analysis of properties of language use which are literary in character. Such exploration lays an important foundation for subsequent appreciation of how language works for literary purposes and of how language serves to overlay and reinforce a particular message. Here are some well-known examples which, we suggest, might make rich starting points for this elementary work in promoting fuller language awareness and interpretation. Such activity, we should note, also helps to develop initial interpretive skills.
這裡討論的是我們可稱之為「基礎文體學」的內容。然而，若認為這種實踐僅適用於經典文學文本，那就錯了。廣告、笑話和雙關語都是分析語言使用特性的豐富素材，這些特性往往具有文學特質。此類探索為後續理解語言如何實現文學目的、以及語言如何疊加與強化特定訊息奠定了重要基礎。我們建議以下這些廣為人知的範例，或許能成為開展這項基礎工作的絕佳起點，以促進更全面的語言意識與詮釋能力。值得注意的是，這類活動也有助於培養初步的詮釋技巧。

1 Advertisements for British Food Marketing Boards 1 英國食品行銷委員會廣告
Drinka pinta milka day 每日一品脫牛奶	- visual and sound patterns reinforce message - 視覺與聲音模式強化訊息
Go to work on an egg 吃顆蛋，精神飽滿上工去	- double meaning: eat an egg heartily; start work having had an egg for breakfast - 雙關語：盡情享用一顆蛋；吃顆蛋當早餐後開始工作
Say cheese - and smile! 說「起司」－笑一個！	- 'Say cheese' is frequently said to people whose photograph is being taken so that they look 'smiling'; this suggests cheese is enjoyable - 拍照時常會對被拍的人說「說起司」，讓他們看起來像在「微笑」；這暗示起司是令人愉悅的
2 General advertisements 2 一般廣告
Thai Airlines - Smooth as Silk 泰國航空 - 如絲般順滑
	- a 'smooth' flight; 'smooth' organisation; silk is a world-renowned product of Thailand - 「順滑」的飛行體驗；「順滑」的服務安排；絲綢是泰國舉世聞名的產品
3 Jokes 3 笑話
a) Waiter Jokes a) 服務生笑話
How long will the pizza be? 這披薩會有多長？	- play on the word 'long' - 雙關語「long」這個字
We don't do long ones, Sir, only round. 先生，我們不做長形的，只做圓的。
b) Book jokes b) 書籍笑話
At the North Pole 在北極	by I.C. 作者：I.C.
The Unknown Author by Ann Onymous 《無名氏》作者：安·歐尼莫斯
There are many more variants . . . . . . . 還有更多變體......

Readers might like now to re-read the poem ‘Futility’ and select two lines which might be used to develop linguistic sensitivity prior to or during a classroom exploration of the poem. Would you select the following?
讀者現在不妨重新閱讀〈徒勞〉這首詩，並選出兩行詩句，這些詩句可以在課堂探討這首詩之前或期間，用來培養語言敏感度。你會選擇以下這句嗎？
Was it for this the clay grew tall?
難道泥土長高就為了這個？
If so, why? If not, why not?
如果是的話，為什麼？如果不是，又為什麼不呢？
(A key word here is clay. It is polysemic, carrying reference to the earth and the human body (human clay: a biblical usage). The line fuses a sense of the universal and individual futility which the poem conveys.)
（此處的關鍵詞是「黏土」。它具有多義性，既指涉大地也隱喻人體（人類的黏土：聖經用法）。這行詩句融合了詩作所傳達的普遍性與個體徒勞感。）

Unlike a car owner’s service manual or a weather forecast, the formal and linguistic organisation of literary texts is regularly polysemic rather than monosemic. It generates more than one meaning; part of the pleasure a reader derives from reading a literary text lies in activating these multiple meanings. We believe that students need to be prepared linguistically for reading literature. We also believe this is especially so in the case of reading literature in a second or foreign language. This topic of the methods and the procedures of literary stylistics is discussed further at 6.4. where its application at more advanced levels is explored.
不同於車主保養手冊或天氣預報，文學文本的形式與語言結構通常具有多義性而非單一意義。它能產生多重解讀；讀者從文學作品中獲得的樂趣，部分正來自於激活這些多元詮釋。我們認為學生需要具備語言學基礎來閱讀文學作品。特別是以第二語言或外語閱讀文學時，這點更顯重要。關於文學文體學的方法與程序，將在 6.4 節進一步探討，該部分會深入解析其在進階層面的應用。

2.9 Conclusion 2.9 結論

Throughout this chapter we have underlined that effective, and confident reading of literature is closely connected with a reader’s ability to relate a text to his or her own experience. We have also stressed that approaches to literary texts, whether to individual lines or groups of words or to whole texts, should lead to greater involvement with and access to literary texts. We have suggested that this can be best effected by students engaging in activity-centred reading. A further point of emphasis has been that working with the language of a literary text is necessary for effective reading and for developing skills of interpretation and sensitivity to literary effects. Above all, however, we have tried to underline that a focus on language should be integrated with a focus on the student’s experience and that the various pre- and post-reading activities need to be integrated with a student-centred development of response to a text. Such integration is unlikely to occur and the experiences of most students are unlikely to be engaged if the literature class is a wholly teacher-centred one.
在本章中，我們不斷強調，有效且自信的文學閱讀與讀者能否將文本與自身經驗相連結密切相關。我們也著重指出，無論是針對單行詩句、詞組或完整文本的文學分析方法，都應能讓讀者更深入參與並更容易理解文學作品。我們認為，透過以活動為中心的閱讀方式最能達成此目標。另一個重點是，要有效閱讀文學並培養詮釋技巧與對文學效果的敏感度，必須深入處理文學文本的語言。然而最重要的是，我們試圖強調語言分析應與學生的個人經驗相結合，且各種閱讀前後活動都需整合到以學生為中心的文本回應發展中。若文學課堂完全以教師為中心，這樣的整合將難以實現，多數學生的經驗也難以被觸動。

2.10

Practical tasks and points for discussion
實務任務與討論要點

1 Make up a series of statements for a pyramid discussion which prepares your students for reading the following text. Ask a colleague to do the same and then compare your statements. Justify your respective choices to each other.
1 設計一系列金字塔式討論的陳述句，為學生閱讀以下文本做準備。請一位同事也這樣做，然後比較你們的陳述。互相說明各自選擇的理由。
When you have completed this task, you may like to compare your statements with those suggested in Chapter 5 (pp. 94-100) where the story is examined in more detail.
完成此任務後，您可能會想將您的陳述與第 5 章（第 94-100 頁）中建議的陳述進行比較，該章節對故事進行了更詳細的分析。

At Denver, a great many passengers joined the coaches on the east-bound Boston and Maine train. In one coach, there sat a very pretty young woman. She was beautifully and richly dressed. Among the new-comers were two men. The younger one was good-looking with a bold, honest face and manner. The other was a large, sad-faced person, roughly dressed. The two were handcuffed together.
在丹佛，有許多乘客登上了東行前往波士頓和緬因州的列車。在一節車廂裡，坐著一位非常漂亮的年輕女子。她衣著華麗而精緻。新上車的乘客中有兩名男子。年輕的那位相貌英俊，神情舉止大膽而坦率。另一位則是身材魁梧、面容憂鬱的男子，衣著粗陋。兩人被手銬銬在一起。

As they passed down the aisle of the coach, the only empty seat was one facing the young woman. Here the linked pair seated themselves. The woman quickly glanced at them with disinterest. Then with a lovely smile, she held out a little graygloved hand. When she spoke, her voice showed that she was used to speaking and being heard.
當他們沿著車廂走道前進時，唯一空著的座位是面對那位年輕女子的位置。這對被銬在一起的搭檔就在此坐下。女子迅速瞥了他們一眼，顯得興致缺缺。隨後她露出可愛的微笑，伸出一隻戴著灰色手套的小手。當她開口說話時，聲音顯示出她習慣於發言並被人傾聽。
“Well, Mr Easton, if you will make me speak first, I suppose I must. Don’t you ever say hello to old friends when you meet them in the West?”
「哎呀，伊斯頓先生，既然您要我先開口，那我只好恭敬不如從命了。在西部遇見老朋友，難道您連聲招呼都不打嗎？」

The younger man pulled himself up sharply at the sound of her voice. He seemed to struggle with a little embarrassment, which he threw off instantly. Then he held her fingers with his left hand.
聽見她的聲音，年輕男子猛然挺直身子。他臉上閃過一絲窘迫，但隨即恢復鎮定，伸出左手握住她的手指。
“It’s Miss Fairchild,” he said, with a smile. “Ill ask you to excuse the other hand, I’m not able to use it just at present.”
「是費爾柴爾德小姐啊，」他微笑著說，「請原諒我沒法用右手招呼您，目前這隻手暫時不太方便。」

He slightly raised his right hand, which was bound at the wrist by the shining bracelet to the left one of his partner. The happy look in the woman’s eyes slowly changed to one of puzzled horror. The glow passed from her cheeks. Easton, with a little laugh, as if amused, was about to speak again when the other stopped him. The sad-faced man had been watching the young woman’s face with his sharp, searching eyes.
他微微抬起右手，只見閃亮的手銬將他的手腕與身旁同伴的左腕鎖在一起。女子眼中的欣喜逐漸轉為困惑與驚恐，臉上的紅暈也瞬間褪去。伊斯頓輕笑一聲正欲開口，卻被同伴制止。那位面色陰鬱的男子始終用銳利目光緊盯著年輕女子神情變化。
“You’ll excuse me for speaking, miss. But I see you know the marshal here. If you’ll ask him to speak a word for me when we get to the pen, he’ll do it. It’ll make things easier for me there. He’s taking me to Leavenworth Prison. It’s seven years for counterfeiting.”
「小姐，請原諒我插話。我看您認識這位警長。等到了監獄，能否請您讓他幫我說句話？這樣我在裡頭會好過些。他正押我去利文沃斯監獄，我因偽造罪要服七年刑。」
“Oh!” she said, with a deep breath and returning color. “So that is what you are doing out here. A marshal!”
「噢！」她深吸一口氣，血色重新回到臉上。「原來你來西部是為了這個。當警長！」
“My dear Miss Fairchild,” said Easton calmly, “I had to do something. Money has a way of taking wings. You know it takes money to keep in step with our crowd in Washington. I saw this opening in the West, and . . . Well, a marshal isn’t quite as high a position as that of an ambassador, but . . .”
「親愛的費爾柴爾德小姐，」伊斯頓鎮定地說，「我總得謀個差事。錢財總像長了翅膀般溜走。您知道的，要在華盛頓的社交圈維持體面得花不少錢。我瞧見西部有這個職缺，而且⋯⋯唉，警長頭銜雖比不上大使來得風光，但⋯⋯」
“The ambassador,” she said warmly, “doesn’t call anymore. He needn’t ever have done so. You ought to know that. So now you are one of these dashing western heroes. And you ride and shoot and go into all kinds of dangers. That’s different from the Washington life. You have been missed by the old crowd.”
「那位大使，」她熱切地說，「早就不來拜訪了。他本來就不必來。你該明白的。現在你倒成了西部豪俠，騎馬開槍、出生入死的。這和華盛頓的生活可大不相同。老朋友們都很想念你呢。」

The woman’s eyes, interested, went back, widening a little, to rest upon the shiny handcuffs.
女人的眼睛帶著興趣，微微睜大，又回到那副閃亮的手銬上。
“Don’t you worry about them, miss,” said the other man. “All marshals handcuff themselves to their prisoners to keep them from getting away. Mr Easton knows his business.”
「小姐，您別擔心這個，」另一個男人說。「所有執法官都會把自己和犯人銬在一起，防止他們逃跑。伊斯頓先生很專業的。」
“Will we see you again soon in Washington?” asked Miss Fairchild.
「我們很快會在華盛頓再見到你嗎？」費爾柴爾德小姐問道。
“Not soon, I think,” said Easton. “My carefree days are over, I fear.”
「我想不會太快，」伊斯頓說。「恐怕我無憂無慮的日子已經結束了。」
“I love the West,” she said. Her eyes were shining softly. She looked away and out the train window. She began to speak truly and simply, forgetting about style and manner. “Mamma and I spent the summer in Denver. She went home a week ago because Father was ill. I could live and be happy in the West. I think the air here agrees with me. Money isn’t everything. But people always misunderstand things and remain stupid -”
「我愛西部，」她說。她的眼睛溫柔地閃爍著。她轉過頭望向火車窗外，開始真摯而樸實地說話，不再顧及言辭的修飾。「媽媽和我在丹佛度過了夏天。一週前她因父親生病先回家了。我可以在西部生活得很開心。這裡的空氣很適合我。金錢並非一切。但人們總是誤解事物，始終愚昧——」
“Say, Mr. Marshal,” growled the sad-faced man. “This isn’t quite fair. I’m needin’ a drink of water. Haven’t you talked long enough? Take me into the dining car now, won’t you?”
「喂，警長先生，」那個愁容滿面的男人低吼道。「這不太公平吧？我渴得要命。你說夠了沒？現在帶我去餐車好嗎？」
The bound travelers rose to their feet. Easton still had the same slow smile on his face.
被銬住的兩位旅人站起身來。伊斯頓臉上仍掛著那抹從容的微笑。
“I can’t say no to a need for water,” he said lightly. “It’s the one friend of the
「對於口渴的需求，我無法拒絕，」他輕鬆地說。「水可是
unfortunate. Good-bye, Miss Fairchild. Duty calls, you know.” He held out his hand for a farewell.
真遺憾。再見了，費爾柴爾德小姐。公務在身，你知道的。」他伸出手道別。
“It’s too bad you are not going East,” she said, remembering again her manner and style. "But you must go on to Leavenworth, I suppose?
「真可惜你不是要往東去，」她說著，又恢復了原先的儀態與風度。「但我想你必須繼續前往萊文沃斯吧？」
“Yes,” said Easton. “I must go on to Leavenworth.”
「是啊，」伊斯頓說。「我必須繼續前往萊文沃斯。」
The two men made their way down the aisle into the dining car.
兩人沿著走道進入了餐車。
The two passengers in a seat nearby heard most of the conversation. Said one of them, “That marshal is a good sort of chap. Some of these Westerners are all right.”
鄰座兩位乘客聽見了大半對話。其中一人說道：「那位警長人挺不錯的。有些西部人確實不賴。」
“Pretty young to hold an office like that, isn’t he?” asked the other.
「擔任這種職位會不會太年輕了點？」另一人問道。
“Young!” exclaimed the first speaker. “Why . . . Oh! . . . Didn’t you catch on? Say, did you ever know an officer to handcuff a prisoner to his right hand?”
「年輕！」先開口的那位突然提高聲量。「哎呀...噢！...你沒看出來嗎？我說，你見過哪個警官會把手銬銬在自己右手上的？」

2 What other preparatory, pre-reading activities would be suitable for your students prior to reading the above text? Would there be some questions you would put to your students before others?
2 在讓學生閱讀上述文本前，還有哪些適合的預備活動？是否有某些問題應該優先向學生提出？
3 Examine carefully the following picture (Figure 3). It is a painting by Eric Kennington entitled The Kensingtons at Laventie, Winter, 1914.
3 仔細觀察以下圖片（圖 3）。這是埃里克·肯寧頓的畫作，標題為《1914 年冬季，肯辛頓軍團在拉旺蒂》。

Figure 3 圖 3
(‘The Kensingtons’ is the name of a London regiment of soldiers.) The contrast in the picture between the young man lying in the snow and the men standing almost indifferently around him is a marked one. There is also a contrast between this painting which depicts an incident and Wilfred Owen`s poem ‘Futility’ which explores a response to an incident and does so in an overt and direct manner. Either choose a war poem yourself or take ‘Futility’ as an example. How would you use this painting in your teaching as
（「肯辛頓軍團」是倫敦一個士兵團的名稱。）畫中躺在雪地裡的年輕男子與幾乎漠不關心地站在他周圍的人們形成鮮明對比。這幅描繪單一事件的畫作，與威爾弗雷德·歐文探討對事件反應的詩作〈徒勞〉之間也存在對比，後者以公開直接的方式呈現。你可以自行選擇一首戰爭詩歌，或以〈徒勞〉為例。你會如何在教學中運用這幅畫作為
a) a pre-reading task
a) 閱讀前的準備活動
b) a while-reading task
b) 閱讀中的任務
c) a post-reading task
c) 閱讀後的任務

What questions would you ask, or what kind of activities would you devise to further motivate your students’ reading of the poem?
你會提出什麼問題，或設計什麼樣的活動來進一步激勵學生閱讀這首詩？

4 Choose a picture which contrasts with Kit Wright’s depiction in ‘Neighbours’, or take a text which you teach frequently yourself and choose a picture which contrasts with it. How would you use the picture in the classroom?
4 選擇一張與基特·萊特在《鄰居》中描繪形成對比的圖片，或是選取你經常教授的文本並搭配一張與之形成對比的圖片。你會如何在課堂上運用這張圖片？

5 Write the following poem on the blackboard:
5 將以下詩句寫在黑板上：

	Love 愛
middle couple ten when game and go the will be tween 中年夫妻十載嬉戲來去間	aged playing nis the ends they home net still be them 年邁仍玩網球終局歸家網猶在

Begin: 《文學教學（羅納德·卡特與麥可·隆）》
‘Well you can see immediately that this poem has some unusual features. What do you notice about its punctuation? Perhaps more important is its shape . . .’
「好，你可以馬上看出這首詩有些特別之處。你注意到它的標點符號了嗎？或許更重要的是它的形狀⋯⋯」
Limit yourself strictly to two minutes to introduce the poem, including reading it aloud.
嚴格限制在兩分鐘內介紹這首詩，包括朗讀。

Then: 接著：
‘Now I want you to discuss this poem in groups of five. What other unusual features are there? What effect do they have? How many levels of meaning can you find in the title?’
「現在我要你們五人一組討論這首詩。還有哪些不尋常的特點？它們產生了什麼效果？你們能在標題中找到多少層含義？」

If possible record the discussion of one group. On playback consider to what extent the discussion is ‘exploratory, simple, text-based and uses no specialised terminology’. (see p. 27 above)
如果可能的話，請錄下其中一組的討論內容。回放時思考這個討論在多大程度上是「探索性的、簡單的、基於文本且未使用專業術語」。（參見上文第 27 頁）

A further interesting strategy with this poem is to write it out as a piece of prose. Students are told the text is a poem, supplied with the title and invited to reconstruct it. This is another, perhaps even more activity-based way of discovering some answers posed to the above questions.
針對這首詩，另一個有趣的策略是將其改寫成散文形式。告訴學生這是一首詩，提供標題後，請他們重新構建它。這或許是更以活動為基礎的方式，來發現上述問題的一些答案。

Middle-aged couple playing tennis when the game ends and they go home the net will still be between them.
中年夫婦打網球，當比賽結束他們回家時，球網仍將橫亙在他們之間。

6 Look again at the poem ‘Futility’ (p. 21). Prepare a fifteen minute lesson on this poem. You may make brief references to a) the poetry of the First World War and

b

) biographical data about Wilfred Owen. Continue by making a list of questions which you might ask on the second stanza. Begin by asking:
請再次閱讀〈徒勞〉這首詩（第 21 頁）。準備一堂 15 分鐘的課程來講解這首詩。你可以簡要提及：a)第一次世界大戰時期的詩歌，以及 b)威爾弗雷德·歐文的生平資料。接著列出你可能針對第二段提出的問題，從以下問題開始：
a) What do you understand by ‘dear-achieved’?
a)你如何理解「珍貴成就」（'dear-achieved'）？
‘full-nerved’? 「精力充沛」（'full-nerved'）？
b) What does the ‘cold star’ refer to?
b)「寒冷的星辰」（'cold star'）指的是什麼？

As a final question ask:
最後一個問題請思考：
What connection can you make between the ‘creation’ theme of the stanza and the war?
這節詩的「創造」主題與戰爭之間，你能找出什麼關聯？
Consider what answers you might get to each question and what answers you would accept as being most nearly ‘correct’. Where practicable teach the lesson, but only if the students have not previously met this poem. In a follow-up lesson ask learners to say whether they liked or disliked the poem.
思考每個問題可能獲得的回答，以及哪些答案你會認為最接近「正確」。在可行的情況下進行教學，但僅限於學生先前未曾接觸過這首詩。在後續課程中，請學習者表達他們是否喜歡這首詩。

To what extent do you regard this process as ‘teacher-centred’? How many learners showed an inclination to look up other poems by Wilfred Owen?
你認為這個過程在多大程度上是「以教師為中心」的？有多少學習者表現出查閱威爾弗雷德·歐文其他詩作的傾向？
7 Discuss how you would draw attention to and help students experience the language of the following advertising slogan. What is ‘literary’ about its language? To what extent do you think experiencing the language of advertisement helps create further access to the language of literary texts? After you have completed this task read the complete advertisement on page 35 in which the different meanings of the slogan are explained.
7 討論你將如何引導學生注意並體驗以下廣告標語的語言特色。它的語言中有哪些「文學性」？你認為體驗廣告語言在多大程度上有助於進一步理解文學文本的語言？完成此任務後，請閱讀第 35 頁上的完整廣告，其中解釋了該標語的不同含義。

A dishwasher for those who'd like to tuck away dinner for six and still stay slim.
一款洗碗機，專為那些想輕鬆收拾六人晚餐卻仍想保持苗條的人設計。

Discussion 討論

1 What are the features which you would say make a good literature teacher? Rank the first three of these in order of importance.
1 你認為優秀的文學教師應具備哪些特質？請按重要性排序前三項。
2 Why is it important that the literature lesson should not be completely ‘teacher-centred’ or ‘teacher-dominated’?
2 為什麼文學課堂不應該完全以「教師為中心」或「由教師主導」？這點為何重要？
3 What are the implications for ‘individual development’ in the teaching of literature? To what extent do you consider such development feasible?
3 在文學教學中，「個人發展」的意涵為何？你認為這樣的發展在多大程度上是可行的？
4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of working through a text, with the teacher asking questions on lexical items, figures of speech, rhyme schemes, metre or historical facts, etc.? What is the frequency of this ‘method’ in the educational system in which you are working?
4 由教師針對詞彙、修辭手法、押韻格式、格律或歷史事實等提問來引導文本教學，這種方式有哪些優缺點？在你所處的教育體系中，這種「教學法」的使用頻率如何？
5 Do you consider it too idealistic to say that a text should become a ‘treasured object’ for a non-native speaker? Do you think more practical objectives should be established? If so, what are those objectives?
5 要求非母語學習者將文本視為「珍貴物件」，你是否認為這種說法過於理想化？你認為是否應該建立更實際的教學目標？若是，這些目標應包含哪些內容？
6 Are there cultural barriers in your country to ‘student-centred’ approaches to literature teaching? Are student-centred and teacher-centred methods of presentation compatible or incompatible in your teaching context?
6 在貴國是否存在文化障礙，阻礙了「以學生為中心」的文學教學方法？在您的教學環境中，以學生為中心和以教師為中心的教學方式是否相容或不相容？
7 In the report quoted (p. 25 above) why do you think the inspectors are so concerned with poetry? Do you think that prose should play an almost equal part in language development, or indeed, for non-native speakers, a larger part as being closer to normal written discourse and therefore having wider application? What is the situation in your own teaching environment?
7 在上述引用的報告中（見前文第 25 頁），您認為為何檢查人員如此關注詩歌教學？您認為散文在語言發展中是否應佔有幾乎同等重要的地位，甚至對非母語學習者而言，由於更接近日常書面語而具有更廣泛的應用性，因此應佔更大比重？在您自己的教學環境中情況如何？

The new slimline 18 inch dishwasher from Bosch will prove a real after dinner treat.
Bosch 全新 18 吋超薄洗碗機，將成為餐後真正的享受。

Slim though it is, it’s quite capable of swallowing a full seven place dinner service (so there is room for the unexpected guest).
雖然機身纖薄，卻能輕鬆容納七人份的完整餐具組（即使突然有訪客也不怕）。

And thanks to a choice of 5 programmes, including a quick wash, an economy
而且有 5 種程式可選，包括快速洗滌、節能

A dishwasher for those who'd like to tuck away dinner for six and still stay slim.
這款洗碗機適合想一次清洗六人份晚餐餐具，同時保持身材苗條的人。

programme, a normal programme and an
程式、標準程式以及

intensive

65^{\circ} C

wash, it cleans heavily soiled plates, pots and pans as well as fine bone china and crystal glasses.
強力

65^{\circ} C

洗滌，能徹底清潔重度油污的盤子、鍋具，以及精緻的骨瓷和水晶玻璃杯。

Never again will you wake up to be confronted with worktops stacked to the ceiling with memories of the night before.
你再也不會一覺醒來，發現工作檯上堆滿了昨晚回憶的雜物，高得都快碰到天花板。

But it’s not just a saviour at dinner parties. It pays during the week too.
但它可不只是晚宴上的救星，平日裡也同樣實用。

It’ll save you the chore of washing up after each meal ( 21 washing up sessions a week, not to mention the odd late night snack) and as each wash costs a mere 12 pence it’s hardly a drain on your resources.
它能省去你每餐後洗碗的麻煩（一週要洗 21 次碗，更別提那些深夜的點心了），而且每次洗滌僅需 12 便士，幾乎不會造成經濟負擔。

On top of that, an engineering pedigree that’s second to none means you’ll find the new Bosch 18 inch dishwasher so quiet, you’ll be able to hear yourself think.
更重要的是，無與倫比的工程技術背景，讓這台全新的博世 18 吋洗碗機運作時安靜無聲，你甚至能聽見自己的思緒。

No matter what you might have heard about dishwashers.
無論你曾聽過關於洗碗機的什麼傳聞。

For more information about the freestanding and built-in range of Bosch slimline dishwashers just ring 0895838691.
欲了解更多關於博世獨立式與嵌入式超薄洗碗機系列的資訊，請撥打 0895838691。

Just this once Bosch have been thinking small.
這一次，博世選擇了精巧設計。

BOSCH
Excellence comes as standard.
卓越品質，標準配備。

8 What are the implications of saying that the student-centred literature class is a) exploratory and b) text-based? What changes in approach will be required of the teacher who conventionally works through a text line by line to establish comprehension?
8 當我們說以學生為中心的文學課堂是 a)探索性的，b)以文本為基礎時，這意味著什麼？對於傳統上逐行解析文本以建立理解的教師來說，需要在教學方法上做出哪些改變？
9 In Chapter 1 we posed the question ‘Why literature?’ List your own reasons why you consider the teaching of literature to be important and to be relevant to your students.
9 在第 1 章中，我們提出了「為什麼要教文學？」這個問題。請列出您認為教授文學很重要且與學生相關的個人理由。

4 Language-based approaches
以語言為基礎的教學方法

4.0 Introduction 4.0 導論

In the previous chapter we examined some classroom approaches to texts which were mainly directed towards eliciting responses to the themes and content of those texts by means of careful scrutiny of both the type and sequence of questions we ask. In this chapter the aim is to continue to elicit such responses. There is rather more emphasis on language, however, and on the ways in which attention to language can lead to a deeper understanding of a text. We title this chapter language-based approaches. In case this sounds forbidding we should stress that the procedures discussed here will certainly be familiar to teachers of English as a foreign language, and in many respects this chapter represents a continuation and extension of the previous chapter. We claim no originality in drawing on strategies such as jigsaw reading, cloze, rewriting, etc. But such procedures may be unfamiliar or not widely used in the teaching of literature. We aim to explore their relevance to the particular domain of literature teaching.
在前一章中，我們探討了一些針對文本的課堂教學方法，這些方法主要透過仔細審視我們所提問的類型與順序，來引導學生對文本主題與內容產生回應。本章的目標是繼續引發這類回應，但會更加強調語言本身，以及關注語言如何能引領我們更深入理解文本。我們將本章命名為「以語言為基礎的教學法」。雖然這聽起來可能有些令人生畏，但我們必須強調，這些討論的教學程序對英語作為外語教學的老師來說肯定相當熟悉，而且在許多方面，本章可視為前一章的延續與擴展。我們並不聲稱採用的策略（如拼圖閱讀、克漏字、改寫等）具有原創性，但這些方法在文學教學中可能較為陌生或未被廣泛運用。我們旨在探討這些方法與文學教學這一特定領域的關聯性。

4.1
Jigsaw reading 4.1 拼圖閱讀法

4.1.1

Value as a student-centred activity
作為學生中心活動的價值

The term ‘jigsaw reading’ is borrowed from language teaching and is a parallel to the occasionally used ‘jigsaw listening’, whereby three or more groups listen to different tapes on the same subject, and thereafter pool their information to fill in a chart or table. Though the activity is widely practised, it generates relatively little language in the information-transfer stage. It is time-consuming to prepare, and it is difficult for groups to listen without interference from other groups. Jigsaw reading, on the other hand, is easy to prepare, and comprises the re-ordering of a text which has been scrambled. In the case of a poem this can be a difficult and challenging task, though the degree of difficulty depends, of course, on the poem which is selected for use. The phrase ‘jigsaw reading’ may suggest some sort of game. It is perfectly defensible, however, on the grounds that it is student-centred; it forces the individual to look closely at the language of the text and, more specifically, at the poetic discourse, and it stimulates learner-learner interaction in the solving of a puzzle.
「拼圖閱讀」這個術語借鑒自語言教學領域，與偶爾使用的「拼圖聽力」類似。在拼圖聽力活動中，三個或更多小組聆聽同一主題的不同錄音帶，之後匯總資訊來填寫圖表。雖然這項活動廣泛應用，但在資訊轉換階段產生的語言相對較少。準備過程耗時，且各組在聆聽時容易受到其他組的干擾。另一方面，拼圖閱讀則易於準備，包含重新排列被打亂順序的文本。對於詩歌而言，這可能是項困難且具挑戰性的任務，當然難度取決於所選詩作。「拼圖閱讀」一詞可能暗示某種遊戲性質，但這種方法完全合理，因為它以學生為中心：迫使個人仔細審視文本語言，更具體地說是詩歌話語，並在解謎過程中促進學習者之間的互動。
41.2

Preparation and procedure
準備與實施步驟

It is important that before learners are asked to do an exercise of this type by themselves they should work through one example with the teacher. This, of course, applies to any exercise, but the purpose here is to indicate the type of question or prompt which will keep the interaction going. In this respect the term ‘jigsaw’ is appropriate as it indicates a series of small increments which, when added together, will ‘complete the picture’ i.e. reveal at least one complete level of meaning in the poem. The exercise is not simply a mechanical one, to get the poem into the right shape; nor does it resemble a crossword puzzle, where you try to find the solution, if necessary by guessing, as quickly as possible, and then move on to the next item.
在要求學習者自行進行此類練習之前，重要的是他們應先與教師共同完成一個範例。當然，這適用於任何練習，但此處的目的是要說明能持續引導互動的問題或提示類型。就此而言，「拼圖」一詞相當貼切，因為它意味著一系列細小的累進，當這些片段組合起來時，就能「拼出完整圖像」——也就是至少揭示詩中一個完整層次的意義。這項練習並非只是機械性地將詩句排列成正確形式；也不像填字遊戲那樣，需要盡快猜出答案後就立即進行下一題。

For a sample exercise look at the well-known poem ‘The Road Not Taken’ by Robert Frost. As presented here the stanzas are not scrambled, but have been marked A B C and D for ease of reference:
若要查看範例練習，請參考羅伯特·佛洛斯特著名的詩作〈未行之路〉。此處呈現的詩節並未打亂順序，但為方便參照已標記為 A、B、C、D：

The Road Not Taken
〈未行之路〉

A Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And, sorry I could not travel both And be one traveller, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth.
A 黃樹林中兩路分歧，可惜我無法同時涉足身為獨行旅人，我佇立良久極目眺望其中一條的盡處直到它在灌木叢中轉彎消逝。

B Then took the other, as just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim Because it was grassy and wanted wear: But, as for that, the passing there Had worn them really about the same.
B 於是選擇了另一條，同樣美好，或許更有理由，因它綠草如茵，人跡稀少；但其實經過的人潮，已將兩條路磨損得相差無幾。

C And both that morning equally lay In leaves no step had trodden black. Oh, I kept the first for another day, But, knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted that I should ever come back.
C 那天清晨，兩條路同樣鋪滿落葉，未經腳步染黑。啊！我把第一條路留待他日，但深知路徑綿延無盡，恐怕再難重返此地。

D I shall be telling this with a sigh Somewhere ages and ages hence. Two roads diverged in a wood, and I, I took the one less travelled by, And that has made all the difference.
D 多年以後在某處，我將嘆息著訴說：樹林裡分岔兩條路，而我——選擇了人跡罕至的那條，這造就了所有的不同。

Robert Frost 羅伯特·佛洛斯特
The teacher should avoid beginning with the ‘open’ question: ‘Which do you think is the first stanza?’ Such a question invites ‘hit or miss’ answers but does not encourage investigation of the text. The following suggested questions do not form one half of a dialogue, because there is no attempt here to predict answers, but otherwise form an approximate sequence:
教師應避免一開始就提出「開放式」問題，例如：「你認為哪一段是第一節？」這類問題容易引發隨機猜測的答案，卻無法促進對文本的深入探究。以下建議的問題並非對話的一半，因為此處並未試圖預測答案，而是構成一個大致的提問順序：
a) Who is the ’ I ’ in stanzas

A, C

and D ?
a) 第

A, C

節和 D 節中的「我」指的是誰？
b) What does ‘the other’ refer to in stanza

B

?
b) 第

B

節中的「另一個」指的是什麼？
c) What is the subject of ‘took’ in stanza B?
c) B 節中「took」的主詞是什麼？
d) Why did he choose that road?
d) 他為何選擇那條路？
e) So why must stanzas B and C follow A, not precede it?
e) 那麼為何詩節 B 和 C 必須接在 A 之後，而非之前？
f) When did the incident described in stanza

A

take place?
f) 詩節

A

中描述的事件發生於何時？
g) What is the tense of the opening lines of stanza D ?
g) 詩節 D 開頭幾行使用的是什麼時態？
h) Could D be the opening stanza?
h) D 有沒有可能是開頭詩節？
i) If D were the opening stanza what information in A is redundant?
i) 如果 D 是開頭詩節，那麼 A 中的哪些資訊是多餘的？
j) But is the sequence A D possible?
j) 但 A D 這樣的順序有可能嗎？
k) Why not? k) 為什麼不可能？

Did the poet ever go back to the starting point?
詩人是否曾回到起點？
m) How does the answer to $(l)$ above determine the order of stanzas $B$ and $C$ ?
m) 上述 $(l)$ 的答案如何決定 $B$ 和 $C$ 詩節的順序？
n) Complete the sequence, using not more than five words for each item:
n) 完成以下序列，每項不超過五個字：

1 The poet had an option
1 詩人曾有選擇
2 He made his choice
2 他做出了選擇
3 …
4 …
Other questions are of course possible, and also follow-up questions to partial or tentative answers. Note that in general the lower-order questions (which, if understood by the learner, have a direct verifiable answer in the text) lead to higher-order questions (where in order to provide answers, it is necessary to make certain deductions, or evaluate alternative propositions). In some cases a low-order question leads directly to a higher-order question, as in g

) - h

). We suggest that anyone working through the above sequence to

n

) would have a fairly complete grasp of the poem’s meaning, or be ready to make further inferences, from (here) a guided process of unscrambling.
當然也可以提出其他問題，以及針對部分或暫時性答案的後續提問。需要注意的是，一般而言，低階問題（如果學習者理解，能在文本中找到直接可驗證的答案）會引導至高階問題（要回答這些問題，必須做出某些推論，或評估替代方案）。在某些情況下，低階問題會直接導向高階問題，如@g

) - h

)所示。我們建議，任何按照上述序列進行至

n

)的人，都能相當完整地掌握這首詩的意義，或準備好從（此處）一個有引導的解讀過程中做出進一步推論。
4.1.3

Preparing The following poem, also by Robert Frost, is here presented in scrambled questions for the activity phase form, and the reader is invited to consider what opening question(s) might be asked to set in motion the unscrambling of the poem as a learner activity (i.e. only the first two or three questions are required, but they should point the direction). In this poem attention should also be drawn to features of punctuation.
準備以下這首同樣出自羅伯特·佛洛斯特的詩作，在此以打亂問題的形式呈現於活動階段，邀請讀者思考可以提出什麼起始問題來啟動解讀這首詩的學習活動（即僅需前兩三個問題，但這些問題應能指引方向）。在這首詩中，也應特別注意標點符號的特徵。

The Hill Wife 山居之妻

And work was little in the house, She was free,
家務寥寥無幾，她自由自在，

He never found her, though he looked
他遍尋不著她的蹤影，
Everywhere, 到處，
And he asked at her mother’s house Was she there.
他到她母親家詢問她是否在那裡

And followed where he furrowed field, Or felled tree.
跟隨他犁過的田地或砍伐的樹木

And once she went to break a bough Of black alder.
有一次她去折斷一棵黑赤楊的枝條
She strayed so far she scarcely heard She rested on a log and tossed When he called her-
她走得太遠幾乎聽不見她坐在原木上休息當他呼喚她時

\begin{aligned} And didn't answer-didn't speak- \\ Or return. \\ She stood, and she ran and hid \\ In the fern. \end{aligned}

Sudden and swift and light as that The ties gave, And he learned of finalities Beside the grave.
如閃電般突然、迅疾而輕盈束縛終解開他在墓旁領悟了何謂終局
(The practice of cutting and pasting the stanzas into an irregular pattern as above serves to isolate the stanzas and to focus attention on them one at a time as the learner tries to assemble the jigsaw.)
（如上所述，將詩節切割並拼貼成不規則排列的練習，有助於隔離各詩節，讓學習者在嘗試拼湊這幅文字拼圖時，能逐一聚焦於單一詩節。）

It is not, of course, essential to split up the stanzas of a poem, and a poem written in a continuous series of lines may also be used. In this case features of syntax and punctuation are certain to play a prominent part in the unscrambling process.
當然，並非一定要拆解詩歌的段落，連續書寫的詩行同樣適用。在此情況下，句法結構與標點符號的特徵，必然會在解構重組的過程中扮演關鍵角色。
4.1.4

Jigsaw reading: 1 In this section we return to the poem ‘Neighbours’ introduced in Chapter 2. ‘Neighbours’ Here we have jumbled the stanzas of the poem. The task is to divide your class into small groups and to ask them to put the stanzas in what they think is an appropriate order. If they find the exercise difficult they can be told that the first and last stanzas are A and H respectively. When they have completed the exercise ask the groups to discuss with you the reasons for their choices. Did they see any parallels between stanzas B and E? Does that mean the stanzas go together? What is the time sequence relation between

A

and G ? What is the sequence of the description of sizes? From large to small? From small to large?
拼圖閱讀法：1 本節我們將回到第二章介紹的詩作〈鄰居〉。這裡我們將詩的各節順序打亂。請將班級分成小組，讓他們嘗試將詩節排列出他們認為合適的順序。若學生覺得練習困難，可提示第一節和最後一節分別是 A 和 H。完成後請各組與你討論他們排序的理由。他們是否發現 B 節與 E 節之間的對應關係？這是否意味著這些詩節應該相鄰？

A

與 G 之間的時間序列關係為何？尺寸描述的順序是從大到小？還是從小到大？
2 Evaluate the task. Has the exercise been a meaningful one for the students? Do they seem more or less involved with the poem? Have they appreciated why the events occur in the order they do? Has the language-based activity taken your students into the subject of ‘neighbours’ and how we react to them?
2 評估任務成效。這個練習對學生而言是否具有意義？他們對這首詩的投入程度是否有所增減？他們是否理解事件為何以特定順序呈現？這項以語言為基礎的活動是否讓學生深入思考「鄰居」主題及我們對鄰居的反應？

A

F

When I shaved  當我刮鬍子時
In the nude  一絲不掛地
In the morning,  在清晨時分，
The mirror reflected the wrong hair.
鏡中映出了不該有的髮絲。
Soon I slept with my head up the chimney,
很快地，我頭朝煙囪睡著了，
Feet out the window,
雙腳伸出窗外，
And outfaced the treetops, tip to tip.
與樹梢頂端相對而視。

E

Later we heard through the kitchen wall
稍後我們隔著廚房牆壁聽見
Their quarrels like kittens mewing for milk.
他們的爭吵像小貓咪咪叫著要奶喝。

D

And when it changed and I grew lower, My chin on the basin, chest at the toilet top, And my voice grew slower and weaker
當情況改變，我變得更矮，下巴抵著洗臉盆，胸口靠在馬桶蓋上，我的聲音變得越來越慢、越來越微弱
And lesser as theirs grew louder
而他們的聲音卻越來越響亮
In sudden authority with their new-found height.
突然間有了權威，因為他們發現自己長高了。

H

I prayed they would do me no harm
我祈求他們不會傷害我
As I had done them no harm,
正如我未曾傷害過他們，
Nor tread on a neighbour in or out of sight.
也不會在視線所及或不及之處踐踏鄰人。

G

That evening, returning from work, He set his shoulder to his briefcase. Scraping it up the garden path And reached to the heavens with his house-key.
那晚下班歸來，他將肩膀抵著公事包。沿著花園小徑拖行，並高舉家門鑰匙直指天際。

B

Later we heard through the bedroom wall
後來我們隔著臥室的牆聽見
Soon we’d be putting out birdseed for them:
很快我們就會為牠們準備鳥飼料：
But who was I to interfere?
但我是誰，憑什麼干涉？
For I was g"owing longer, day by night.
因為我正日復一日地「逐漸」延長。
4.1.5

Discussion 討論

1 This section lists at least three points which we believe make jigsaw reading a worthwhile teaching and learning technique with poems. Can you think of any other reasons for using it? What are the possible disadvantages?
1 本節列出至少三點，我們認為這些優點使拼圖閱讀成為一種值得運用在詩歌教學與學習的技巧。你能想到其他使用這項技巧的理由嗎？可能有哪些缺點？
2 Clarify what you understand by the term a ‘mechanical exercise’. Why is jigsaw reading of poetry not a mechanical exercise?
2 請說明你對「機械式練習」一詞的理解。為何拼圖式詩歌閱讀不屬於機械式練習？
3 Look at the poem ‘The Hill Wife’ on page 73. Why is this poem particularly suitable for scrambling and jigsaw reading?
3 請翻閱第 73 頁的詩作〈山居妻子〉。為何這首詩特別適合進行打亂重組與拼圖式閱讀？
4 Select a prose text from any literary work, preferably modern. It should consist of a series of short paragraphs. Scramble the text for jigsaw reassembly. Consider with your colleagues its value as an approach to literature. Do you think it merits the time spent on it by the learner? (i.e. not teacher preparation time)
4 從任一現代文學作品中選取一段散文文本，內容應由數個短段落組成。將文本打亂供拼圖式重組使用。與同事討論這種文學教學法的價值。你認為學習者投入的時間是否值得？（此處不包含教師備課時間）
5 Select a text which you know well and which you teach regularly, but which would not be appropriate for treatment as a jigsaw reading exercise. For example, we should consider lyric poems to be unsuitable because they rarely have a strong narrative line. Jigsaw activities are not well suited to non-narrative texts. Remember, too, that jigsaw reading can be timeconsuming and that the length of the text is quite important. Why would your text be inappropriate? Now select one which you know well and teach regularly and which would be, by contrast, appropriate for jigsaw activities.
5 選取一個你熟悉且經常教授、但不適合採用拼圖式閱讀練習的文本。例如抒情詩通常不適用，因為這類詩作少有強烈的敘事線索。拼圖活動較不適合非敘事性文本。同時請注意，拼圖式閱讀可能耗時較長，文本長度也是重要考量因素。為何你選擇的文本不適用？接著另選一個你熟悉且經常教授、相對適合進行拼圖活動的文本。

Matching exercises are related to jigsaw reading activities in so far as they involve a fitting together of different parts. Similarly, too, one aim of matching exercises is to enable students to use responses to the parts to build up sensitivity to the whole. One primary activity of matching is to collect examples of openings and closings to texts and invite students to match the relevant pairs. Doing so requires both recognition of stylistic similarities, continuities of character and thematic correspondences.
配對練習與拼圖閱讀活動相關，因為它們都涉及將不同部分組合在一起。同樣地，配對練習的一個目標是讓學生能夠利用對各部分的回應來培養對整體的敏感度。配對的主要活動之一是收集文本的開頭和結尾範例，並邀請學生配對相關的組合。這樣做需要識別文體上的相似性、角色的連續性以及主題的對應關係。

Beginnings and endings 開端與結局

Beginnings 開端

1

The Pottery House was a square, ugly, brick house girt in by the wall that enclosed the whole grounds of the pottery itself. To be sure, a privet hedge partly masked the house and its ground from the pottery-yard and works: but only partly. Through the hedge could be seen the desolate yard, and the many-windowed, factory-like pottery, over the hedge could be seen the chimneys and the out-houses. But inside the hedge, a pleasant garden and lawn sloped down to a willow pool, which had once supplied the works.
陶器屋是一棟方正、醜陋的磚造房屋，被環繞整個陶器廠區的圍牆緊緊包圍。誠然，一道女貞樹籬部分遮掩了房屋及其庭院，使其與陶器工場隔開——但也僅是部分遮掩。透過樹籬縫隙仍可望見荒涼的廠區，以及那棟窗戶密布、形似工廠的陶器作坊；越過樹籬頂端，則能看見林立的煙囪與附屬建築。但在樹籬之內，一片怡人的花園與草坪緩緩傾斜，延伸至曾為工場供水的柳樹池塘。

They were the idealists from New England. But that is some time ago: before the war. Several years before the war, they met and married; he a tall, keen-eyed young man from Connecticut, she a smallish, demure, Puritan-looking young woman from Massachusetts. They both had a little money. Not much, however. Even added together, it didn’t make three thousand dollars a year. Still - they were free. Free!
他們是來自新英格蘭的理想主義者。但那已是多年前的事了：戰爭之前。在戰爭爆發前幾年，他們相遇並結婚；他是個來自康乃狄克州、身材高大、目光銳利的年輕人，她則是來自麻薩諸塞州、個子嬌小、端莊嫻靜、帶著清教徒氣質的年輕女子。兩人都有點積蓄。雖然不多。即使加起來，年收入也不到三千美元。不過——他們是自由的。自由啊！

3

Mr lindley was the first vicar of Aldecross. The cottages of this tiny hamlet had nestled in peace since their beginning, and the country folk had crossed the lanes and farm-land, two or three miles, to the parish church at Greymeed, on the bright Sunday mornings.
林德利先生是奧德克羅斯的第一任教區牧師。這個小村落的農舍自建村以來便安詳地簇擁在一起，每逢晴朗的星期日早晨，鄉民們總會穿越小徑和農地，走上兩三英里路到灰草地村的教區教堂做禮拜。

4

There was a man who loved islands. He was born on one, but it didn’t suit him, as there were too many other people on it, besides himself. He wanted an island all of his own: not necessarily to be alone on it, but to make it a world of his own.
有個熱愛島嶼的男人。他雖然出生在一座島上，但那裡除了他之外還有太多其他人，讓他覺得不適合。他想要一座完全屬於自己的島嶼：倒不一定要獨居其上，而是要將它打造成專屬自己的世界。

Endings 終章

A

As he looked, the sky mysteriously darkened and chilled. From far off came the mutter of the unsatisfied thunder, and he knew it was the signal of the snow rolling over the sea. He turned, and felt its breath on him.
當他抬頭望去，天空神秘地暗了下來，寒意漸濃。遠處傳來不滿的雷聲低鳴，他知道那是雪花越過海面而來的信號。他轉身，感受著它的氣息拂過自己。

B

‘We shan’t see much of you then, as a son-in-law’, said the mother, roughly but amicably.
「那我們以後就不太能見到你這個女婿了。」母親粗聲粗氣卻又和善地說。
‘Not much,’ he said.
「是不太會。」他回答。
Then he took his leave. Louisa went with him to the gate. She stood before him in distress.
接著他便告辭了。露易莎送他到門口，神情苦澀地站在他面前。
‘You won’t mind them, will you?’ she said humbly.
「你不會介意他們吧？」她低聲下氣地問道。
‘I don’t mind them, if they don’t mind me!’ he said. Then he stooped and kissed her.
「只要他們不介意我，我也不介意他們！」他說道。接著他彎下腰親吻了她。
‘Let us be married soon,’ she murmured, in tears.
「我們早點結婚吧，」她含淚低語。
‘All right,’ he said, ‘I’ll go tomorrow to Barford.’
「好啊，」他說，「我明天就去巴福德。」

C

‘Europe’s the mayonnaise all right, but America supplies the good old lobsterwhat?’
「歐洲確實是美乃滋沒錯，但美國供應的可是上等龍蝦，對吧？」
‘Every time!’ she said, with satisfaction.
「每次都這樣！」她滿意地說。
And he peered at her. He was in the cage: but it was safe inside. And she, evidently, was her real self at last. She had got the goods. Yet round his nose was a queer, evil scholastic look of pure scepticism. But he liked lobster.
他盯著她瞧。他身處牢籠之中：但裡面很安全。而她，顯然終於展現了真實的自我。她已掌握了一切。然而他鼻翼周圍卻浮現出一抹古怪、邪惡的學究式純然懷疑神情。不過他喜歡吃龍蝦。

D

She stooped and kissed him. She had never kissed him before, not since she was a tiny child. But she was quiet, very still.
她彎下腰親吻他。她從未親吻過他，自她還是個小小孩之後就沒有過了。但她很安靜，非常平靜。
‘Kiss him,’ the dying man said.
「親親他，」垂死之人說道。
Obediently, Matilda put forward her mouth and kissed the young husband.
瑪蒂達順從地湊上前，親吻了那位年輕的丈夫。
‘That’s right! That’s right!’ murmured the dying man.
「這樣就對了！這樣就對了！」垂死之人低聲呢喃著。
(We are indebted to Jane Spiro, Centre for English Language Education, University of Nottingham, for the ideas and suggestions given above.)
（上述構想與建議承蒙諾丁漢大學英語語言教育中心的珍·史派羅提供。）

The exercise, which is also a heightened form of long-term prediction (see 3.6 above), may be useful as a pre-reading exercise for short stories or narrative poems. It is an exercise which can also be adapted to the requirements of different language levels and interpretive abilities; for example, the length of opening and ending can be extended or, if necessary, linking passages can be inserted with the link to different openings explicitly signalled. Other possibilities include: matching character descriptions from different stories; or matching three or more settings to a single story; or isolating the ‘odd man out’, that is, the description or setting or incident that does not belong to a particular story.
這項練習，同時也是一種強化版的長期預測（參見上文 3.6 節），可作為短篇小說或敘事詩的預讀活動。此練習能根據不同語言程度與詮釋能力調整難易度，例如：可延長開頭與結尾的篇幅，或在必要時插入過渡段落，並明確標示其與不同開場的關聯性。其他變化形式還包括：配對不同故事的角色描述；將三種以上場景配對至單一故事；或找出「格格不入者」——即不屬於特定故事的人物描寫、場景設定或事件情節。

As far as drama is concerned the following matching activity has been suggested by Harold Fish

^{1}

. It involves matching dramatis personae - as listed at the beginning of a play text - with a scene from the play. Here the dialogue alone provides the clue for students to match character and speech. The exercise is an especially productive one in the case of this play, Golden Girls by the contemporary dramatist Louise Page, which is thematically rich in confrontational issues such as racial tension, the position of women and sponsorship in sport. Once again the matching task can be adapted and simplified if necessary; for example, the number and/or gender of the characters speaking can be revealed. Here is the example:
就戲劇而言，哈羅德·費許(

^{1}

)曾提出以下配對活動。這項活動要求學生將劇本開頭列出的登場人物與劇中某個場景進行配對。在此，對話內容成為學生將角色與台詞配對的關鍵線索。當代劇作家露易絲·佩吉的作品《黃金女郎》特別適合進行這項練習，該劇主題富含種族衝突、女性地位與運動贊助等對立性議題，能激發豐富討論。同樣地，這項配對任務可視需要調整簡化；例如，可事先透露說話角色的數量或性別。以下為範例：

Golden Girls was first presented by the Royal Shakespeare Company at The Other Place, Stratford-upon-Avon, on 20 June, 1984, with the following cast:
《金色女郎》最初由皇家莎士比亞劇團於 1984 年 6 月 20 日在埃文河畔斯特拉特福的「另一處」劇場首演，演出陣容如下：

DORCAS ABLEMAN, black athlete
多卡斯·艾伯曼，黑人運動員
MURIEL FARR, black athlete
穆麗爾·法爾，黑人運動員
PAULINE PETERSON, white athlete
寶琳·彼得森，白人運動員
SUE KINDER, blonde white athlete
蘇·金德，金髮白人運動員
JANET MORRIS, black athlete
珍妮特·莫里斯，黑人運動員
MIKE BASSETT, white athlete
麥克·巴塞特，白人運動員
LACES MACKENZIE, coach  雷斯·麥肯齊，教練
VIVIEN BLACKWOOD, doctor
薇薇安·布萊克伍德，醫生
NOËL KINDER, Sue Kinder’s father
諾埃爾·金德，蘇·金德的父親
HILARY DAVENPORT, sponsor
希拉蕊·達文波特，贊助人
TOM BILLBOW, journalist  湯姆·比爾博，記者
HOTEL PORTER, white  飯店門房，白人
THE GOLDEN GIRL, everything the
黃金女孩，完美無缺

Josette Simon  喬瑟特·西蒙
Alphonsia Emmanuel  艾方西亞·伊曼紐爾
Katherine Rogers  凱瑟琳·羅傑斯
Kate Buffery  凱特·巴芙瑞
Cathy Tyson  凱西·泰森
Kenneth Branagh  肯尼斯·布萊納
Jimmy Yuill  吉米·尤伊爾
Jennifer Piercey  珍妮佛·皮爾西
George Raistrick  喬治·雷斯崔克
Polly James  波莉·詹姆斯
Derek Crewe  德瑞克·克魯
Norman Henry  諾曼·亨利
Jan Revere  珍·瑞佛
name suggests  顧名思義

Directed by Barry Kyle 巴瑞·凱爾執導
Designed by Kit Surrey
凱特·薩里設計
Music by Ilona Sekacz
音樂由伊洛娜·塞卡茲創作
Lighting by Wayne Dowdeswell
燈光由韋恩·道德斯威爾設計

Acknowledgement 致謝

Special thanks to Ron Pickering for the sports commentary on page 61.
特別感謝羅恩·皮克林為第 61 頁提供的體育評論
Can you do it?
你能做到嗎？
Who can ever say?
誰能說得準呢？
Are you beginning to think of quitting?
你開始考慮要放棄了嗎？
Sometimes. (Pause.) I wanted a word.
有時候吧。（停頓。）我想說句話。
With me?  跟我一起嗎？
Yes, I think so. (Pause.) It’s a sort of question really. I hope you don’t mind.
是的，我想是吧。（停頓。）這其實算是個問題。希望你不介意。
I’m flattered to be asked.
能被問到是我的榮幸。
It’s about Heidi Lynikova.
是關於海蒂·林尼科娃的事。
Yes.  是的。
There are stories in the camp -
營區裡流傳著一些故事——
Isn’t gossip always rife amongst you?
你們之間不是總愛閒言閒語嗎？
Please.  拜託。
I beg your pardon.
抱歉，請再說一次。
You know she was pregnant when she smashed the record in Oslo?
你知道她在奧斯陸打破紀錄時已經懷孕了嗎？
Fanny Blankers-Cohen in 1948 all over again.
簡直是 1948 年芬妮·布蘭克斯-科恩的翻版。
Did you ever hear about the baby? (- thinks.) It had everything wrong with it. They say it was a freak.
你有聽說過那個嬰兒嗎？（-思考。）那孩子全身都是缺陷。他們說那是個畸形兒。

Really? 真的嗎？

The American girls say it had something to do with some stuff she was taking. I wondered if you knew.
那些美國女孩說跟她吃的某些東西有關。我在想你是否知道。
Why?  為什麼？
Pause.  （停頓）
produces a capsule.  產生了一顆膠囊。
Oh!  噢！
I’s legitimate. At least in the sense that nothing shows up.
這很合理。至少從表面上看不出任何端倪。
A wonder drug?  這是特效藥嗎？
We haven’t had a bad season.
我們還沒經歷過糟糕的季節。
I thought it was the presence of Janet Morris amongst you. Youth snapping at your heels. Do you know what it is?
我以為是因為珍娜·莫里斯在你們之中。年輕人緊追在後。你知道這是什麼嗎？
It’s called hydro-something.
這叫做水什麼的。
It’s not cricket.  這不公平。
No. I don’t want to stay in this game forever. Even if you want to your body starts to go and lets you down. I want to win here and then children. (About the drug.) We’re running as fast as some of the men.

takes it.) It’s not black market stuff. They come from the doctor.
不，我不想永遠困在這個遊戲裡。即使你想繼續，身體也會開始衰退、讓你失望。我想在這裡贏得勝利，然後生兒育女。（關於藥物）我們跑得和某些男人一樣快。

服用它。）這不是黑市貨。它們來自醫生。
Paid for by Ortolan?
是奧圖蘭支付的嗎？
I suppose so, in a manner of speaking. I thought you might have some way of finding out.
可以這麼說，某種程度上。我以為你可能有些方法能查出來。

Hairy chests, anything like that?
胸毛之類的特徵嗎？
It’s not a steroid. It’s made from rats.
這不是類固醇。它是從老鼠身上提取的。
It could be very messy.
可能會搞得一團糟。
Yes.  是的。
Drug analysis is expensive. The paper’s money. They’ll expect to be able to make a story.
藥物分析很昂貴。報社出錢。他們會希望能寫出一篇報導。
Yes.  是的。
You’ll be pilloried in every paper, every sports club-
你會在所有報紙、每個運動俱樂部被公開譴責——
Find out what it does. Please. In’t it what they call a scoop.
查清楚它的作用。拜託。這不就是他們所謂的獨家新聞嗎。
Yes.  是的。

Matching is an activity with infinite possibilities for extension within the class. We have explored some basic principles; here are some further ideas for matching activities:
配對活動在課堂中有無限延伸的可能性。我們已探討了一些基本原則；以下是一些進一步的配對活動構想：
Match: 配對：
quotations or sayings with characters
名言或諺語與角色
pictures, photographs with characters or places
圖片、照片與角色或地點
descriptions, profiles with characters
角色描述與人物側寫
plot abstracts or summaries with beginnings or endings of texts
包含文本開頭或結尾的情節摘要
texts with genres

^{1}

標註文類的文本

^{1}

stories or poems with titles (see also 5.1 .4 below)
附有標題的故事或詩作（另參見下方 5.1.4 節）
prose or poetry or drama dialogue with epoch or period
散文、詩歌或戲劇對話與時代或時期的關聯
texts or settings or even characters with particular pieces of music
文本、場景甚至角色與特定音樂作品的搭配
sentences jumbled together from two different works to form two separate stories

^{2}

將兩部不同作品的句子混雜組合成兩個獨立故事

^{2}

Two-in-one story 二合一故事
The Stork/The Company Chairman
《鸛鳥/公司董事長》
1 The cook stole a leg from a beautiful roast stork just before it was served to the king.
1 廚師在將一隻烤得香噴噴的鸛鳥腿端給國王前，偷偷切走了一條腿。
2 ‘But, your Majesty, you didn’t clap last night.’
2 「可是陛下，您昨晚沒有鼓掌啊。」
3 He glowered at them. ‘Gentlemen, I have something I must say: half of you are idiots.’
3 他怒視著眾人：「各位，有件事我必須說：你們當中有一半是白癡。」
4 The king asked him angrily why the bird had only one leg.
4 國王憤怒地質問他，為什麼那隻鳥只有一條腿。
5 One day a company chairman got very angry with his board of directors.
5 有一天，某公司的董事長對他的董事會成員大發雷霆。
6 The king clapped his hands and the birds flew off. ‘There,’ he said, ‘You see, they all have two legs the moment I clap.’
6 國王拍了拍手，鳥兒們便飛走了。「看吧，」他說，「我一拍手，牠們就都露出兩條腿了。」
7 ‘Very well’, the chairman said, ‘I withdraw it - half of you are not idiots.’
7 「很好，」董事長說，「我收回這句話——你們當中有一半人不是白痴。」

1 A further extension here is to write out three texts in prose (one is a poem) and students are asked to identify the poetic text and to give reasons for their choice and why they have identified the remaining passages as prose.
1 這裡更進一步的延伸練習是寫出三篇散文（其中一篇是詩），要求學生辨認出詩作，並說明選擇理由，以及為何認定其他段落屬於散文。

2 This final suggestion illustrates that activities such as matching can never be totally discrete. This two-in-one jumbled story, for example. involves both activities of matching and of text reconstruction or reassembly. This idea and the following example are taken from Berer. M. Frank. C and Rinvolucri, M 1987 Challenge to Think OUP p. 28. For further discussion of jumbling exercises sec 4.1.4 p.74.
2 這最後一個建議說明了像配對這樣的活動永遠無法完全獨立。例如這個二合一的混亂故事，就同時包含了配對和文本重建或重組的活動。這個構想與接下來的範例取自 Berer. M. Frank. C 和 Rinvolucri, M 1987 年出版的《Challenge to Think》牛津大學出版社第 28 頁。關於混亂練習的進一步討論，請參見第 4.1.4 節第 74 頁。

8 Next morning the cook and the king went down to the river and saw the storks all standing on one leg.
8 隔天早晨，廚師和國王來到河邊，看見所有鸛鳥都用單腳站立。
9 One of the directors stood up and banged on the table. ‘I demand that you withdraw that last observation, Mr Chairman.’
9 其中一位董事站起身，用力拍打桌子。「主席先生，我要求您撤回最後那項觀察意見。」
10 The cook replied, ‘Storks only ever have one leg - come to the river with me tomorrow and I will show you, Your Majesty.’
廚師回答說：「鸛鳥從來就只有一隻腳——明天跟我到河邊去，我會讓您親眼看看，陛下。」

4.3
Gap-filling Another way of drawing the students' attention to the language and form of a text and of exploring their relation to the text's meanings is by means of a targeted cloze procedure. Rather more informally, we term this well-known strategy 'gap-filling'.
Cloze is an established procedure in tests of language competence, and one of its dangers is that students may associate it with language examinations. However, it is increasingly employed for purposes of language development where the aim is to draw attention to the use of particular linguistic features such as connecting words between sentences or signalling words across paragraphs. In this sense the cloze becomes targeted, for the gaps are not made at random (or even systematically every nth word) but are removed because they have a particular function. In the case of cloze with literary texts it is important that by removing words the students' attention is drawn to items which are performing an important literary job.
As with most gap-filling exercises, the teacher can decide whether to ask students to retrieve a word or words without guidance or with reference to a group of words listed beneath the text. In our example here, based on D.H. Lawrence's poem 'Piano', we have chosen to supply a list and would only not supply such choices in the case of very advanced students. Five words have been removed and the lists of choices are in the order in which the gaps occur.
4.3 填空練習另一種引導學生關注文本語言與形式，並探索其與文本意義關係的方法，是透過針對性的克漏字程序。我們更習慣將這個廣為人知的策略稱為「填空練習」。克漏字是語言能力測驗中的常規程序，其潛在風險在於學生可能將其與語言考試聯想在一起。然而，這項技巧正日益被運用於語言發展目的，旨在引導學生注意特定語言特徵的使用，例如句子間的連接詞或段落間的標示詞語。就此而言，克漏字練習具有針對性，因為空缺處並非隨機設置（甚至非系統性地每隔固定字數設置），而是刻意刪除具有特定功能的詞彙。在文學文本的克漏字練習中，關鍵在於透過刪除字詞，引導學生關注那些承擔重要文學功能的元素。與多數填空練習相同，教師可自行決定是否提供提示——要求學生在無指引情況下回憶字詞，或參照文本下方列出的詞組進行填寫。在我們這個以 D.H.勞倫斯的詩作《鋼琴》為例的教學中，我們選擇提供選項清單，除非面對程度極高的學生才會不提供這些選項。我們刪除了五個詞彙，而選項清單的排列順序與文中空缺處的出現順序一致。

Softly, in the dusk, a woman is singing to me;
暮色中，一位女子正輕柔地對我歌唱；
Taking me back down the ___ of years, till I see
將我帶回歲月的___，直到我看見
A child sitting under the piano, in the boom of the tingling strings
一個孩子坐在鋼琴下方，沉浸在琴弦顫動的餘韻裡
And pressing the small, poised feet of a mother who smiles as she sings.
輕按著母親那雙小巧而沉穩的腳，她微笑著歌唱。
In spite of myself, the insidious mastery of song ___ me back, till the heart of me weeps to belong
不由自主地，那狡黠的樂聲魔力將我拉回，直到內心深處渴望歸屬
To the old Sunday evenings at home, with winter outside
回到舊時週日夜晚的家，屋外正值寒冬
And

in the cosy parlour, the

piano our guide.
在溫暖舒適的客廳裡，

那

鋼琴聲引領著我們。

So now it is vain for the singer to burst into clamour
此刻歌者徒然迸發喧囂
With the great black piano appasionato. The glamour of childish days is upon me, my manhood is cast
伴隨著那架熱情澎湃的黑色大鋼琴。童年光輝籠罩著我，我的男子氣概已然拋棄
Down in the flood of remembrance, I

like a child for the past.
在回憶的洪流中，我像個孩子般渴望著過去。

1 vista 1 景色	2 calls 2 呼喚	3 hymns 3 聖歌	4 singing 4 歌唱	5 cry 5 哭泣
tide 潮汐	betrays 背叛	songs 歌曲	black 黑色	sing 歌唱
	wins 勝利	fires 火焰	passionate 熱情	call 呼喚
	forces 力量		tinkling 叮噹作響	weep 哭泣

Advantages 1 The strategy of gap-filling in the literature class is well suited to pair and group work. It can be a student-centred activity.
優點 1 文學課堂中的填空策略非常適合配對和小組活動。這可以成為以學生為中心的活動。

4.3.2

Conclusion 結論

2 It leads to involvement with the text. This involvement works on two levels: first, there is a natural interest in the success or otherwise of one’s lexical predictions (even though it should be stressed that filling the gap with the ‘right’ word is not the point of the exercise); second, the making of any kind of choice depends on reading the whole text carefully and on checking how one word fits with other words.
2 這能引導學生深入參與文本。此種參與作用於兩個層面：首先，學生會自然關注自己對詞彙預測的成功與否（儘管必須強調，填空練習的重點並非一定要用「正確」詞語來填補空缺）；其次，任何選擇的做出都取決於仔細閱讀全文，並檢視單詞如何與其他詞語相互契合。
3 The exercise raises a number of useful points of language use, even though the main point is to promote sensitivity to the use of words for literary purposes.
3 此練習雖主要目的在培養對文學用字的敏感度，但同時也帶出許多語言運用的實用要點。
4 It is a task-based, activity-centred strategy which makes the teacher’s role a supporting and supportive one. The teacher should, however, encourage students to justify their choices at all stages and be prepared to account for their choices to others in the group.
4 這是一種以任務為基礎、活動為中心的教學策略，使教師角色轉變為輔助者與支持者。然而，教師應鼓勵學生在各階段說明其選擇理由，並準備好向小組成員解釋自己的選擇。
5 Gap-filling activities emphasise that a student’s engagement with a text needs to be both linguistic and experiential.
5 填空練習強調學生與文本的互動需兼具語言性與體驗性。
6 It is a productive way of increasing the students’ awareness of the patterns of words in a literary text. Choices of words in the above exercise depend on sound patterns as much as on meanings.
6 這是一種有效提升學生對文學文本中詞彙模式認知的方法。在上述練習中，詞彙的選擇不僅取決於意義，也同樣考量聲音模式。

For further examples and further discussion of the uses of gap-filling in the literature class see Carter, R A and Long, M N 1987 The Web of Words CUP, especially Unit 8 which contains an exercise on the poem “Futility” by Wilfred Owen discussed in Chapter 2 above. See also the article by Carter (especially pp. 112-113) in Brumfit, C J and Carter, R A (eds) 1986 Literature and Language Teaching OUP.
關於填空練習在文學課堂中的更多應用範例與討論，可參閱卡特（R A Carter）與朗（M N Long）於 1987 年出版的《詞語之網》（The Web of Words，劍橋大學出版社），特別是第 8 單元包含對威爾弗雷德·歐文詩作〈徒勞〉的練習，該詩作於本書第 2 章已有討論。另可參考卡特發表於布倫菲特（C J Brumfit）與卡特（R A Carter）合編（1986 年）《文學與語言教學》（牛津大學出版社）的專文（特別參見 112-113 頁）。

4.4
Reading aloud
In this section we explore the advantages and disadvantages of reading aloud in the classroom on the part of both teacher and students. Reading is normally a silent activity but we have to ask whether classroom understanding can be improved by giving a literary text an oral treatment or enactment.
4.4 朗讀練習本節將探討教師與學生在課堂上進行朗讀的優缺點。閱讀本屬靜默活動，但我們必須思考：透過口語呈現或演繹文學文本，是否能增進課堂理解成效。

In the teaching of a foreign language the teacher can quite often begin a lesson by reading out an opening sentence, or paragraph, or dialogue. This practice still seems to be quite common, even if what follows is ‘communicative’, inventive, and employs many of the tactics of current ‘methodology’. In defence of the practice the teacher may be said to be ‘modelling’ the text.
在外語教學中，教師經常可以透過朗讀開場句、段落或對話來開始一堂課。這種做法即使後續課程是「溝通式」、具創意的，並運用許多當代「教學法」策略，似乎仍相當普遍。為此做法辯護時，可以說教師是在為文本進行「示範」。

In the teaching of literature an identical procedure is common, almost to the point of being a tradition. This time, however, it has little to do with modelling, and if pressed, many teachers would justify it by saying that story telling, and poetry, are part of an oral culture stretching back at least as far as any literary texts which we have, and probably a great deal longer; and that drama, by definition, is a refined and formalised oral mode. So the teacher reads and the students listen.
在文學教學中，相同的程序也很常見，幾乎可說是一種傳統。然而，這次與示範無關，如果追問，許多教師會辯解說故事講述和詩歌至少可追溯至我們現有的任何文學文本，甚至可能更早，是口述文化的一部分；而戲劇，顧名思義，是一種精煉且形式化的口述模式。因此教師朗讀，學生聆聽。

There are, of course, problems that will be encountered by the teacher and
當然，教師和學生將會遇到一些問題
by the student when the teacher reads a text aloud to the class. First, few teachers are trained in reading aloud and not all may have the necessary skills in managing changes in pitch and temoo and in the effective use of pauses. Normally, reading a text in a monotone will do nothing to bring a text alive. Second, in itself the activity of a teacher reading aloud will not necessarily aid comprehension; in fact, hearing a difficult text may cause some students to become confused by the text and to switch off - particularly if it is a long text. Thirdly, choice of texts is vital. Some texts do not gain from being read aloud and may be better read silently.
當教師向全班朗讀文本時，學生可能會遇到幾個問題。首先，受過朗讀訓練的教師並不多，並非所有人都具備必要的技巧來掌控音高與節奏的變化，以及有效運用停頓。通常情況下，單調地朗讀文本無助於使文本生動起來。其次，教師朗讀這項活動本身未必能幫助理解；事實上，聽到困難的文本可能會讓部分學生感到困惑而分心——尤其是當文本較長時。第三，文本選擇至關重要。有些文本並不適合朗讀，或許更適合默讀。

On the other hand consider the following:
另一方面，請思考以下情況：

I was not a clever child, academically speaking. I was alert, bright, chatty and energetic but by the age of seven I could barely read. Thompson was by then attending the Royal High School, where my father hoped eventually to send me. However, it soon became clear that my difficulties in reading and writing were going to make entry into that strict establishment uncertain. Thompson had been taught to read, had been read to nightly, by my mother. Oonagh, as I have said, was illiterate. I spent my days with her as an infant and it was she who put me to bed at night. Without fail, I would ask for a story and she would tell me one. She spoke to me in Gaelic-old folk tales, I like to thinkbut I was completely entranced. The room dark, one lamp glowing, Oonagh’s haunch warming my side, and her soft lilting accent with its sonorous, soft gutterals. Oonagh’s square face crudely mimicking the effects of shock, surprise, horror, fabulous joy . . . It was more than enough. I am sure, too, that here lies the key to my development as an artist, that this was why my personality took the maverick course it did. In those crucial, early days my imagination was not formed by any orthodox literary or pedagogical tradition. Oonagh’s entrancing, meaningless tales and her big expressive face were sufficient fuel. I am convinced that it is this factor that separates me from my fellow artists, and it is this that makes my vision unique. Inchoate sound and dramatic expression were the foundations of my creative being. Sense, logic, cohesion played no part. Oonagh’s mysterious voice and the bold analogues of her grimaces set my mind working independently.
就學業而言，我並不是個聰明的孩子。我機靈、活潑、愛說話又精力充沛，但到了七歲時，我幾乎還不識字。當時湯普森已經就讀皇家高中，那是我父親希望最終也能送我去的學校。然而很快就顯而易見，我在閱讀和寫作上的困難，將使我難以進入那所嚴格的學府。湯普森是由我母親教會閱讀的，每晚都會唸書給他聽。而正如我所說，烏娜是文盲。我幼時整天與她相處，晚上也是她哄我入睡。我總會要求聽故事，而她總會講一個給我聽。她用蓋爾語對我說——我願意相信是古老的民間故事——而我完全著迷了。房間裡一片黑暗，只有一盞燈亮著，烏娜的身軀溫暖著我的身側，她柔和的抑揚頓挫的聲調帶著低沉而溫柔的喉音。烏娜方正的臉誇張地模仿著震驚、驚訝、恐懼、極度喜悅的表情……這已綽綽有餘。我也確信，這正是我作為藝術家發展的關鍵所在，這就是為什麼我的性格會走上如此特立獨行的道路。在那段關鍵的早期歲月裡，我的想像力並未受到任何正統文學或教育傳統的塑造。烏娜格那些迷人卻無意義的故事，以及她那張表情豐富的大臉，就足以成為我的養分。我深信正是這個因素使我與其他藝術家有所區別，也正是這一點讓我的視角獨一無二。未成形的聲音與戲劇性的表達，構成了我創作本質的基礎。意義、邏輯、連貫性都無關緊要。烏娜格神秘的嗓音與她那些誇張表情的大膽類比，讓我的思維開始獨立運作。
(from The New Confessions by William Boyd 1987 Hamish Hamilton)
（節錄自威廉·博伊德《新懺悔錄》，1987 年，漢密許·漢密爾頓出版社）

An effective oral rendering of a text can bring a text alive for students, even if not every single word is understood at first reading, and a class can be put in touch with a whole text in a unique and memorable way. An effective reading aloud by the teacher can also serve to clarify difficulties: difficult words can be ‘enacted’ and unclear or complex syntax can be unravelled in the process of an oral dramatisation.
有效的口語朗讀能讓文本對學生生動起來，即使初次閱讀時並非每個字詞都能理解，課堂也能以獨特而難忘的方式與整篇文本產生連結。教師生動的朗讀也有助於釐清難點：艱澀的詞彙可以透過「表演」來呈現，而模糊或複雜的句法也能在口語戲劇化的過程中被解構。

Much depends, of course, on how well it is done, and it is impossible here to discuss in detail how it can or should be done. However, the following example may illustrate some relevant considerations. It is a single sentence from a novel by Charles Dickens.
當然，這很大程度上取決於教學方式的好壞，而在此無法詳細討論該如何或應該如何進行。不過，以下例子或許能說明一些相關考量。這是查爾斯·狄更斯小說中的一個句子。

I thought it had the most dismal trees in it, and the most dismal sparrows, and the most dismal cats, and the most dismal houses (in number half a dozen or so) that I had ever seen.
我認為這裡有著我所見過最陰鬱的樹木、最陰鬱的麻雀、最陰鬱的貓咪，以及最陰鬱的房屋（數量約莫六棟左右）。
4.4.2

To read or not to read: the student
讀或不讀：學生

If read aloud the repetition of the word ‘dismal’ becomes even more marked than in the printed version, and possibly also has an onomatopoeic effect, emphasising the drabness of the setting. Moreover, it accentuates a technique familiar to the cinema, moving from the trees, to the sparrows, to the cats, and finally to the most dismal feature of all, namely the houses, and allows the reader to add the phrase ‘that I had ever seen’ almost as an afterthought, so as not to divert attention from the universal dismalness. This of course is a fairly detailed analysis of a single sentence, and there is no need to rationalise in this way to learners. Select the sentence or unit of text which you consider will make a greater impact for being heard. Isolate it, i.e. make a marked pause before it and after it, and do not allow it to merge with the general flow of ‘teacher talk’. Read it with as much expression as you can give it, imagining yourself for the moment on a stage, or before a television camera. Have learners look at you during the reading, though not, of course, by saying ‘Look at me. I am going to read aloud’. Usually a lengthening of the initial pause will be sufficient.
如果大聲朗讀，「dismal」一詞的重複會比印刷版本更加明顯，甚至可能產生擬聲效果，強化了場景的單調乏味。此外，它突顯了一種電影中常見的技巧——從樹木轉到麻雀，再到貓，最後聚焦到最陰鬱的景物，也就是那些房屋，並讓讀者幾乎像事後想起般補上「我從未見過」這樣的短語，以免分散對整體陰鬱氛圍的注意力。當然，這只是對單一句子的詳細分析，無需對學習者如此理性化解釋。挑選你認為能透過聆聽產生更大衝擊力的句子或文本段落，將其獨立出來——也就是在前後做明顯停頓，別讓它淹沒在「教師話語」的一般流動中。盡可能帶感情地朗讀，想像自己此刻站在舞台上或電視鏡頭前。讓學習者在朗讀時注視你（當然不必直接說「看著我，我要朗讀了」），通常只需延長初始停頓時間就足夠了。

The considerations here can gradually be extended to longer texts. In general, teachers should be concerned to improve their own reading, and much can also be learned by students from a discussion of how a particular reading reflects a particular interpretation of a text. If a teacher feels uncertain about his or her own reading then a practised reading could be put on tape, or commercial tapes or records used; alternatively, most commercial literature course books are accompanied by a tape. In general, our view is that generally more is gained than lost if the teacher develops the habit of reading aloud to his or her class.
這裡的考量可以逐步延伸至更長的文本。一般而言，教師應致力於提升自身的閱讀能力，而學生也能透過討論特定閱讀如何反映對文本的特定詮釋中獲益良多。若教師對自身解讀感到不確定，可將熟練的朗讀錄製成音檔，或使用商業錄音帶與唱片；此外，多數商業文學教材都附有配套錄音帶。總體而言，我們認為教師若能培養對班級朗讀的習慣，通常利大於弊。

In this section we explore some advantages and disadvantages to students reading aloud in the literature class. And we begin with an observation that there are few classes in both native and non-native speaker contexts where students do not enjoy the process of reading a text aloud.
本節我們將探討學生在文學課堂上朗讀的優缺點。首先我們觀察到，無論在母語或非母語學習環境中，很少有班級學生不享受大聲朗讀文本的過程。

There are, of course, a number of questions relevant to the practice of students reading aloud. Some of the main ones are:
當然，關於學生朗讀練習存在若干相關問題，其中幾個主要問題包括：
1 What kinds of texts are best suited for reading aloud?
1 哪些類型的文本最適合朗讀？
2 In the course of reading a text in class when should it be read aloud by the student? Should it be done first by teacher or by student?
2 在課堂上閱讀文本的過程中，應該何時讓學生朗讀？應該先由老師還是學生來進行？
3 How should it be done? Are there any guidelines which might help improve reading aloud by students?
3 應該如何進行朗讀？有哪些指導原則可以幫助學生提升朗讀技巧？
4 Is reading best done by an individual student reading aloud to a class? Is choral reading effective? Can reading aloud be done in groups?
4 由個別學生向全班朗讀是否效果最佳？合唱式朗讀有效嗎？可以分組進行朗讀嗎？

Clearly some texts lend themselves better than others to reading aloud. In general, a text which has a clear narrative line is better than one which is more descriptive, which presents a lyrical evocation of things or which presents ideas in a cerebral manner. Also important are contrasts. There might be contrasts between characters, contrasts in action or contrasts in mood. Reading the text aloud allows contrasts to be heightened by changes in pace or pitch. It is important to select texts which allow marked patterns, preferably of action in the early stages, to be clearly and energetically signalled. This will lead to a
顯然有些文本比其他更適合朗讀。一般而言，具有清晰敘事線條的文本，會比那些偏重描述性、以抒情方式喚起事物意象，或以知性方式呈現理念的文本更為適合。此外，對比效果也相當重要——可能是角色間的對比、情節動作的對比，或是氛圍的對比。透過朗讀時節奏與音調的變化，能讓這些對比更加鮮明。選擇那些能展現鮮明模式（尤其在初期階段最好以動作為主）的文本至關重要，如此才能清晰有力地傳達文本意涵。這將有助於
greater sense of involvement on the parts of both the students reading and those being read to.
提升朗讀學生與聆聽者雙方的參與感。

In a class which is to be devoted to students reading aloud it is generally preferable if the students read the text first; otherwise they may be influenced by the teacher’s style or by the particular interpretation which the teacher’s reading supports. There are no hard and fast rules, of course, and a demonstration performance by the teacher even of the first sections of the text may be necessary as a way of modelling the texts for the students. It should be a matter for the teacher to decide, however, whether to conclude a study of the text with his or her own reading. It is important that students do not feel inferior; on the other hand it may provide an opportunity for the teacher to indicate some ways in which improvements to reading aloud can be made.
在一堂專注於學生朗讀的課程中，通常最好讓學生先自行閱讀文本；否則他們可能會受到教師風格或教師朗讀所支持的特定詮釋影響。當然，這並非鐵律，有時教師示範朗讀文本的前幾段可能是必要的，作為學生理解文本的範本。不過，是否在文本研讀結束時由教師親自朗讀，應由教師自行決定。重要的是不讓學生感到自卑；另一方面，這也可能成為教師指出如何改進朗讀技巧的機會。

The teacher must also judge when reading aloud is most effective for the class’s understanding and appreciation of a text. It may sometimes be helpful to discuss the text in advance of a reading; on the other hand, reading aloud first can supply pointers towards discussion. A general rule is that it is beneficial to read a text more than once at different stages in the exploration of that text. Remember that reading aloud can be a relief, it can heighten the impact of a line or phrase, it can effectively dramatise key points in the action and it can reveal humour which may not otherwise be noted in the printed word.
教師還需判斷何時進行朗讀最能增進班級對文本的理解與欣賞。有時在朗讀前先討論文本可能有所幫助；另一方面，先進行朗讀也能為後續討論提供方向。一個通用原則是：在文本探索的不同階段重複朗讀是有益的。請記住，朗讀能帶來舒緩效果，能強化某行文字或片語的感染力，能生動地呈現情節關鍵點，還能展現印刷文字中可能被忽略的幽默。

The question of how reading aloud is best done is difficult since the provision of guidelines may suggest that there is a correct way in which it is to be done. Texts cannot be subjected to a grid which is followed to produce a good reading. Different texts require different readings. However, a good starting point is to introduce potential readers to the idea of contrasting variables. Students can be offered an initial choice of reading the text:
關於如何進行最佳朗讀是個難題，因為提供指導方針可能暗示存在某種「正確」的朗讀方式。文本不該被套用固定模式來產出所謂好的朗讀。不同文本需要不同的詮釋方式。不過，一個好的起點是讓潛在的朗讀者認識「對比變數」的概念。可以讓學生從以下初始選項開始練習朗讀：
loud or soft? 大聲或輕聲？
fast or slow? 快速或緩慢？
with the choices related to the content of the text and the reader’s interpretation of that content. After discussion of these main variables, further choices (e.g. high pitch v. low pitch) can be added and the text(s) re-read with reference to them. Students will also note that it is unlikely that variables would remain constant; a reading can change from slow to fast and from loud to soft and back to loud again during the course of the reading. For further exemplification see 4.4.4.
與文本內容相關的選擇以及讀者對該內容的詮釋。在討論這些主要變項後，可以加入更多選擇（例如高音調與低音調），並參照這些變項重新朗讀文本。學生也會注意到，這些變項不太可能保持恆定；在朗讀過程中，速度可能從慢轉快，音量可能從大聲轉小聲，再轉回大聲。更多範例請參見 4.4.4 節。

The following poem, from the First World War, is an extreme case of ‘requiring to be read aloud’. Though each teacher/reader might have his or her own interpretation, we suggest that it should be read in the manner of a musichall compere, or of a radio show host presenting pop records; that in this way the effect of the two lines
以下這首第一次世界大戰時期的詩歌，是「需要被大聲朗讀」的極端案例。雖然每位教師/讀者可能有自己的詮釋方式，但我們建議應以音樂廳主持人的風格，或是電台流行音樂節目主持人的方式來朗讀；透過這種方式，這兩行的效果將會是：

That in the fighting for this patch of wood (spoken very quickly, almost level pitch)
在為這片樹林戰鬥時（語速極快，音調幾乎持平）
Were killed somewhere above (short pause) eight (sharp rise in pitch at the beginning of the word) thousand (slightly lower pitch) men (sharp fall in pitch)
有超過（短暫停頓）八（字首音調急升）千（音調略降）人（音調急降）陣亡
achieves a greater poignancy than if read in a sombre or restrained manner, which is anyway not suggested by the opening:
比用沉悶或壓抑的方式閱讀更能觸動人心，而開頭也並未暗示要如此：

Ladies and gentlemen (very loud, almost a shout, to attract attention; much lengthened second vowel in 'Ladies'; fall in pitch on 'gentlemen', though still very loud)
各位女士先生們（音量極大，近乎喊叫以吸引注意；"女士"一詞的第二個音節明顯拉長；"先生們"雖仍保持高音量但音調下降）

High Wood 高地森林Ladies and gentlemen, this is High Wood, Called by the French, Bois des Fourneaux, The famous spot which in Nineteen-Sixteen, July, August and September was the scene Of long and bitterly contested strife, By reason of its High commanding site. Observe the effect of shell-fire in the trees Standing and fallen; here is wire; this trench For months inhabited, twelve times changed hands; (They soon fall in), used later as a grave. It has been said on good authority That in the fighting for this patch of wood Were killed somewhere above eight thousand men, Of whom the greater part were buried here, This mound on which you stand being . . . Madame, please,
女士們、先生們，這裡是高地森林，法國人稱之為布瓦德富爾諾，這個著名地點在 1916 年 7 月、8 月和 9 月曾是長期激烈爭奪的戰場，因其居高臨下的戰略位置。請注意砲火對樹木造成的影響——那些依然挺立與倒下的；這裡是鐵絲網；這條戰壕曾被佔據數月，易手十二次；（它們很快就坍塌了），後來被用作墳墓。有可靠消息指出，在這片森林的爭奪戰中，約有超過八千名士兵陣亡，其中大部分埋葬於此，您腳下的這座土丘就是......女士，請注意You are requested kindly not to touch Or take away the Company's property As souvenirs; you'll find we have on sale A large variety, all guaranteed. As I was saying, all is as it was, This is an unknown British officer, The tunic having lately rotted off. Please follow me - this way . . . the path, sir, please, The ground which was secured at great expense The Company keeps absolutely untouched, And in that dug-out (genuine) we provide Refreshment at a reasonable rate. You are requested not to leave about Paper, or ginger-beer bottles, or orange-peel, There are waste-paper baskets at the gate.
懇請各位勿觸碰或帶走公司財產作為紀念品；您會發現我們有各式各樣的商品可供選購，品質皆有保證。正如我方才所言，一切保持原貌，這位是身分不詳的英國軍官，其制服近期已腐朽脫落。請隨我來——這邊請...先生請走步道，這片土地是公司耗費巨資取得，完全保持原始狀態。在那個（正宗的）戰壕裡，我們提供價格合理的茶點。請勿隨意丟棄紙張、薑汁啤酒瓶或橘子皮，入口處設有廢紙簍。

Philip Johnstone (1918) 菲利普·約翰斯通 (1918)
Such preparation of the text for reading aloud can be done both individually and in groups. Our preference is for group work where students work together to rehearse a reading on which they can all agree and then appoint a reader to perform the agreed version. The different groups in the class can then vote to decide which rendering of the text they judge to be the best.
這種為朗讀進行的文本準備工作，既可單獨進行也能分組完成。我們傾向採用小組合作模式，讓學生共同排練出彼此認可的朗讀版本，再推派代表演繹這個共識版本。隨後全班各組可投票評選出他們認為最出色的文本詮釋。

A variant of this would be for a short piece of text to be read aloud by one student and then read again by another student - leading to the question of why might one reading appear to be more appropriate than another. We would prefer such procedures to the practice of choral reading in a group or whole class. Choral reading - where everyone in a class reads the text together at the same time - has the advantage of helping the less confident students to participate; but it has the disadvantage of blurring individual or small group
這種方法的一個變體是讓一位學生朗讀一小段文本，然後再由另一位學生重複朗讀——進而引發討論：為什麼某種讀法可能比另一種更合適。我們傾向於採用這種方式，而非全班或小組的齊聲朗讀。齊聲朗讀——即全班同時一起朗讀文本——的優點在於能幫助缺乏自信的學生參與；但其缺點在於模糊了個體或小組
interpretations, of allowing some students to participate without actually doing or learning very much and of distracting attention from the decisions required as to how a particular text is to be read to its full effect.
的詮釋空間，讓部分學生實際上沒有真正投入學習就能參與，並且分散了對「如何充分發揮特定文本朗讀效果」所需決策的注意力。

In conclusion to this section we would stress once again the importance and value of encouraging students to read aloud. If students make errors, then opportunities can be found for learning from such errors. If we want students to explore literary texts and to explore their own experience in relation to such texts, then we have to trust them, to encourage them to try reading aloud. In this way they can come to gain insights into what a text means.
在本節結論中，我們要再次強調鼓勵學生朗讀的重要性和價值。若學生在朗讀中出錯，這些錯誤反而能成為學習機會。如果我們希望學生探索文學作品並連結自身經驗，就必須信任他們，鼓勵他們嘗試朗讀。透過這種方式，他們才能深入理解文本的意涵。

4.4.3

Practical task 實務任務
This poem requires some background information in that it imitates the rhythms and uses some of the phrases of a quite well-known English hymn, the original being a thanksgiving for harvest. The poem is, of course, basically satirical. With a suitably advanced group decide I What is the underlying feeling of the poem? Is it, for example a) conviction b) humour c) indignation d) regret e) some other emotion? 2 We consider that this is a poem which should be read aloud. Do you agree? Why? 3 Decide how you would read it (see 4.4.2 above). 4 What is the potential of this poem for exploitation, quite separately from reading aloud?
這首詩需要一些背景知識，因為它模仿了一首相當知名的英文讚美詩的節奏，並使用了部分詞句——原詩是對豐收的感恩。當然，這首詩本質上是諷刺的。請與程度適合的學習小組討論：1. 這首詩的潛在情感是什麼？例如是 a)確信 b)幽默 c)憤慨 d)遺憾 e)其他情緒？2. 我們認為這首詩適合朗讀，你同意嗎？為什麼？3. 決定你會如何朗讀它（參見上文 4.4.2 節）。4. 除了朗讀之外，這首詩還有哪些教學開發潛力？

Harvest Hymn 豐收讚美詩

We spray the fields and scatter
我們噴灑田野，四處散佈
The poison on the ground
毒藥於土壤之上
So that no wicked wild flowers
讓那些邪惡的野花
Upon our farm be found.
無法在農場生長。
We like whatever helps us
我們喜歡任何能幫上忙的東西
To line our purse with pence:
只要能讓荷包滿滿：
The twenty-four hour broiler-house
二十四小時運轉的養雞場
And neat electric fence.
還有整齊的電圍籬。
All concrete sheds around us
我們周圍所有的水泥棚屋
And Jaguars in the yard,
還有院子裡的捷豹汽車，
The telly lounge and deep-freeze
電視休息室和冷凍櫃
Are ours from working hard.
都是我們辛勤工作的成果。
We fire the fields for harvest,
我們焚燒田野以待收穫，
The hedges swell the flame.
樹籬助長了火勢。
The oak trees and the cottages
橡樹與農舍，
From which our fathers came.
是我們祖先的來處。
We give no compensation,
我們不給予任何補償，
The earth is ours today,
今日地球屬於我們，
And if we lose on arable,
若我們失去可耕地，
Then bungalows will pay.
那麼平房就得付出代價。
All concrete sheds . . . etc.
全是混凝土棚屋...等等。
John Betjeman 約翰·貝傑曼
which introduces a specific framework and some suggested categories for reading a text in performance. This is then extended to a reading of 'The General’ by Siegfried Sassoon.
這部分介紹了一個具體框架，以及一些建議的類別，用於在表演中解讀文本。接著將此方法延伸應用於解讀齊格菲·沙遜的〈將軍〉一詩。

Attempt the exercise yourself and with a class and consider a) the extent to which the suggested categories are useful b) how far your rendering of the poem represents an interpretation of it c) whether ‘The General’ is a poem better suited for reading aloud than the other war poem ‘High Wood’ discussed at 4.4.2 above.
請自行嘗試這個練習，並與班級一起思考以下問題：a) 這些建議的分類在多大程度上是有用的 b) 你對這首詩的詮釋在多大程度上代表了一種解讀 c) 與上文 4.4.2 節討論的另一首戰爭詩《High Wood》相比，《The General》是否更適合朗讀。

Introduction for the student
學生導讀

This unit is designed to help you explore some of the factors involved in reading a literary text aloud. Just as writers exploit grammar and vocabulary for literary effect. so they pattern sounds for expressive purposes. This is a feature which can best be brought out by reading aloud. and many literary texts gain from this element of “performance”.
本單元旨在幫助你探索朗讀文學作品時涉及的某些要素。正如作家會運用文法與詞彙來達到文學效果，他們也會為了表達目的而安排聲音模式。這個特質最能透過朗讀展現出來，許多文學作品都因這種「表演」元素而增色。
You will find the cassette particularly useful for this unit.
你會發現這卷錄音帶對本單元特別有幫助。

Orientation 導讀方向

There are many different ways of reading a text. Factors such as speed. pitch and emotion all help to convey the reader’s interpretation of the piece. Below is a set of eight such ‘variables’ (you may think of more) which the reader can select from and combine to give added meaning to the words on the page.
閱讀文本有許多不同的方式。速度、音高和情感等因素都有助於傳達讀者對作品的詮釋。以下列出八種這類「變數」（您可能想到更多），讀者可從中選擇並組合，為頁面上的文字賦予更多意義。
i) loud - soft
i) 大聲 - 輕聲
ii) fast - slow
ii) 快速 - 緩慢
iii) high pitch - low pitch
iii) 高音調 - 低音調
iv) tense - relaxed
iv) 緊繃 - 放鬆
v) smiling - grim
v) 微笑 - 嚴肅
vi) ‘chin up’ - ‘chin down’
vi) 「下巴抬起」 - 「下巴垂下」
vii) cmotive - non-cmotive
vii) 動機性 - 非動機性
viii) ‘breathy’ viii) 「氣音式」

The first five pairs above are probably self-explanatory. The following brief notes are added for the remainder:
上述前五組對比或許不言自明。其餘項目補充簡要說明如下：
vi) Consider the exchange:
vi) 試考量以下對話：

A: My father died last night.
A: 我父親昨晚過世了。
B: I’m sorry to hear that.
B: 聽到這個消息我很難過。
Utterance B here is likely to be spoken with “chin down”. It is also likely to be soft rather than loud. For ‘chin-up’ consider:
此處的語句 B 很可能會伴隨「低頭」的動作。語氣也較可能是輕柔而非大聲。若要表達「抬頭挺胸」的語氣，可以考慮：

I am proud to announce that your company has again achieved . . .
我很榮幸宣布貴公司再次達成...
vii) If I say, ‘Take the second turning to the left’ that is likely to be non-emotive. and as such ‘neutral’. “Emotive” would include any utterance which involved the expression of emotions such as excitement. anger. disappointment ete.
vii) 如果我說「在第二個路口左轉」，這句話很可能是不帶感情的，因此是「中性的」。而「帶感情」則包含任何涉及情緒表達的話語，例如興奮、憤怒、失望等。
viii) ‘Breathy’ refers to the mode of speaking frequently associated with television advertising and intended to be persuasive and in some cases, sexy. There is no obvious ‘opposite’ to ‘breathy’ to form a pair.
viii) 「氣音式」指的是電視廣告中常見的說話方式，目的是為了說服觀眾，有時還帶有性感意味。這種說話方式並沒有明顯的「對立形式」可以形成對比。

Reading aloud 1 朗讀練習 1

I Listen to this reading of “The General” by Sicgfried Sassoon. We shall look at this poem again in Unit 6 where we examine associations of particular words. Here we concentrate on how to express the meaning orally.
請聆聽這段由西格夫里·薩松創作的《將軍》朗讀。我們將在第六單元再次探討這首詩，屆時會研究特定詞彙的聯想意義。此處我們著重於如何用口語表達詩意。

Now look at the poem and read it through chorally.
現在請看著這首詩，大家一起朗讀。

The General 將軍

‘Good-morning; good-morning!’ the General said When we met him last week on our way to the line. Now the soldiers he smiled at are most of 'em dead, And we’re cursing his staff for incompetent swine. ‘He’s a cheery old card,’ grunted Harry to Jack As they slogged up to Arras with rifle and pack.
「早安；早安！」將軍說道，上週我們在前往前線的路上遇見他。如今他微笑以對的士兵大多已陣亡，而我們正咒罵他的參謀們是無能的蠢豬。「他是個開朗的老傢伙，」哈利對傑克咕噥著，當他們扛著步槍和背包艱難地朝阿拉斯前進。

But he did for them both by his plan of attack.
但他用他的進攻計劃害死了他們倆。
Siegfried Sassoon 齊格菲·沙遜
2 Consider the following features and practise them in groups. Make comments on each other’s performance.
2 請思考以下特徵並分組練習。對彼此的表現給予評論。

Line I Grecting high pitch. ‘The General said’ low pitch.
第一行問候語用高音調。「將軍說道」用低音調。
Grecting also ‘chin up’. Try and speak as a supcrior speaking to inferiors or subordinates.
問候語也要「抬起下巴」。試著以長官對下屬說話的語氣表達。

Line 2 Continue low pitch. quick rather than slow. No variation of pitch. Consider also loud versus soft, tense versus slack.
持續保持低音調。快速而非緩慢。音調無變化。同時考量大聲與小聲、緊繃與鬆弛的對比。

Line 3 Grim. Stress on ‘dead’. Very tensc; relaxed speaking loses the meaning entirely.
第 3 行陰沉。強調「死」字。非常緊張；若用輕鬆的語氣說就完全失去意義了。

Line

\neq

Grimmer than 3. Definitely emotive (anger? contempt?). Consider especially the articulation * of the word “swinc” (and also its associations - see Unit 6. Section A. Oricentation).
比 3 更陰沉。絕對帶有情感（憤怒？輕蔑？）。特別注意「swinc」這個詞的發音*（以及它的聯想——參見第六單元，A 節，導論）。

Line 5 Complete change from 4. First part of line smiling - ‘chin up’ - in spite of the verb ‘grunted’. Remainder of line low pitch.
第 5 行與第 4 行完全不同。儘管動詞是「咕噥」，但句首部分仍保持微笑——「抬起下巴」。其餘部分音調低沉。

Line 6 Less marked than any other line, but consider loud versus soft, quick versus slow. For effect, follow by a pause of full three seconds. and time this.
第 6 行比其他任何一行都更不明顯，但要考慮大聲與輕柔、快速與緩慢的對比。為了效果，接著停頓整整三秒，並計時。

Line 7 Tense, but lacking the bitterness of 4. Soft appropriate to the presence of death.
第 7 行緊張，但缺乏第 4 行的苦澀。語氣柔和，與死亡的氛圍相稱。

4.5
Alternative versions: the uses of paraphrase
4.5 替代版本：改寫的運用

One of the advantages of gap-filling (4.2) as a language-based strategy is that students come to compare alternative versions of texts. They explore different lexical choices, evaluating the different effects of one word over another by considering the grammatical, semantic and, in the case of poetry, sound patterns into which they fit; they may even prefer some of their choices to the ones eventually revealed to be the poet’s choices.
填空練習（4.2）作為一種語言導向策略的優勢在於，學生能藉此比較文本的不同版本。他們探索各種詞彙選擇，透過考量文法、語義層面（若是詩歌還需考量音韻結構），評估不同詞語產生的效果差異；有時學生甚至會更偏愛自己選擇的詞彙，而非最終揭曉的詩人原選用字。

An extension to this activity can lead to an exploration of the possibilities of paraphrase. The technique is a relatively simple one of juxtaposing two or more versions from texts which are being read or are to be read - one the original and the other(s) a re-written alternative version. Clearly, paraphrasing texts can work most successfully if the texts are short or are opening lines or stanzas. As with texts which are compared for thematic correspondences, the basic principle is that the essential qualities of something are most effectively and memorably highlighted by means of simple contrast. The process of comparing alternative versions leads, too, to an active involvement with a text and to a sense of the text as something dynamic and fluid, open to creative exploitation, rather than as a static fixed order of words on a page served as if to a passive consumer.
這項活動的延伸可以引導學生探索改寫的可能性。這項技巧相對簡單，只需將正在閱讀或即將閱讀的文本中兩個或多個版本並列呈現——一個是原文，其他則是改寫後的替代版本。顯然，若文本篇幅較短或是開頭段落或詩節，改寫練習效果最佳。如同比較主題對應關係的文本，其基本原則是透過簡單對比最能有效且令人印象深刻地凸顯事物的本質特徵。比較不同版本的過程也能促使學生積極參與文本，體會到文本是動態流動、可供創意發揮的載體，而非頁面上靜止不變的文字排列，只被動地供人消費。

Paraphrase holds out numerous possibilities. For example, key lines in a poem can be extracted and paraphrased in order to help students to isolate particular stylistic or tonal qualities. In the poem ‘Futility’, for example (see 2.4.2) a paraphrase of lines

10 - 11

such as:
改寫提供了無數的可能性。例如，可以提取詩歌中的關鍵句並進行改寫，以幫助學生掌握特定的文體或語調特質。以〈徒勞〉這首詩為例（參見 2.4.2 節），對其中某些詩句進行改寫，例如：

Are dear-achieved limbs and still warm
親愛的成就之軀仍溫熱
full-nerved sides too hard to stir?
神經緊繃的兩側是否過於僵硬而難以動彈？

which involves a teacher in little more than transposing adjectives - can be compared with the original:
這僅僅涉及老師對形容詞的簡單轉換——可以與原文進行比較：

Are limbs, so dear-achieved, are sides
四肢，如此珍貴得來的身軀
Full-nerved - still warm - too hard to stir?
神經飽滿——仍帶餘溫——卻難再喚醒？
The paraphrase is deliberately not staccato, broken by syntactic embeddings or uneven in movement. The original serves to express the broken grief and emotional hesitancy of the persona of the poem. Its tone is appropriate.
此處的釋義刻意避免斷奏式的節奏，不被句法嵌套打斷，也不在律動上起伏不定。原文旨在表達詩中人物破碎的悲慟與情感上的躊躇。其語調運用得宜。

Paraphrase can involve alternative versions in which words or phrases are put in a different order or it can adopt a more extreme but rather more playful strategy of mimetic paraphrase in which comic versions of well-known (and serious) texts are produced. For example, here are two versions of William Blake’s poem ‘The Tyger’:
改寫可以包含不同版本的措辭或短語重新排列，也可以採取更極端且帶有戲謔意味的模仿式改寫策略，將知名（且嚴肅的）文本改編成詼諧版本。例如，以下是威廉·布雷克詩作〈老虎〉的兩種改寫版本：

Tyger Tyger burning bright,
猛虎猛虎烈焰燃燒，
In the forests of the night;
在黑夜的森林中；
What immortal hand or eye,
什麼樣不朽的手或眼，
Could frame thy fearful symmetry?
能否勾勒出你那駭人的對稱？
Rabbit Rabbit, freezing dull,
兔子兔子，凍得發僵，
In the plains of the day;
在白晝的平原上；
What mortal foot or ear
凡人的腳步或耳語
Could copy thy timid disproportion?
能否複製你那怯懦的不成比例？

In this case several words are simply translated into their opposites but the effect can be to focus attention on the original from a different perspective.
在此情況下，幾個詞語僅被簡單地譯為其反義詞，但效果可能是從不同角度聚焦於原文。

Here are some examples of paraphrase exercises. In each case opening
以下是一些改寫練習的範例。在每個案例中，開頭的
lines or short poems are taken and key words or phrases re-written. The paraphrasing takes the following forms:
詩句或短詩被選取，並對其中的關鍵詞或短語進行改寫。這些改寫採取了以下形式：

1a) lb) 1b) is the original version and 1a) involves changes to key verbs, rhymes and to a central adjective - diurnal/daily.
1a) 1b) 1b)是原始版本，而 1a)則對關鍵動詞、押韻和一個核心形容詞——diurnal/daily（晝夜/日常）進行了改動。
2a) 2b) Here 2a) is a re-write of the original, 2b), only in so far as the layout on the page is concerned. The aim is to focus on the purpose of the particular lineation adopted by the poet.
2a) 2b) 此處 2a)是對原始版本 2b)的改寫，僅涉及頁面上的排版形式。目的是聚焦於詩人所採用的特定分行方式之用意。
3a) - f) 3d) is the original version. Changes are made to vocabulary, syntactic structure and to deixis (i.e, the,

a

, these, etc.)
3a) - f) 3d) 為原始版本。變更內容包含詞彙、句法結構以及指示詞（例如定冠詞、

a

、這些等）的調整。

1 'A slumber' (Wordsworth)
1 〈沉睡〉（華茲華斯）

a) A slumber did my spirit feel;
a) 我的靈魂曾陷入沉睡；

I shed no human tears:
我未流下一滴人類的淚水
She seemed a girl who could not heal
她彷彿是個無法痊癒的女孩
The touch of earthly years.
塵世歲月的觸碰
No movement has she now, no force;
如今她靜止無力
She neither feels nor sees,
既無感覺也無視覺
Rolled round in earth’s daily course
隨著地球每日的運轉滾動
With rocks, and stones, and trees.
與岩石、石塊和樹木為伴。
b) A slumber did my spirit seal;
b) 我的靈魂陷入沉睡；

I had no human fears:
我沒有人類的恐懼：
She seemed a thing that could not feel
她彷彿是個無法感知的軀殼
The touch of earthly years.
塵世歲月的觸碰
No motion has she now, no force;
如今她靜止不動，毫無生氣
She neither hears nor sees,
既聽不見也看不見
Rolled round in earth’s diurnal course,
在地球日復一日的運轉中翻滾，
With rocks, and stones, and trees.
與岩石、石塊和樹木為伴。

2 'The Red Wheelbarrow' (William Carlos Williams)
2 〈紅色手推車〉（威廉·卡洛斯·威廉斯）

a) So much depends upon
a) 如此多的依賴

A red wheelbarrow  一輛紅色手推車
Glazed with rain water
被雨水淋得閃閃發亮
Beside the white chickens
在白色雞群旁
b) So much depends
b) 如此多的依賴
upon  在於
a red wheel  一輛紅色手推
barrow  車
glazed with rain  沾滿雨水的
water  水
beside the white  在白色
chickens  雞群旁

3 In a Station of the Metro' (Ezra Pound)
3 在地鐵站（艾茲拉·龐德）

a) An apparition of these faces in the crowd.
a) 人群中這些臉龐的幽靈

Like petals on a wet black bough.
猶如潮濕黑枝上的花瓣
b) The appearance of these faces in the crowd.
b) 人群中這些臉龐的顯現

Petals on a wet black bough.
潮濕黑枝上的花瓣。
c) The apparition of these faces in a crowd. Petals on a wet black bough.
c) 人群中這些面孔的幽靈。潮濕黑枝上的花瓣。
d) The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough.
d) 人群中這些面孔的幽靈；潮濕、黝黑枝條上的花瓣。
e) The apparition of these faces in a crowd; Petals on a wet brown bough.
e) 人群中這些面孔的幽靈；潮濕褐色枝幹上的花瓣。
f) The apparition of these faces in a crowd. Was like petals on a wet black bough.
f) 人群中這些面孔的幽靈。猶如潮濕黑色枝幹上的花瓣。

Paraphrase is a language-based approach which, with only a small measure of re-writing by the teacher, can put a text and its organisation in focus and which can aid appreciation of how form and meaning are interrelated.
釋義是一種以語言為基礎的教學方法，只需教師稍加改寫，就能使文本及其結構成為焦點，並有助於理解形式與意義之間的相互關聯。

For further discussion of paraphrase and re-writing see essays by Widdowson and Nash in Brumfit, C J and Carter, R A (eds.) 1986 Literature and Language Teaching OUP. The general issues raised here are examined further in sections on re-writing in the next chapter.
關於改寫與重寫的進一步討論，可參閱 Brumfit, C J 與 Carter, R A（編）1986 年由牛津大學出版社出版的《文學與語言教學》中 Widdowson 與 Nash 的論文。本章節提出的普遍性議題，將於下一章重寫專節中深入探討。

4.6
Writing creatively in a foreign language
4.6 用外語進行創意寫作

Some teachers resist the idea that students of English as a second or foreign language should write creatively in English. It is felt that they have enough difficulty manipulating the language in correct structures and that managing the kinds of deviant ‘creative’ structures of a language can produce problems without any clearly mitigating advantages. However, such a view discounts the benefits in confidence and in appreciation of language use which can be derived from simple language-based exercises, designed to promote sensitivity and to develop interpretive skills by exploiting awareness of patterns of language ‘from the inside’.
有些教師抗拒讓英語作為第二語言或外語的學生用英語進行創意寫作的想法。他們認為學生在正確的語言結構運用上已經夠吃力了，而要掌握那些偏離常規的「創意」語言結構，可能會帶來問題，卻沒有明顯的補償優勢。然而，這種觀點忽略了從簡單的語言基礎練習中能獲得的信心與語言運用欣賞能力。這些練習旨在透過從內部發掘語言模式，提升敏感度並培養詮釋技巧。

These ideas can be clarified by examination of some basic exercises. The exercises involve writing in English according to particular patterns. The exploitation of patterns is designed to enhance awareness of the interrelationship between form and meaning. They try to achieve a balance between a particular topic or theme and the form selected to represent it. Encouraging a student to respond to a theme or to content is important but, for purposes of developing literary appreciation, it may be dangerous to focus on what is said in isolation from how it is said. Listed below is a sample of possible exercises for writing according to clearly specified language-based patterns:
這些概念可以透過檢視一些基礎練習來釐清。這些練習涉及根據特定模式進行英文寫作。運用模式的設計旨在提升對形式與意義相互關係的覺察。這些練習試圖在特定主題或題材與其所選用的表現形式之間取得平衡。鼓勵學生對主題或內容作出回應固然重要，但就培養文學鑑賞能力而言，若僅專注於「說了什麼」而忽略「如何表達」，可能會產生不良影響。以下列舉幾項根據明確語言模式設計的寫作練習範例：

1 Focusing first line
1 聚焦首行

Students are given a key line, e.g.
學生們拿到一句關鍵台詞，例如：
It was so boring
這實在太無聊了
I was frightened and alone
我感到害怕又孤單
and invited to complete the poem by a series of observations. For example:
並邀請他們透過一系列觀察來完成這首詩。例如：
I was frightened and alone
我既害怕又孤單
The trees were waving dark and lonely
樹木在黑暗中孤獨地搖曳著
I was frightened and alone
我既害怕又孤單
The owl hooted 貓頭鷹鳴叫著
I was . . . . .
我當時......

2 Thin poems 2 精簡詩

A ‘thin’ poem consists of just two words per line. Less basic versions can be written in stanzas of two lines and can involve alliterative patterns. For example:
「精簡詩」每行僅由兩個字詞組成。較不基礎的版本可以寫成兩行一節，並可運用頭韻模式。例如：

Soft sand  柔軟沙粒
Bright shells  閃亮貝殼
Kids shout  孩子們喊叫
Sun shines  陽光普照
Salty smell  鹹鹹的氣味
etc.  等等

3 Cinquain 3 五行詩

This is a five line poem with two syllables in the first line, four syllables in the second line, six in the third, eight in the fourth and two syllables again in the final and fifth line. For example:
這是一種五行詩體，第一行兩個音節，第二行四個音節，第三行六個，第四行八個，最後第五行又回到兩個音節。例如：

Cold room  冷室
Ice at windows  窗上結冰
Arctic whistling outside
北極的呼嘯聲在外頭響起
The fire at last burns more brightly
爐火終於燒得更旺了
Warmth glows.  溫暖的光芒閃耀著

4 Sound poems 4 首聲音詩

Here students are given combinations of initial syllables and have to make patterns of related words:
在這裡，學生們會拿到一些開頭音節的組合，並需要創造出相關詞彙的模式：
a) in a shape which has some relation to the sound produced, e.g.
a) 以某種與發音相關的形狀呈現，例如：

splASH!
splurge
sp;

or b) contrasts have to be produced using words with the same initial letters:
或 b) 必須使用相同首字母的單詞來產生對比：

fridge
freeze
frost
freedom
frank

5 Noun phrase poem
5 名詞片語詩

This poem is based on sequences of noun phrases without a main verb which have to be arranged in an appropriate ‘picture’ on the page. For example:
這首詩由一系列沒有主要動詞的名詞片語組成，必須在頁面上排列成適當的「圖像」。例如：

The steady job 穩定的工作	The daily work 日復一日的勞動	The cup of tea 那杯茶
The bulky desk 那張笨重的書桌	The constant loss 持續的失落感	The sinking feeling 不斷下沉的感覺
The same ideas 相同的想法		The safety cage 安全牢籠
The familiar prison 熟悉的監獄		The occasional dream 偶爾的夢境
The private life 私生活		The same faces 相同的面孔
The sticky seat 黏膩的座位		The comfortable chair 舒適的椅子

This example was written by a German student of education training to be a teacher.
這個範例是由一位德國教育學系的學生所撰寫，他正在接受教師培訓。

6 The Magic Box
6 魔法盒子

This is a more open-ended and less formally restrictive exercise which is widely used in schools in England and which can carry over into EFL classes. Here students are read a sample version and given the main structural frame to the poem. They are then invited to say what they would put in the ‘box’ and what they would then do with it. The frame for the poem is as follows:
這是一項更具開放性且形式限制較少的練習，在英格蘭的學校中廣泛使用，也能延伸至 EFL（英語作為外語）課堂。學生會先聽取範例版本，並獲得詩歌的主要結構框架。接著，他們被邀請思考要在「盒子」裡放入什麼，以及之後會如何處理這些東西。這首詩的框架如下：

It has a refrain: ‘I will put in the box’, which can be followed by a range of objects as unusual as the student’s imaginative and linguistic resources will allow.
詩中包含一個重複句：「我要把＿＿放進盒子裡」，學生可根據自身的想像力與語言能力，填入各種天馬行空的物品。
It should contain a stanza which describes the box.
它應該包含一段描述這個盒子的詩節。
It should contain a stanza in which the writer says what he/she would do with the box.
它應該包含一段詩節，讓作者說出他/她會用這個盒子做什麼。

Here is a ‘Magic Box’ poem written to this formula by an Italian secondary school student.
這是一首由一位義大利中學生按照這個公式寫的「魔法盒子」詩。

The Magic Box 魔法盒子I will put in the box flowers of gold held together by silver chains, diamond stars and moons.
我會在盒子裡放入用銀鏈串起的金花、鑽石星辰與月亮。I will put in the box the little man from the blue moon, a marvellous day with mum and dad the schoolbag of a violet octopus
我會在盒子裡放入來自藍月的小矮人，與爸媽共度的美好時光，還有一隻紫色章魚的書包My box is made out of sea shells and lightning, rainbows and golden rays of sunshine.
我的盒子是用海貝與閃電、彩虹與金色陽光製成的。I shall go with my box to a desert island and play alone with the gold and silver and touch the rainbows where no-one will see me.
我將帶著我的盒子前往荒島，獨自把玩那些金銀珠寶，在無人看見之處觸摸彩虹。

4.6.1

Creative writing in the classroom
課堂中的創意寫作

In this section only some very preliminary possibilities

^{1}

have been explored and the potential for developing this work into pair, group and class poems should not be overlooked. The aim throughout is to foster an awareness from the inside of what is involved in the creative shaping of a text and to increase understanding of the mutual reinforcement of form and meaning. Frequently, such appreciation is fostered from the outside by analysis and discussion of a finished product; exercises in creative writing, however rudimentary, put students in touch with the processes of a text and with processes of language and form which are their own. This can lead to greater confidence and
在本節中僅探討了一些非常初步的可能性

^{1}

，且不應忽視將這項工作發展為雙人、小組及班級詩作的潛力。整體目標在於培養從內部意識到文本創意塑造所涉及的要素，並增進對形式與意義相互強化的理解。通常，這種欣賞是透過分析與討論已完成作品而從外部培養；然而，無論多麼基礎的創意寫作練習，都能讓學生接觸到文本的創作過程，以及屬於他們自己的語言與形式運作過程。這能帶來更大的信心與

enjoyment and perhaps to a realisation that writing creatively is a property available not exclusively to ‘great’ canonical writers, or even to native speakers only, but to all users of a language. Even small steps in this direction can lead to larger strides in literary competence.
樂趣，或許還能讓人意識到創意寫作並非僅限於「偉大」的經典作家，甚至也不僅限於母語人士，而是所有語言使用者都能擁有的特質。即使朝此方向邁出的小步伐，也可能帶來文學能力的大幅躍進。

4.7
Conclusion 4.7 結論

In this chapter some preliminary language-based aproaches to literary study have been reviewed and illustrated. These approaches are preliminary in that they are well-known and widely used in the language class, and are also preliminary in that they are designed to produce a creative involvement with a text which lays a firm basis for subsequent more detailed analysis, discussion and evaluation. The approaches are also related to one another as strategies for generating greater awareness of the properties of language use in literary texts. The chapter ended with an invitation to teachers and students to work progressively through a number of basic exercises leading to their writing creatively and for themselves in a foreign language. A final task for readers to undertake at this point might be a) try out two of the patterns at 4.5 in their own classrooms b) add to the list of basic patterns by at least two more suggestions which stimulate controlled creative writing.
在本章中，我們回顧並示範了一些以語言為基礎的文學研究初步方法。這些方法之所以稱為初步，一方面是因為它們在語言課堂中廣為人知且普遍使用，另一方面則是因為它們旨在培養對文本的創造性參與，為後續更詳細的分析、討論與評價奠定堅實基礎。這些方法彼此相關，都是為了提升對文學文本中語言使用特性的認知策略。本章最後邀請教師與學生逐步完成一系列基礎練習，引導他們以外語進行自主創作。讀者此刻可進行的最終任務可能是：a) 在課堂中實際嘗試 4.5 節中的兩種寫作模式 b) 至少再提出兩種能激發受控創意寫作的基礎模式建議。
8.0

Introduction 導論

Theories of reading 閱讀理論

8

During the nineteen eighties there has been a considerable growth of interest in theories of literature or in what is more generally termed literary or critical theory. Such interest has polarised debate concerning the teaching of literature in a number of universities, mainly in Europe and North America. In certain cases the debate has even acquired a certain notoriety, the most marked instance being the ‘MacCabe affair’ where a young lecturer with strong teaching and research interests in contemporary literary theory was refused tenure by the English department at the University of Cambridge, allegedly because such concerns were seen to be irrelevant to the teaching and study of English literature. Colin MacCabe subsequently became Professor of English at the University of Strathclyde and developed courses which parallel other courses in British universities such as Cardiff, Sussex, Nottingham and Southampton, where students engage in issues of literary theory and undertake courses in reading texts which are informed by recent work in critical theory. The development of critical theory in university courses has considerably expanded the horizons of English studies and has in turn been reflected in international conferences, important publications such as the Methuen/ Routledge New Accents Series (edited by Professor Terence Hawkes), journals such as Textual Practice and introductory guides to the field which explicate recent developments. An example of this explosion of interest can be provided by the estimated 70,000 copies of Terry Eagleton’s Literary Theory (Blackwell, 1983) which have been sold since its publication - sales far in excess of the norm for an academic book.
1980 年代期間，對於文學理論或更廣泛稱為文學批評理論的興趣有顯著增長。這種興趣在許多大學（主要位於歐洲和北美）引發了關於文學教學的兩極化辯論。在某些情況下，這場辯論甚至引發了爭議，最著名的例子就是「麥凱布事件」——一位對當代文學理論有濃厚教學與研究興趣的年輕講師，被劍橋大學英文系拒絕授予終身教職，據稱是因為這些研究被認為與英語文學的教學和研究無關。科林·麥凱布後來成為斯特拉斯克萊德大學的英語教授，並開設了與卡地夫、薩塞克斯、諾丁漢和南安普敦等英國大學相類似的課程，讓學生探討文學理論問題，並修讀受當代批評理論影響的文本閱讀課程。大學課程中批判理論的發展大幅拓展了英語研究的視野，這點也反映在國際會議、重要出版物（如 Terence Hawkes 教授主編的 Methuen/Routledge《新視角》系列）、《文本實踐》等期刊，以及闡釋該領域最新發展的入門指南中。Terry Eagleton 的《文學理論》（Blackwell，1983 年出版）自問世以來估計已售出 7 萬冊，這個數字遠超學術書籍的一般銷量，可作為此研究熱潮的例證。

It is, of course, impossible to represent in a book such as this, the range and depth of the field of literary theory and interested readers are encouraged to consult the titles suggested in our bibliography. In this chapter a necessarily selective approach is, therefore, taken. We select only those theories of literary text study which we consider to be particularly important and relevant to the study of literature; and we discuss in detail only those which we believe to be
當然，像這樣一本書不可能全面呈現文學理論領域的廣度與深度，有興趣的讀者請參閱我們書目中所列的參考文獻。因此，本章節必然採取精選的方式：我們僅選取那些對文學研究特別重要且相關的文學文本研究理論；並僅詳細討論那些我們認為...
most relevant and enabling for the teaching of literature in a second or foreign language. For example, we give attention to feminist theories of literature for the simple reason that many students and teachers of literature throughout the world are women and therefore read and interpret texts as women. We also devote attention to colonial discourse and to literatures in English because of the undoubted importance of such issues to the study of literature in many post-colonial nations in many parts of the world. Additionally, theories of interpretation are important in our view. We have advocated that a high priority be given to language-based, student-centred approaches to literature teaching in this book, and the implications of such approaches are that the ‘position’ of the reader/interpreter will be an important factor and that the role of language in interpretation cannot be ignored.
對於第二語言或外語文學教學最具相關性與啟發性的理論。舉例來說，我們關注女性主義文學理論，原因很簡單：全球眾多文學學習者與教師皆為女性，自然會以女性視角解讀文本。我們也著重探討殖民論述與英語文學，因為這些議題對世界各地許多後殖民國家的文學研究具有不可忽視的重要性。此外，詮釋理論在我們看來亦相當關鍵。本書主張應優先採用以語言為基礎、以學生為中心的文學教學方法，這類方法意味著「讀者/詮釋者立場」將成為重要因素，且語言在文本解讀中的角色不容忽視。

The main areas in critical theory can be divided into three phases:
批判理論的主要領域可分為三個階段：
a pre-structuralist phase
前結構主義階段
a structuralist phase 結構主義階段
a post-structuralist phase
後結構主義階段
A pre-structuralist phase will be the most familiar. It is a way of referring to the establishment of literary critical procedures in the early part of this century and is closely associated with the growth of literary studies as a discipline. In many respects it represents a challenge to older forms of historical or philological scholarship. For many students and teachers of literature it still represents the standard approach to the critical reading of texts. A pre-structural approach underlies the main orientation of this book. The structuralist phase was particularly dominant during the 1950s and 60s; the post-structuralist phase has been dominant during the late 1970 s and 80 s. It should be pointed out, however, that many of the relevant theories originated in Eastern Europe and in France, and that neither structuralist nor post-structuralist phases have had any serious impact on literary studies elsewhere in the world until the last ten to fifteen years. It is important to recognise that these three phases are less distinct than this account or the diagram on the following page indicate, and that there are, of course, in actual critical practice several areas of overlap between the phases.
前結構主義階段對多數人來說最為熟悉。它指的是本世紀初文學批評方法的建立，與文學研究作為一門學科的發展密切相關。在許多方面，它代表著對舊有歷史或語言學研究形式的挑戰。對許多文學師生而言，這仍是文本批判性閱讀的標準方法。本書的主要取向正是奠基於前結構主義方法。結構主義階段在 1950 至 60 年代特別盛行；後結構主義階段則在 1970 年代末至 80 年代佔據主導地位。然而必須指出的是，許多相關理論起源於東歐和法國，且無論是結構主義或後結構主義階段，直到過去十到十五年才真正對世界其他地區的文學研究產生重大影響。必須認識到這三個階段之間的界線並不如本文或下頁圖表所示那般明確，實際上在批評實踐中，這些階段之間存在著多處重疊區域。

A key characteristic of literary/critical theory is the posing of fundamental questions about the nature of literature and about the processes involved in reading and interpreting texts. Here are some examples:
文學/批評理論的一個關鍵特徵，在於提出關於文學本質以及文本閱讀與詮釋過程的根本性問題。以下是一些例子：

Even from this oversimplified account we can see that literary theory considers both the instrinsic and extrinsic relations within which literature exists. But the fundamental questions which are posed within literary theory constitute a
即便從這個過度簡化的說明中，我們仍可看出文學理論同時考量了文學存在的內在與外在關係。然而文學理論中提出的根本性問題，對本世紀盛行的文學閱讀與教學方式構成了
challenge to ways of reading and teaching literature which have been prominent in this century and which continue to be prominent in many institutions internationally. In other words, a challenge is posed both to ways of close reading and to the place of background information in the reading of literature. For example:
挑戰，這些方式在國際間許多機構中仍持續佔據主導地位。換言之，這不僅是對細讀方法的挑戰，也是對背景知識在文學閱讀中所佔地位的質疑。舉例來說：

Existing pre-structuralist model
現存的前結構主義模式
e.g. Text intrinsic, close verbal study.
例如：文本內在、嚴密的文字研究

Challenge to assumptions 挑戰既有假設
What is literary language? How is it different from other kinds of language? Can we discuss narratives without an explicit account of the formal components of narrative organisation?
何謂文學語言？它與其他類型的語言有何不同？我們能否在不明確敘述敘事組織的形式要素的情況下討論敘事？

Does it matter if we know little about the author of a literature text?
如果我們對文學文本的作者知之甚少，這重要嗎？

How is the representation of women in the text managed? Does our interpretation of the text differ if we are men or women? Are there universal meanings? Can texts be interpreted independently of political ideologies? Whose account of relevant background do we study?
文本中如何處理女性的再現？我們對文本的詮釋會因性別不同而有所差異嗎？是否存在普遍意義？文本能否獨立於政治意識形態來解讀？我們該研究誰提供的相關背景？
e.g. Extrinsic, contextual ‘background’ study. The philosophical and cultural assumptions of liberal humanism.
例如：外在、脈絡性的「背景」研究。自由人文主義的哲學與文化假設。

8.1

Practical criticism and liberal humanism (The prestructuralist phase)
實用批評與自由人文主義（前結構主義時期）

Practical criticism (also known as new criticism) is a strategy of close verbal reading of texts. It is at the core of pre-structuralist criticism. The aim is to explore the relationship between what is said in a literary text and how it is said. According to many practical critics, the what and the how will be mutually supportive in literary texts and attention is therefore devoted to showing how different formal techniques of writing serve to underscore or ‘express’ meaning. There is normally discussion of the tone of the writing, that is the appropriateness of the disposition of patterns of language (especially sound patterns) to the subject matter, for the tone of the text should bear an organic relation to the content of the whole work. And there is also normally consideration of the balance achieved in the text. Great writers do not present arguments for a particular point of view, for that is the remit of the politician or journalist; instead they rather seek to resolve opposing points of view into an aesthetic balance. This artistic integrity results from the ability to balance discordant ideas and to present them in a formally and linguistically controlled way to the reader. At the same time an attendant vision of balance and order, in which extreme or opposing views are reconciled, represents an expression of liberal humanist ideology.
實用批評（又稱新批評）是一種對文本進行細密文字解讀的策略，屬於前結構主義批評的核心方法。其目的在於探究文學作品中「所述內容」與「表達方式」之間的關聯。多數實用批評家認為，在文學文本中，內容與形式會相互支撐，因此特別注重闡明不同寫作形式技巧如何強化或「呈現」意義。通常會探討作品的語調——即語言模式（特別是聲音模式）與主題的適配性，因為文本語調應與整體內容存在有機聯繫。同時也會考量文本達成的平衡性：偉大作家不會為特定立場辯護（那是政治人物或記者的職責），而是致力於將對立觀點調和為美學上的平衡。這種藝術完整性源自於能夠平衡不協調的觀念，並以形式與語言上受控的方式呈現給讀者。同時，這種伴隨而來的平衡與秩序視野——其中極端或對立的觀點得以調和——代表著自由人文主義意識形態的表達。

In America this kind of criticism is associated with the names of Rene Wellek, Cleanth Brooks, John Crowe Ransome and Robert Penn Warren; in Britain the most prominent name is that of F. R. Leavis who practised close verbal readings of both poetry and fiction and for whom ‘balance’, ‘integrity’ and ‘tone’ were always profoundly a matter of moral vision on the part of the
在美國，這類批評與雷內·韋勒克、克林斯·布魯克斯、約翰·克羅·蘭森和羅伯特·潘·沃倫等名字相連；在英國，最突出的代表人物是 F·R·李維斯，他對詩歌和小說都進行細密的文字解讀，對他而言，「平衡」、「完整性」和「語調」始終深刻關乎創作者的道德視野。
writer. (Other influential British critics in this tradition are I. A. Richards and L. C. Knights.)
作家。（其他在這一傳統中具有影響力的英國評論家包括 I. A. 理查茲和 L. C. 奈茨。）

Practical criticism has been a very influential practice in the teaching of literature in many parts of the world. For many teachers and students it has provided a counterbalance to a more historically-based or survey approach to the study of literature. Although it is a pedagogical approach which works best with small groups where there can be intensive question and answer sessions, close reading can be demonstrated by the teacher in more formal contexts such as a lecture, where the teacher can present his or her own close reading of a text. As we hope to show, practical criticism can be a valuable approach to the words on the page and to the verbal particularities of specific texts. It is, however, a practice which has certain pedagogic weaknesses. It is also a practice whose foundations have been fundamentally challenged by much work in contemporary critical theory.
實用批評在世界許多地方的文學教學中一直具有深遠影響。對許多教師和學生而言，它為以歷史為基礎或綜覽式的文學研究方法提供了制衡。雖然這種教學方法最適合小團體進行密集的問答討論，但教師也能在更正式的場合（如講座）中示範細讀技巧，展示自己對文本的細緻解讀。正如我們希望展示的，實用批評能有效聚焦於文本字句與特定作品的語言特質。然而，這種方法也存在教學上的弱點，其理論基礎更當代批評理論的諸多研究受到根本性質疑。

We begin this section by examining a short narrative by the American novelist and short story writer Ernest Hemingway.
本節我們將從美國小說家兼短篇故事作家海明威的一篇短篇敘事作品開始分析。

The first matador got the horn through his sword hand and the crowd hooted him out. The second matador slipped, and the bull caught him through the belly and he hung on to the horn with one hand and held the other tight against the place, and the bull rammed him wham against the barrier and the horn came out, and he lay in the sand, and then got up like crazy drunk and tried to slug the men carrying him away and yelled for his sword, but he fainted. The kid came out and had to kill five bulls because you can’t have more than three matadors, and the last bull he was so tired he could hardly get the sword in. He could barely lift his arm. He tried five times and the crowd was quiet because it was a good bull and it looked like him or the bull and then he finally made it. He sat down in the sand and puked and they held a cape over him while the crowd hollered and threw things down into the bull-ring.
第一位鬥牛士的手被牛角刺穿，觀眾發出噓聲將他趕下場。第二位鬥牛士滑倒了，公牛用角刺穿他的腹部，他一手緊抓牛角，另一手死死按住傷處，公牛將他猛撞向圍欄，牛角拔出後，他倒在沙地上，接著像醉漢般搖晃起身，試圖毆打抬走他的人，還大喊要他的劍，最後昏了過去。那個年輕鬥牛士上場後不得不連殺五頭牛，因為按規定最多只能有三名鬥牛士。面對最後一頭牛時，他累得幾乎無法將劍刺入，手臂幾乎抬不起來。他嘗試了五次，觀眾屏息以待，因為這是頭好牛，局面看來不是他死就是牛亡，最後他終於成功了。他坐在沙地上嘔吐，人們用斗篷遮住他，此時觀眾叫嚷著往鬥牛場裡扔東西。

As we have pointed out, an aim of much practical criticism would be to undertake a close reading of this text. Normally, this close reading would be carefully regulated by the teacher who would prompt consideration of some of the following features:
正如我們所指出的，實用批評的主要目的在於對文本進行細讀。通常這種細讀會由教師仔細引導，促使學生思考以下部分特徵：

How does the writer’s choice of language express the meanings of the narrative?
作者的語言選擇如何表達敘事的意義？

What is the tone of the writing?
這篇文章的基調是什麼？
Is there a balance to the text, (i.e. a balance between the text’s form and the integrity of the writer’s vision; a balance in that the writer resolves opposing ideas or positions in his world view.)
文本是否具有平衡性？（即文本形式與作者視野完整性之間的平衡；作者在其世界觀中調和對立思想或立場的平衡。）
(form and meaning; expression) (tone; feeling)
（形式與意義；表達）（基調；感受）
(balance; integrity) （平衡；完整性）

Among the ‘answers’ to these questions which the teacher is trying to elicit will be responses to the following textual features:
在教師試圖引導出的這些問題的「答案」中，將包含對以下文本特徵的回應：
the effect of the repetition of the conjunction and; the particular tone it communicates;
重複使用連接詞「and」所產生的效果；它所傳達的特殊語氣；
the effect of point of view in the story; what is revealed by the narrative being written entirely in the third person; the relationship between point of view and the meaning of the story.
故事中視角的效果；完全以第三人稱敘事所揭示的內容；視角與故事意義之間的關係。
the tone of items such as ‘slug’; ‘hooked’; ‘belly’; ‘puked’; ‘hollered’; the closeness of these words and other features of the story to the spoken language; the effect of a corresponding gain in immediacy.
諸如「鼻涕蟲」、「上鉤」、「肚皮」、「嘔吐」、「吼叫」等詞彙的語調；這些詞語與故事中其他口語化特徵的緊密連結；以及隨之而來的臨場感增強效果。

One conclusion to be drawn is that there is no clear resolution to the action, no overt moral to be extracted; the author presents the narrative impersonally and seemingly without judgement or evaluation. There is little evidence of balance between opposing ideas, little effort at resolution on the part of the writer and no obvious connection between the point of view adopted and the potential meaning of the narrative.
由此可得出一個結論：故事情節並無明確結局，也無明顯道德教訓可提取；作者以客觀角度敘述，看似不帶任何評判或價值判斷。文本中幾乎看不到對立觀點的平衡，作者也無意尋求解決之道，採用的視角與敘事潛在意義之間更無明顯關聯。

One of the advantages of this kind of practical critical exposition is that students’ attention is directed towards certain textual features, and that they are thus prompted to think about the how as well as the what, about the form of the text as well as what it says. This kind of close reading contrasts with the overall survey mention of texts and writers in which a range of texts is set against the context of general historical, socio-cultural or literary developments.
這類實用批評闡釋的優勢之一，在於能引導學生關注特定文本特徵，進而促使他們思考「如何表達」與「表達什麼」，同時關注文本形式與內容。此種細讀法有別於泛論式文本綜覽——後者通常將一系列文本置於宏觀歷史、社會文化或文學發展脈絡中進行對照。

A pedagogical disadvantage, however, is that there is no clear method to practical criticism. It is hard to discern how students come to learn how to recognise tone, or work out for themselves the relationship between narrative form and literary meaning. It is likely that practical criticism teaching procedures are tightly controlled by the teacher, either in the form of directed questions accompanied by teacher-led commentary, or in the form of a demonstration exposition in a lecture or seminar. There are few explicit procedures presented which students can discover and implement for themselves, and one result is that students may resort to learning critical insights at second hand either from the exposition of their teacher or from recommended books of criticism. They may thus come to learn the judgements required of them or at least learn to play a critical game sufficiently well to pass an examination. Of course, the brightest and most capable students develop independent critical skills and acquire an impressive literary competence, but there are many others who only go through the motions, pass examinations but never take any active critical interest or engage in reading literature for themselves. One view which is regularly expressed is that practical criticism is best suited to mother tongue literature classes, whereas language-based approaches are better suited to contexts in which literature is read in a second or foreign language, though others would point to the growing employment of language-based and stylistic procedures in mother tongue literature classes too.
然而，教學上的一個劣勢在於實用批評缺乏明確的方法。很難辨識學生如何學會辨識語調，或自行理解敘事形式與文學意義之間的關係。實用批評的教學程序很可能由教師嚴格掌控，無論是以引導式問題搭配教師主導的評論，或是以講座或研討會中的示範闡述形式呈現。可供學生自行探索並應用的明確程序寥寥無幾，其結果之一便是學生可能轉而從教師的闡述或推薦的評論書籍中二手學習批判見解。他們或許因此學會了被要求的判斷，或至少學會玩好一場足以通過考試的批評遊戲。當然，最聰明且能力最強的學生能夠培養出獨立的批判能力，並獲得令人印象深刻的文學素養，但也有許多人只是敷衍了事，通過考試卻從未真正培養出積極的批判興趣，或是為自己而閱讀文學作品。一種常見的觀點認為，實用批評最適合母語文學課程，而基於語言的方法則更適合在第二語言或外語環境中閱讀文學的情況，儘管也有人指出，基於語言和文體學的方法在母語文學課程中的應用也日益增多。

8.1.1

Stylistics and language-based
文體學與基於語言的方法

Stylistics shares a number of presuppositions with practical critical approaches in that both are directed to a close, detailed consideration of the verbal approaches structure of texts although there is less concern with an evaluation of texts. The aims and procedures of stylistics have been discussed at 2.8 and 6.4 and there are numerous examples of pre-stylistic language-based teaching procedures throughout the book. From this we hope that the differences between these
文體學與實用批評方法共享許多前提假設，因為兩者都致力於對文本的語言結構進行細緻且詳細的考量，儘管對文本評價的關注較少。文體學的目標與程序已在 2.8 和 6.4 節中討論過，本書中也提供了許多前文體學時期基於語言的教學程序範例。從這些內容中，我們希望能夠區分這些
approaches and those associated with practical criticism will be apparent. The main orientation of stylistics and of language-based approaches remains prestructuralist.
實用批評相關方法之間的差異將顯而易見。文體學與語言導向方法的主要取向仍屬前結構主義範疇。

Here are some language-based approaches which we suggest may be appropriate to a teaching of the Hemingway story. Such approaches aim to offer a more systematic discovery procedure, more explicit attention to language, to be more activity-centred, and to allow students greater pedagogic space to work on and work out what the text might mean to them:
以下我們建議幾種適用於海明威小說教學的語言導向方法。這些方法旨在提供更系統化的探索程序、更明確的語言關注、更以活動為中心，並給予學生更多教學空間來解讀文本對他們的可能意義：

1 a text-completion exercise in which students are invited to a) select a title for the story b) supply a coda in which the point of the narrative is evaluated for the reader. Both activities require interpretation on the part of the student or group/pair working on the exercise.
1 文本填空練習：要求學生 a) 為故事選擇標題 b) 補充結語，對敘事要點進行讀者角度的評析。這兩項活動都需要學生個人或小組進行解讀。

2 a prediction exercise in which students are invited to anticipate the events befalling the third matador after reading the outcomes affecting the first two matadors.
2 預測練習：在學生讀完前兩位鬥牛士的遭遇後，邀請他們預測第三位鬥牛士可能面臨的事件。

3 a cloze activity in which, prior to reading, words which have (in the judgement of the teacher) a key structural role in signification are deleted and a list of alternatives is presented to students for substitution. One example here might be the words hooted and puked. Examination of alternatives and of the choices actually entered into by the author present interesting opportunities on the part of students for involvement with the text.
3 填空活動：在閱讀前，教師會刪除那些（根據教師判斷）在意義結構上具有關鍵作用的詞語，並提供替代詞彙清單讓學生進行替換。例如「hooted」和「puked」這兩個詞。透過檢視替代選項與作者實際選用的詞彙，能為學生創造深入參與文本的有趣機會。

4 a jumbled sentence activity in which students are invited to recombine the markedly co-ordinating conjunction-bound style of the story into short main clauses. The effects of deleting the and conjunction are examined and explored by comparison with the text which Hemingway produced.
4 句子重組活動：邀請學生將這個大量使用對等連接詞的故事風格，重新組合成簡短的主要子句。透過與海明威原著的對照，探討刪除「and」連接詞後所產生的效果差異。
5 re-writing exercises which involve either a shift in point of view or a ‘reregistration’ in which the story is re-written in a style designed to serve different and contrasting registerial functions. For example, students could be invited to re-write the story from the point of view of the boy matador or from the ‘position’ of either of the two matadors who have failed in the earlier attempts. Re-registration activities can involve the student in producing alternative, contrasting but thematically related texts such as writing a newspaper report of the bullfight, or designing an itinerary for a visit to a bullfight such as may appear in a holiday brochure or an historical account of the signficance of bullfighting in Spanish culture. In all such exercises, the aim would be to draw attention to the specifically literary qualities of the Hemingway piece and to explore how language is used for purposes of narrative shaping.
5 種改寫練習，涉及觀點轉換或「重新註冊」——即用不同風格重寫故事以呈現對比的語域功能。例如，可邀請學生從少年鬥牛士的視角重寫故事，或從先前失敗的兩位鬥牛士的「立場」出發。重新註冊活動能讓學生產出主題相關但風格對比的替代文本，例如撰寫鬥牛賽事的報紙報導、設計旅遊手冊中參觀鬥牛的行程規劃，或撰寫鬥牛在西班牙文化中重要性的歷史記述。此類練習皆旨在突顯海明威作品的文學特質，並探究語言如何被運用於敘事塑形。

8.2

Narrative models 敘事模型
Language-based approaches to literary texts aim to supply awareness of the way language works in specific texts. Theories of reading literature, especially those associated with its structuralist phase, also demonstrate that literature comprises specific structures, or patterns of formal organisation which inform literature, which correspond to those established in other texts, literary and
以語言為基礎的文學文本分析方法，旨在讓人們了解語言在特定文本中的運作方式。與文學閱讀相關的理論，特別是結構主義時期的理論，也表明文學包含特定的結構或形式組織模式，這些結構和模式不僅存在於文學作品中，也
non-literary, and which have to be internalised, often as a result of direct teaching, in order for literary competence to be developed.
存在於非文學作品中。為了培養文學能力，讀者必須將這些結構內化，而這往往需要透過直接教學來達成。

One of the most important of these structures is narrative structure and much work in literary theory has concentrated on describing the linguistic and semantic organisation of narrative. Research into narrative structure has demonstrated that there are three main components in a well-formed narrative:
其中最重要的結構之一就是敘事結構，而文學理論中有大量研究都專注於描述敘事的語言與語義組織。對敘事結構的研究顯示，一個完整的敘事包含三個主要組成部分：

Setting  背景設定
Complication  情節衝突
Resolution  結局收束
Setting refers to the when, where, who and in what circumstances of narrative, referring the reader or listener of a narrative to the relevant characters, their background to the physical and temporal settings for their actions and to the reasons for the initial narrative incitement. Complication refers to the plot of the narrative, marked by a series of events in temporal sequence, usually resulting in some kind of problem. The resolution is the part of the narrative concerned with the outcomes of the plot and how the main characters are affected. To these categories can be added an abstract (found in titles to stories, or in the prefaces common in jokes (‘did you hear the one about . . . ?’) and a coda or evaluation (see 8.1.1 above) in which the particular ‘point’ or moral of the story is pointed up.
背景設定指的是敘事中的時間、地點、人物及情境，它引導讀者或聽眾了解相關角色的背景、他們行動所處的物理與時間環境，以及最初引發敘事的動機。情節發展則涉及敘事的結構，通常以時間順序標記一系列事件，往往會導致某種問題的產生。結局則是敘事中關於情節結果及主要角色所受影響的部分。除此之外，還可加入摘要（常見於故事標題或笑話開場白中，如「你有聽過那個關於...的笑話嗎？」）以及尾聲或評價（參見上述 8.1.1 節），用以凸顯故事的特定「重點」或寓意。

As far as the Hemingway narrative is concerned, such a framework supplies some basic awareness and some terms which help us to begin talking about the text, its particular structure and the relationship between the way it is written and the kind of meanings it conveys. For example, there is a lack of evaluation and no abstract to this story (it has no title) and even the resolution only ‘resolves’ things on the plane of mere action as we learn little of the boy’s state of mind. It is in more senses than one a minimalist narrative, and as with many narratives written during the modernist period (approximately

1900 -

1930 in Western Europe and North America) is essentially indeterminate. It does not have a proper ending in which events are resolved and presented to the reader in the form of some kind of moral judgement. In terms of practical criticism the text lacks an appropriate sense of aesthetic balance. On one level, the structural indeterminacy parallels a sense that the boy (the ‘kid’ matador) does not know whether what he has ‘achieved’ is positive or negative; on another level, it may embody a sense of confusion and uncertainty. Structural description of narrative may, however, enable us to talk explicitly about narrative form, and tied to language-based approaches provides access to the text for students in a way not normally allowed by the techniques or procedures of practical criticism.
就海明威的敘事而言，這樣的框架提供了一些基本認知與術語，幫助我們開始討論文本、其特殊結構，以及寫作方式與傳達意義之間的關係。舉例來說，這個故事缺乏評價性內容（它沒有標題），甚至結局僅在動作層面上「解決」了事件——我們對男孩的心理狀態幾乎一無所知。這在多重意義上都屬於極簡主義敘事，如同現代主義時期（約 1930 年代盛行於西歐與北美）的許多作品，本質上具有不確定性。它沒有傳統意義上的結局——事件未被解決，也未以某種道德判斷的形式呈現給讀者。從實用批評的角度來看，文本欠缺適當的美學平衡感。一方面，結構的不確定性呼應了男孩（那位「菜鳥」鬥牛士）對自己「成就」好壞的茫然；另一方面，這種敘事可能體現了某種混亂與不確定感。然而，敘事的結構性描述或許能讓我們明確地談論敘事形式，結合語言學方法後，更能為學生開啟理解文本的途徑，這是實用批評技巧或程序通常無法達到的。

8.3

The death of the author
作者之死

One of the objections raised against structuralism by traditional literary critics is that it takes the life out of literary appreciation. Instead of being concerned with how a literary text renders an author’s experience of life and allows us access to human meanings, the structuralist is only interested in mechanical formal relationships, such as the components of a narrative, and treats the literary text as if it were a scientific object.
傳統文學評論家對結構主義提出的異議之一，是它抽離了文學鑑賞的生命力。結構主義者不關心文學文本如何呈現作者的生命體驗、如何讓我們觸及人性意義，反而只對機械化的形式關係感興趣，例如敘事的構成要素，並將文學文本視為科學研究對象般對待。

Modern literary theorists would in turn challenge these assumptions as being in themselves partial and limited. Much traditional criticism could be said to be liberal humanist, originating from a balanced position of moderation and commitment to an essentially unchanging order of things. Such a philosophy will scrutinise texts for expressions of an unchanging view of human life and feeling. Its proponents will therefore seek the ‘felt life’ in the expression of an author and explore how the author’s use of technique services such expression. Those writers are preferred who can resolve tension and conflict into a balanced moderate position and who can in the process release meanings which are not bound by any particular time or place but are universal in import. At the centre of this philosophy is the author. The great author transcends the particulars of his or her own life and history and speaks to us across time and space in terms we can understand because we are human. Modern literary theorists argue that the value attached to this kind of writing and to the author who produces it is itself a theory of literature which can be challenged and shown to be limited to a particular critical practice. Critical practices change from one period of history to another. This particular critical practice is, though still powerful at the present time, limited to a view of literature (and literature teaching) prevalent in the period from 1940-1980 and is gradually being replaced by other theories of literature and literature teaching. One particular challenge to this orthodoxy comes in the form of assertions of the ‘death of the author’.
現代文學理論家會反過來質疑這些假設本身是片面且有限的。可以說，許多傳統批評屬於自由人文主義，源自一種中庸平衡的立場，並致力於本質上不變的事物秩序。這種哲學會仔細審視文本中對人類生活和情感不變觀點的表達。因此，其支持者會尋求作者表達中的「感受生活」，並探討作者如何運用技巧來服務這種表達。那些能夠將緊張和衝突化解為平衡中庸立場，並在此過程中釋放出不受特定時間或地點限制、具有普遍意義的作家更受青睞。這種哲學的核心是作者。偉大的作者超越了自己生活和歷史的細節，以我們作為人類能夠理解的語言，跨越時空與我們對話。現代文學理論家認為，這種寫作方式及其創作者所被賦予的價值，本身就是一種可被挑戰的文學理論，且僅限於特定批評實踐。批評實踐會隨歷史時期更迭而改變。儘管這種特定批評實踐在當今仍具影響力，但其僅適用於 1940 至 1980 年間盛行的文學觀點（及文學教學方式），正逐漸被其他文學理論與教學方法所取代。對這種正統觀念的挑戰之一，便是所謂「作者已死」的主張。

The author is powerful within many literary cultures and appears in many institutionalised forms. For example:
作者在許多文學文化中具有影響力，並以多種制度化形式呈現。例如：

English Poetry from Hardy to Larkin (an option course for undergraduate English students)
《從哈代到拉金的英國詩歌》（英語系本科生選修課程）
The Auden Generation (a book title) The James Joyce Quarterly (an academic journal) The Life and Works of John Donne (a course or a book or a lecture title)
《奧登世代》（書名）《詹姆斯·喬伊斯季刊》（學術期刊）《約翰·多恩的生平與作品》（課程或書籍或講座名稱）

An outcome of this is that what an author says about his or her own work is recorded, stored and often used to bolster criticism of that author’s work. Writers themselves unite their person and their work through letters, diaries, memoirs, etc. Readers are trained and taught to take very seriously the statements made by an author.
這種情況的結果是，作者對自己作品的評論被記錄、保存，並經常被用來支持對該作者作品的批評。作家們透過書信、日記、回憶錄等方式，將個人與作品連結在一起。讀者被教導要非常重視作者所發表的聲明。

French literary theorists such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault in particular have argued for the death of the author. They make two main points:
法國文學理論家如羅蘭·巴特和米歇爾·傅柯特別主張「作者已死」的觀點。他們提出兩個主要論點：
a) That the notion of ‘the author’ is a construction of a bourgeois capitalist phase in Western European and North American history. They point out that before the Renaissance these same societies favoured the anonymity of the author, and that in many societies in different parts of the world the idea of the author has not even been born, since literature is created anonymously or in a group or by the means of oral transmission from one group of people to another.
a) 「作者」這個概念是西歐與北美歷史中資產階級資本主義階段的產物。他們指出，在文藝復興之前，這些社會原本崇尚作者匿名性；而世界上許多不同地區的社會中，甚至從未誕生過「作者」的概念，因為文學創作往往是匿名完成、集體創作，或是透過口述方式在人群間流傳。
b) that the notion of the author serves to minimise the role of the reader and to constrain interpretation. The reader has to interpret the text within the limits set for it by the author.
b) 作者概念的存在會弱化讀者的角色並限制文本詮釋。讀者必須在作者設定的框架內解讀文本。

The following extract from a famous essay by Roland Barthes entitled ‘The Death of the Author’ concludes with a statement much quoted within the context of modern critical theory:
以下節錄自羅蘭·巴特著名論文〈作者之死〉的結語，這段陳述在現代批評理論領域被廣泛引用：
‘The birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the author.’
「讀者的誕生必須以作者的死亡為代價。」

No doubt it has always been that way. As soon as a fact is narrated no longer with a view to acting directly on reality but intransitively, that is to say, finally outside of any function other than that of the very practice of the symbol itself, this disconnection occurs, the voice loses its origin, the author enters into his own death, writing begins. The sense of this phenomenon, however, has varied; in ethnographic societies the responsibility for a narrative is never assumed by a person but by a mediator, shaman or relator whose ‘performance’-the mastery of the narrative code-may possibly be admired but never his ‘genius’. The author is a modern figure, a product of our society insofar as, emerging from the Middle Ages with English empiricism, French rationalism and the personal faith of the Reformation, it discovered the prestige of the individual, of, as it is more nobly put, the ‘human person’. It is thus logical that in literature it should be this positivism, the epitome and culmination of capitalist ideology, which has attached the greatest importance to the ‘person’ of the author. The author still reigns in histories of literature, biographies of writers, interviews, magazines, as in the very consciousness of men of letters anxious to unite their person and their work through diaries and memoirs. The image of literature to be found in ordinary culture is tyrannically centred on the author, his person, his life, his tastes, his passions, while criticism still consists for the most part in saying that Baudelaire’s work is the failure of Baudelaire the man, Van Gogh’s his madness, Tchaikovsky’s his vice. The explanation of a work is always sought in the man or woman who produced it, as if it were always in the end, through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction, the voice of a single person, the author ‘confiding’ in us.
無疑地，這向來如此。當一個事實的敘述不再以直接影響現實為目的，而是以不及物的方式進行——也就是說，最終脫離了任何功能，僅剩符號實踐本身——這種斷裂便會發生，聲音失去其源頭，作者步入自身的死亡，書寫於焉開始。然而，此現象的意義歷來有所變化；在民族誌社會中，敘事的責任從不由個人承擔，而是由中介者——薩滿或講述者——來擔綱，人們或許會欽佩其「表演」（即對敘事符碼的掌握），但絕不會推崇其「天賦」。作者是個現代產物，源自我們這個社會——當它從中世紀脫胎而出，伴隨著英國經驗主義、法國理性主義及宗教改革的個人信仰，發現了個人（或更崇高地說，「人格」）的威望。因此在文學領域，正是這種資本主義意識形態的縮影與頂峰——實證主義，將作者「人格」的重要性推至極致，這實屬必然。在文學史、作家傳記、訪談與雜誌中，作者仍舊佔據主導地位，就如同那些文人雅士急於透過日記與回憶錄將自身與作品連結的意識一般。普通文化中所見的文學形象，專制地以作者為中心——他的人格、生平、品味與激情；而文學批評至今多半仍停留在宣稱波特萊爾的作品是其人生的挫敗、梵谷的作品是其瘋狂的體現、柴可夫斯基的作品是其墮落的寫照。人們總是試圖從創作作品的男女身上尋找解釋，彷彿最終透過小說中或明或暗的寓言，總能聽見單一個人的聲音——那個正向我們「傾訴」的作者。
(from ‘The Death of the Author’ by Roland Barthes from Manteia V 1968 Basil Blackwell Ltd.)
（節錄自羅蘭·巴特〈作者之死〉，原載於 1968 年《Manteia》第五期，Basil Blackwell Ltd.出版）

In other words, if we accept the death of the author or at least if we accept that the author’s control over the text is limited, then the text is available for more plural interpretation; readers are at liberty to read more meanings more variously and according to their own predilections, ideologies, political convictions and so on. In classroom terms, theorists such as Barthes would argue, the student is freed to read more into a text without feeling constrained to take into account what an author or a teacher teaching ‘the life and works of the author’ may limit it to mean. The birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the author.
換句話說，如果我們接受作者已死，或者至少接受作者對文本的控制是有限的，那麼文本就能容納更多元的詮釋；讀者可以自由地根據自己的偏好、意識形態、政治信念等，以更多樣的方式解讀出更多意義。以課堂教學而言，巴特等理論家會主張，學生能更自由地深入解讀文本，而不必受限於作者或教授「作者生平與作品」的老師所設定的單一意義。讀者的誕生必然以作者的死亡為代價。

One example of the kind of issues in interpretation raised by authorcentred criticism and by attempts to deconstruct such criticism might be given as follows: what would be the effect on our interpretation of the Hemingway story if Hemingway himself had written in a letter to his publisher that he intended his story to have a political message? The bullfight symbolises the kind of ritualistic violence encountered daily during the Spanish Civil War and increasingly so by children. The boy represents the sudden maturity forced upon children who were ‘used’ by the Republican forces as they became desperate owing to the deaths of many adult soldiers.
以作者為中心的批評理論，以及試圖解構此類批評的嘗試所引發的詮釋問題，可以舉例如下：如果海明威本人在給出版商的信中寫道，他有意讓這個故事傳達政治訊息，這將如何影響我們對海明威小說的解讀？鬥牛象徵著西班牙內戰期間每日遭遇的儀式性暴力，而兒童對此的接觸日益增加。男孩代表著被迫早熟的兒童，由於許多成年士兵的死亡，共和軍在絕望中「利用」了這些孩子。

We should consider this hypothetical situation and examine the kinds of processes of interpretation such information would promote. We should also consider whether students are advantaged by not having such information because it may limit their capacity and motivation to work out their own meanings from this story.
我們應該思考這個假設情境，並檢視這類資訊會促進何種詮釋過程。同時也該考量，學生若未獲知這類資訊是否反而有益，因為這可能限制他們從故事中自行建構意義的能力與動機。

Another consideration is whether male and female students interpret the story differently. It can be argued that this is a male-centred story with exclusively male characters and even a masculine language of basic demotic speech (‘puked’, ‘hollered’) which could suggest a story written for men and from which women readers are excluded or marginalised. This topic is the subject of our next section.
另一個考量點是男女學生對這個故事的理解是否有所不同。可以說這是一個以男性為中心的故事，角色清一色是男性，甚至連基本通俗用語也充滿陽剛氣息（如「嘔吐」、「大吼大叫」），這可能暗示著這是專為男性讀者撰寫的故事，女性讀者在此被排除或邊緣化。這個主題將是我們下一節探討的重點。

Questions for discussion
討論問題

1 Select five narratives which you teach regularly. (These can be either stories or narrative poems.) How many of them are standard, unmarked narratives in so far as they have a setting, complication and resolution. How many contain a coda? Do you teach narratives which lack a resolution and/or coda? If so, why? If not, why not?
1 請選出五篇您經常教授的敘事作品（可以是故事或敘事詩）。其中有多少篇是標準、無標記的敘事結構，包含背景設定、衝突與解決？有多少篇包含結語？您是否會教授缺乏解決方案和/或結語的敘事作品？如果是，原因為何？如果不是，又是為什麼？
2 In your teaching of poetry how often do you find yourself using terms such as ‘practical critical balance’, ‘harmony’, ‘resolution’ and ‘wholeness’ or ‘completeness’? Do you value poems which do not conform to such aesthetic notions?
2 在詩歌教學中，您多常使用「實用批評平衡」、「和諧」、「解決」、「整體性」或「完整性」這類術語？您是否重視那些不符合此類美學概念的詩作？
What are the implications of your preferences for what your students view as successful poems?
您的偏好對學生如何看待成功的詩作有何影響？
3 Would you accept that reading, interpreting and teaching literature can or cannot be connected with ideological positions? To what extent do you consciously or unconsciously convey a liberal humanist ideology in:
3 您是否認同文學的閱讀、詮釋與教學可能（或不可能）與意識形態立場產生關聯？您在以下方面有意識或無意識地傳達自由人文主義意識形態的程度為何：
a) the texts you teach and the critical aesthetic terms you use?
a) 你所教授的文本與使用的批判性美學術語？
b) the use of group work in which participants are invited to reach consensus?
b) 運用小組討論讓參與者達成共識的做法？
c) the practice of certain methodological procedures of discussion such as ‘forum’ or related practices (see 6.7)?
c) 特定討論方法程序的實踐，例如「論壇」或相關做法（參見 6.7 節）？
What definite advantages do you see in teaching strategies which support a liberal humanist approach to literary study?
你認為支持自由人文主義文學研究取向的教學策略有哪些明確優勢？
4 Examine your notes or handouts or teaching materials on the texts you teach. What proportion of your notes are devoted to:
4 檢視你關於所教授文本的筆記、講義或教材。你的筆記中有多少比例是專注於：
a) the life of the author?
a) 作者的生平？
b) what the author said about his or her work?
b) 作者對其作品的評論？
c) what the critics have said about an individual author?
c) 評論家對個別作者的評價？

Do you accept that your class discussion of these texts will be limited by such information? What would be lost (if anything) if you did not have such information?
你是否接受這些資訊會限制你對這些文本的課堂討論？如果沒有這些資訊，會失去什麼（如果有的話）？

8.4
Reading as a woman
8.4 女性視角的閱讀

It’s queer how out of touch with truth women are. They live in a world of their own, and there has never been anything like it, and never can be. It is too beautiful altogether, and if they were to set it up it would go to pieces before the first sunset.
女人與真相脫節的程度真是詭異。她們活在一個自己的世界裡，這樣的世界前所未有，也永遠不可能存在。它實在太過美好，倘若她們試圖建立這樣的世界，在第一次日落前就會分崩離析。

Some confounded fact we men have been living contentedly with ever since the day creation would start up and knock the whole thing over.
自從創世以來，我們男人一直滿足地與某些該死的事實共存，這些事實會突然冒出來把整個局面推翻。
(from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad)
（摘自約瑟夫·康拉德《黑暗之心》）
One does not have to be a feminist to recognise that language is man-made. The power of men within social and institutional structures is reflected in the ways in which even the word man is institutionalised within key phrases in the English language which are encountered in daily social uses. For example: odd-man-out; the man in the street; the average man; man hours; manslaughter; man-made; overmanning; manhandle; and so on. Male dominance is also regularly encoded in grammatical patterns such as:
即使不是女性主義者也能認清語言是由男性主導創造的。男性在社會與制度結構中的權力，反映在英語日常用語中那些將「man」一詞制度化的關鍵短語上。例如：odd-man-out（局外人）；the man in the street（普通人）；the average man（一般人）；man hours（工時）；manslaughter（過失殺人）；man-made（人造的）；overmanning（人員過剩）；manhandle（粗暴對待）等等。男性主導地位也經常透過以下文法模式被編碼：
The student who takes these examinations will find that he needs to prepare well.
參加這些考試的學生會發現他需要做好充分準備。
which deletes the possibility of students being female or rather which assumes male as the normal or unmarked feature. When opposed semantically to male it is noticeable too how a female term will also attract negative or unflattering associations. In the following oppositions, for example, the female term contracts extra connotations of sexual promiscuity which do not attach to the male term:
這排除了學生可能是女性的可能性，或者說這假設男性是正常或未標記的特徵。當在語義上與男性對立時，也會注意到女性術語如何吸引負面或不討喜的聯想。例如在以下對立中，女性術語會額外帶有男性術語所沒有的性放蕩內涵：

Sir 爵士	Madam 夫人	(+ owner of a brothel: procuress) （妓院經營者：老鴇）
Master 主人	Mistress 女主人	(+ an adulterous lover) （+ 一名出軌的情人）
Lord 勳爵	Lady 夫人	(+ prostitute 'lady of the night') （+ 妓女「夜間女郎」）

Reading texts as a woman is an experience in which one finds a particular kind of role or position constructed in and through the language system. Many students of English literature are women, and it is important that they read with an awareness of how they are positioned. Feminist movements within modern literary theory serve to challenge the orthodox or stereotype role created for them.
以女性身份閱讀文本，是一種在語言體系中被建構出特定角色或立場的體驗。許多英國文學的學生都是女性，重要的是她們在閱讀時要意識到自己被定位的方式。現代文學理論中的女性主義運動，正是為了挑戰那些為她們創造的正統或刻板角色。

There is insufficient space in this section to illustrate any critical theory in detail but two brief examples may serve to show what is involved in reading with a feminist critical awareness. Necessarily much feminist theory has been concerned with the way female characters are presented in drama and fiction and with challenging the points of views of authors and critics (usually male). In the following poem reading as a woman involves a consideration of linguistic choices and of how these embody a particular view of women and of women as a subject for poetry.
本節篇幅有限，無法詳細闡述任何批判理論，但兩個簡短的例子或許能說明具備女性主義批判意識的閱讀涉及哪些層面。女性主義理論必然關注戲劇和小說中女性角色的呈現方式，並挑戰作家與評論家（通常是男性）的觀點。在接下來的詩歌閱讀中，以女性視角解讀需要考量語言選擇，以及這些選擇如何體現對女性的特定觀點，以及將女性作為詩歌主題的呈現方式。

A Song 一首歌
Aske me no more where Jove bestowes, When June is past, the fading rose: For in your beauties orient deepe, These Flowers as in their causes sleepe.
莫再問我朱庇特將何處安放，六月過後凋零的玫瑰：因在你燦爛的容顏深處，這些花朵如歸根般沉睡。

Aske me no more whither doe stray The golden Atomes of the day: For in pure love heaven did prepare Those powders to inrich your haire.
莫再問我白晝的金色微塵飄向何方：因純淨的愛中天堂早已備妥，這些金粉來妝點你的髮梢。

Aske me no more whither doth hast The Nightingale when May is past: For in your sweet dividing throat She winters and keepes warme her note.
莫再問我夜鶯在五月過後飛往何處：因在你甜美的歌喉間，牠棲息越冬，溫暖地守護著音符。

Aske me no more where those starres light, That downewards fall in dead of night: For in your eyes they sit, and there, Fixed become as in their sphere.
莫再問我那些星辰在深夜墜落何方：因它們駐足於你的眼眸，在那裡，如歸本位般永恆停駐。

Aske me no more if East or West, The Phenix builds her spicy nest: For unto you at last shee flies, And in your fragrant bosome dyes.
莫再問我鳳凰築巢何方，東方或西方：她終將飛向你，在你芬芳的胸懷中安息。

Thomas Carew (1595-1639)
托馬斯·卡魯（1595-1639）

Here one of the points made by reading approaches from a feminist perspective would be that the woman, to whom the ‘song’ is addressed, is constructed not as a whole but rather as a collection of parts. The woman is described in terms of ‘haire’, ‘throat’, ‘eyes’, ‘bosome’, that is, in terms of parts of the body. The effect may be said to be a depersonalising one, relegating the view of the loved woman to a list of physical features or attributes when the aim is to try to bestow praise. The view of woman here is a conventional one and, feminists point out, has become conventionalised so that it is now a standard common sense view in popular fiction (especially romances), in advertisements and even to some extent in the language of today (e.g. ‘an old bag’, ‘a blonde’, ‘a bit of skirt’, etc.)
從女性主義閱讀視角來看，這首「歌謠」所訴說的女性形象並非完整的個體，而是被解構為零散的部位。詩中以「秀髮」、「頸項」、「明眸」、「胸懷」等身體部位來描繪女性。這種手法可謂將所愛女子非人化，即便本意是讚美，卻仍將其簡化為一系列生理特徵的羅列。此處呈現的女性形象實屬傳統典型，女性主義者指出，這種描寫方式已被常規化，如今成為大眾小說（特別是愛情故事）、廣告甚至當代語言中普遍認知的標準範式（例如「黃臉婆」、「金髮尤物」、「裙下風光」等用語）。

Here is another representation of a woman in a poem. The angle of representation in this case is different and involves metaphors and analogies which may appear unusual at least on first reading:
此處呈現的是詩歌中另一種女性形象。本詩的再現角度有所不同，運用了隱喻與類比手法，這些修辭至少在初讀時會顯得非比尋常：

Her lips are red hot
她的雙唇熾熱如火
Like glowing charcoal, She resembles the wild cat That has dipped its mouth in blood, Her mouth is like raw yaws It looks like an open ulcer Like the mouth of a fiend. Tina dusts powder on her face And it looks so pale. She resembles the wizard Getting reading for the midnight dance She dusts the ash-dirt all over her face. And when a little sweat Begins to appear on her body She looks like the guinea fowl!
如同燃燒的炭火，她像那野貓嘴邊沾滿鮮血，她的嘴像是生瘡的傷口看起來像潰爛的瘡疤宛如惡魔的血盆大口。蒂娜在臉上撲粉臉色顯得如此蒼白。她像準備午夜舞會的巫師將灰塵塗抹滿臉。當些許汗珠開始在她身上浮現她活像隻珠雞！

Here two woman are compared but neither seems to be represented in the kinds of eulogistic terms of Carew’s ‘Song’ (above). Two contrasting types emerge: one more traditional and compared to more elemental natural things (charcoal, blood, the wild cat, raw yaws, an ulcer), the other more artificial, and whose actions are analogised to or described with reference to those
這裡比較了兩位女性，但都不像卡魯《歌謠》(前文)中那種頌揚式的描述。兩種截然不同的形象浮現：一種更傳統，被比擬為更原始的自然事物（炭火、鮮血、野貓、生瘡的傷口、潰瘍）；另一種則更為人工造作，其行為被類比或參照
transient, less elemental things (powder, ash-dirt, the guinea fowl, the wizard). The overall intention here appears to be to produce distinctly unflattering pictures.
短暫、不那麼本質的事物（粉、灰塵、珍珠雞、巫師）。這裡的整體意圖似乎是為了呈現出明顯不討喜的畫面。

The poem is written by Okot P’Bitek, a Ugandan whose chosen linguistic medium is English (see 7.5.4). P’Bitek is the author of two of the best known African narrative poems in English Song of Lawino and Song of Ocol. One of the recurring themes of P’Bitek’s poetry is the opposition between traditional and indigenous African cultures and the culture imported into Africa by Western European and American colonisers and usually left behind in a postcolonial situation by means of aid programmes. In the above poem, which is in fact an extract from the much longer Song of Lawino, P’Bitek juxtaposes in the actions of the two women two opposing cultures: the traditional Acoli woman who has no knowledge of Western modes of behaviour and a woman who imitates foreign customs, here in particular in the wearing of make-up. Both are rivals for the narrator’s affections.
這首詩由烏干達詩人奧科特·比泰克所作，他選擇以英語作為創作媒介（參見 7.5.4 節）。比泰克是兩部最著名的非洲英語敘事詩《拉維諾之歌》與《奧科爾之歌》的作者。比泰克詩歌中反覆出現的主題，是傳統非洲本土文化與西歐及美國殖民者引進非洲、並通常在後殖民情境中透過援助計畫遺留的文化之間的對立。在上述詩作（實際上是長詩《拉維諾之歌》的節選）中，比泰克透過兩位女性的行為並置了兩種對立文化：一位是對西方行為模式一無所知的傳統阿喬利女性，另一位則是模仿外來習俗（此處特別指化妝行為）的女性。兩者都是敘述者情感的競爭對象。

The poet achieves some success in putting before the reader some of the dilemmas of identity faced in a situation where choices are polarised between different life-styles and cultures. But the narrative perspective is a man’s perspective and the particular situation dramatised is that of two women competing for a man’s interest. Reading the text from a differently ‘gendered’ perspective may point to the following: how the text oversimplifies the position by a process of caricature and by viewing the women as, as it were, in the grip of cultural forces they do not fully understand; by narrating from an exclusive ‘male’ position which allows no insight into the women’s own feelings or viewpoints; by selecting poetic comparisons and analogies which reduce and demean the respective identities of the two ‘opponents’.
詩人在向讀者呈現某種身分認同困境時取得了一定成功，這種困境發生於必須在截然不同的生活方式與文化間做出選擇的情境。然而敘事視角完全採用男性觀點，戲劇化的特殊情境是兩位女性爭奪男性青睞的故事。若從不同「性別」視角解讀文本，可能會發現以下問題：文本如何透過漫畫式簡化手法，將女性描繪成受制於自身無法完全理解的文化力量；如何從排他性的「男性」立場敘事，完全無視女性自身感受與觀點；如何選用貶低兩位「對手」身分價值的詩意比喻與類比。

The two examples considered in this section illustrate how all readers need to be alert to male-centredness. Often readers are not particularly alert to the ways in which women are ‘represented’ by male writers and it is important to challenge and deconstruct any assumption that a masculine point of view is a normal or naturalised one.
本節討論的兩個例子說明所有讀者都需警覺男性中心主義。讀者往往不太注意女性如何被男性作家「再現」，挑戰並解構任何將男性觀點視為正常或自然化的假設至關重要。

In the following section another critical perspective is examined: in this case it is the assumption that the normal naturalised view of the world in developing countries is one which is Western European and capitalist in terms of race and ideology.
下一節將探討另一個批判性觀點：此處涉及的是種族與意識形態層面，即認為發展中國家對世界的正常自然化觀點必然是西歐資本主義式的假設。

8.5

Reading in a post-colonial situation
後殖民情境中的閱讀

Reading as a woman can frequently involve reading from a marginalised position. The situation has given rise to feminist critical theory, fuller attention to writing by women and to university and college courses which examine the representation of women in literature. Reading in a post-colonial situation creates parallel positions for the reader. In any country newly independent from colonial rule the literature studied can, for example, continue to be that produced by the colonising people. In a country such as Kenya, for example, British English literature continued to dominate the literature curriculum through the nineteen seventies even though independence was granted to Kenya in 1961, and it is only in the last few years that significant changes have occurred in the selection of texts set for study. The result is, of course, that the reader in such a context feels marginalised and that his or her interests are
女性閱讀往往意味著從邊緣化的角度出發。這種情況催生了女性主義批判理論，促使人們更加關注女性寫作，並在大學課程中探討文學作品中的女性形象。後殖民情境下的閱讀同樣使讀者處於類似的位置。舉例來說，任何剛脫離殖民統治的國家，其文學教育可能仍以殖民者的作品為主。以肯亞為例，儘管 1961 年已獲得獨立，但直到 1970 年代，英國英語文學仍在該國文學課程中佔據主導地位。直到最近幾年，指定研讀文本的選擇才出現重大變化。這樣的背景下，讀者自然會感到被邊緣化，其興趣也
remote from those central to many of the texts studied. These issues here are greater than those examined at 7.3 where cross-cultural reading difficulties were explored. According to literary theorists there is a more fundamental encounter with what has been termed colonial discourses.
與許多研究文本的核心議題相距甚遠。此處探討的問題比 7.3 節中探討的跨文化閱讀困難更為深層。根據文學理論家的觀點，這涉及更根本性地接觸所謂的殖民話語。

Work on colonial discourse is largely associated with the name of the literary theorist Edward Said. There is insufficient space for us to explore his ideas here, but in a ground-breaking book entitled Orientalism, published in 1976 he shows how Western scholars and writers in the tradition of Western literature have constructed an image of the Orient as peopled by lazy, deceitful and irrational individuals. Said deconstructs this image as untrue, and shows it to be a historically constructed discourse of the West and thus limited and partial.
殖民話語的研究主要與文學理論家愛德華·薩伊德的名字相關。我們沒有足夠篇幅在此探討他的思想，但他在 1976 年出版的開創性著作《東方主義》中揭示，西方文學傳統中的學者和作家如何建構出一種東方形象——將東方人描繪成懶惰、欺詐且非理性的群體。薩伊德解構了這種不實形象，並指出這其實是西方歷史建構的話語，因此具有局限性和片面性。

As momentous, generally important issues face the world-issues involving nuclear destruction, catastrophically scarce resources, unprecedented human demands for equality, justice, and economic parity-popular caricatures of the Orient are exploited by politicians whose source of ideological supply is not only the half-literate technocrat but the superliterate Orientalist. The legendary Arabists in the State Department warn of Arab plans to take over the world. The perfidious Chinese, half-naked Indians, and passive Muslims are described as vultures for ‘our’ largesse and are damned when ‘we lose them’ to communism, or to their unregenerate Oriental instincts: the difference is scarcely significant.
當世界面臨重大且普遍重要的議題——涉及核武毀滅、災難性資源匱乏、人類對平等、正義與經濟平衡前所未有的訴求之際——政客們正大肆利用那些對東方流行的刻板印象。這些意識形態的供應來源不僅包括半文盲的技術官僚，更涵蓋了學識淵博的東方學專家。國務院裡那些傳奇的中東問題專家不斷警告阿拉伯人企圖接管世界的陰謀。他們將狡詐的中國人、衣不蔽體的印度人與消極被動的穆斯林描繪成覬覦「我們」慷慨施捨的禿鷹，一旦這些人「投向共產主義懷抱」或回歸其冥頑不靈的東方本性時，便會遭到嚴厲譴責——這兩者間的差異其實微乎其微。
These contemporary Orientalist attitudes flood the press and the popular mind. Arabs, for example, are thought of as camel-riding, terroristic, hooknosed, venal lechers whose undeserved wealth is an affront to real civilization. Always there lurks the assumption that although the Western consumer belongs to a numerical minority, he is entitled either to own or to expend (or both) the majority of the world resources. Why? Because he, unlike the Oriental, is a true human being. No better instance exists today of what Anwar Abdel Malek calls ‘the hegemonism of possessing minorities’ and anthropocentrism allied with Europocentrism: a white middle-class Westerner believes it his human prerogative not only to manage the nonwhite world but also to own it, just because by definition ‘it’ is not quite as human as ‘we’ are. There is no purer example than this of dehumanized thought.
這些當代的東方主義態度充斥於媒體與大眾意識中。舉例來說，阿拉伯人被視為騎駱駝、搞恐怖活動、鷹勾鼻、貪財好色的浪蕩子，其不義之財是對真正文明的侮辱。潛藏其中的假設始終是：儘管西方消費者屬於數量上的少數，卻有權占有或消耗（或兩者兼得）世界大部分資源。為什麼？因為與東方人不同，他們才是真正的人類。今天沒有比安華·阿布德·馬雷克所稱「占有少數的霸權主義」更好的例子了——這種人類中心主義與歐洲中心主義的結合：一個白人中產階級西方人認為，管理非白人世界乃至擁有它，這不僅是他的權利，更因為從定義上「他們」本就不如「我們」來得人性化。沒有比這更純粹的非人化思維範例了。
In a sense the limitations of Orientalism are, as I said earlier, the limitations that follow upon disregarding, essentializing, denuding the humanity of another culture, people, or geographical region.
某種程度上，正如我先前所言，東方主義的侷限性正源自於忽視、本質化及剝奪另一種文化、民族或地理區域的人性。
(from Orientalism by Edward Said 1976 Penguin)
（節錄自愛德華·薩依德《東方主義》，1976 年企鵝出版社）
There are numerous examples of how colonial discourses are presented in literary text. One particularly transparent case is that of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, a novel which specifically addresses itself to the intersection of European and non-European cultures in the context of colonial encounters. Here is an extract from a part of the novel in which the narrator reports an initial contact with the indigenous peoples of the country (at that time the Belgium Congo) but specifically from the point of view of the European narrator:
文學文本中呈現殖民論述的例子不勝枚舉。其中一個特別鮮明的案例是約瑟夫·康拉德的小說《黑暗之心》，這部作品直接探討了在殖民遭遇背景下歐洲與非歐洲文化的交會點。以下節錄自小說某個段落，敘述者以歐洲人的視角，描述初次接觸該國（當時的比利時剛果）原住民的場景：

We were wanderers on prehistoric earth, on an earth that wore the aspect of an unknown planet. We could have fancied ourselves the first of men taking
我們是史前大地上的流浪者，在這片呈現著未知星球面貌的土地上漫遊。我們幾乎要以為自己是第一批繼承這片被詛咒之地的人類，必須付出極度痛苦與辛勞才能馴服它。
possession of an accursed inheritance, to be subdued at the cost of profound anguish and of excessive toil. But suddenly, as we struggled round a bend, there would be a glimpse of rush walls, of peaked grass-roofs, a burst of yells, a whirl of black limbs, a mass of hands clapping, of feet stamping, of bodies swaying, of eyes rolling, under the droop of heavy and motionless foliage. The steamer toiled along slowly on the edge of a black and incomprehensible frenzy. The prehistoric man was cursing us, praying to us, welcoming us who could tell? We were cut off from the comprehension of our surroundings: we glided past like phantoms, wondering and secretly appalled, as sane men would be before an enthusiastic outbreak in a madhouse. We could not understand because we were too far and could not remember because we were travelling in the night of first ages, of those ages that are gone, leaving hardly a sign - and no memories.
然而當我們費力繞過河灣時，眼前會突然閃現蘆葦牆垣與尖頂茅屋，爆發出陣陣吶喊，翻騰著黑色肢體，成片手掌拍擊、腳掌跺地、身軀搖擺、眼珠轉動，全都籠罩在靜止低垂的厚重樹蔭下。輪船在這片漆黑難解的狂熱邊緣緩慢前行。那些史前人類究竟是在咒罵我們、祈求我們，還是歡迎我們？誰能說得清？我們完全無法理解周遭環境：像幽靈般滑行而過，既驚奇又暗自惶恐，就像神智正常者面對瘋人院裡的狂熱爆發。我們無法理解，因為距離太遙遠；也無法記憶，因為我們正航行於太初之夜的長河中——那些消逝的時代幾乎沒留下任何痕跡，更無記憶可循。

The earth seemed unearthly. We are accustomed to look upon the shackled form of a conquered monster, but there - there you could look at a thing monstrous and free. It was unearthly, and the men were - No, they were not inhuman. Well, you know, that was the worst of it - this suspicion of their not being inhuman. It would come slowly to one. They howled and leaped, and spun, and made horrid faces; but what thrilled you was just the thought of their humanity-like yours - the thought of your remote kinship with this wild and passionate uproar. Ugly. Yes, it was ugly enough; but if you were man enough you would admit to yourself that there was in you just the faintest trace of a response to the terrible frankness of that noise, a dim suspicion of there being a meaning in it which you - you so remote from the night of first ages - could comprehend.
大地顯得超乎尋常。我們習慣於看著被束縛的征服怪物，但在那裡——在那裡你能看到一個既猙獰又自由的東西。這很不尋常，而那些人是——不，他們並非沒有人性。唉，你知道嗎，最糟糕的正是這點——懷疑他們並非沒有人性。這種念頭會慢慢浮現。他們嚎叫、跳躍、旋轉，做出可怕的表情；但真正令你戰慄的是想到他們的人性——和你一樣的人性——想到你與這狂野而激昂的喧囂之間存在著遙遠的血緣關係。醜陋。沒錯，確實夠醜陋的；但如果你夠膽量，你就會向自己承認，你內心深處對那可怕直白的噪音產生了一絲共鳴，隱約懷疑其中蘊含著某種意義——你這個與原始時代黑夜如此遙遠的人——竟能理解。

The view taken of the indigenous peoples corresponds to certain preconceived stereotypes of blacks as uncivilised savages. Such people are described as barely human and always a source of mystery, capable of producing barely decipherable meanings. Their ‘monstrous’ actions can only be equated with madness (‘an enthusiastic outbreak in a madhouse’) and the only available sanity is invested in the ‘civilised’ outsider seeking to comprehend and to control, and who presumes the ‘we’ he refers to includes in his audience substantial numbers of people with the same presuppositions and viewpoints. More particularly, too, a view of history is presented which has white Europeans at its centre and which allows of no history independent of or outside a European history. It is, of course, a narrator who transmits this version of reality and it would be naive to equate such views with those of Conrad, the author of the novel. But the mediation of viewpoint is more subtle and correspondingly less transparent than the views (along not dissimilar lines) conveyed directly by this character, a British woman, in the novel Scorpion Orchid by the Malaysian writer Lloyd Fernando:
對於原住民族的看法，正符合某些將黑人視為未開化野蠻人的既定刻板印象。這些人被描述為幾乎不具人性，總是充滿神秘感，只能產生難以解讀的意涵。他們「駭人」的行徑只能被等同於瘋狂（「瘋人院裡狂熱的爆發」），而唯一可得的理性則寄託於試圖理解並掌控的「文明」外來者身上——這位外來者假定他所指稱的「我們」包含聽眾中為數眾多、持有相同預設與觀點的人。更特別的是，此處呈現的歷史觀以歐洲白人為中心，不允許存在獨立於或外於歐洲歷史的歷史。當然，傳達此種現實版本的是敘事者，若將這些觀點與小說作者康拉德本人的觀點劃上等號，未免過於天真。但這種觀點的傳遞方式，比起馬來西亞作家洛伊·費南多在小說《蠍子蘭》中透過一名英國女性角色直接傳達的（本質上並無二致的）觀點，來得更為隱晦且相對不透明。

“Thank God the British are here. The Malays are in their kampungs, the Chinese own all the business, and the Indians are in the rubber estates. And the Eurasians - not half-castes, Roger, or mulattoes, unless you want to lose friends and influence people - the Eurasians sit in their cricket club and imitate us, rather poorly, actually. You see, they have nothing in common. If we left tomorrow, there’d be such a lovely bit of mayhem that we’d have to come back to keep the peace. No. I’m afraid we have to grin and bear it the white man’s burden. I mean,” she added lightly.
「感謝上帝英國人在這裡。馬來人待在他們的甘榜，華人掌控所有生意，印度人在橡膠園工作。至於歐亞混血兒——羅傑，別說他們是混種或黑白混血兒，除非你想失去朋友又影響人際關係——那些歐亞混血兒坐在他們的板球俱樂部裡模仿我們，說實在模仿得挺拙劣的。你看，他們之間毫無共通點。要是我們明天就離開，肯定會爆發一場精彩的小混亂，逼得我們得回來維持秩序。不，恐怕我們得咬牙承受這白人的負擔。我是說，」她輕描淡寫地補充道。
(from Scorpion Orchid by Lloyd Fernando 1968 H.E.B. Heinemann)
（節錄自 Lloyd Fernando 1968 年作品《蠍子蘭》，H.E.B. Heinemann 出版）

As we have seen in 7.4, there has been in recent years a rapid growth of literature in English in post-colonial contexts. In countries such as India, Nigeria, Kenya, Malaysia and the Phillipines a rich literature exists which is characterised by its own national identity and which represents a challenge to Western colonial discourses. These are second-language literatures in so far as the writers are not writing in their mother tongue (which may be Igbo, Tagalog, Hindi, Malay or whatever); instead English is chosen as a creative medium. This does not mean, however, that British English or American English - the language of the colonial occupiers - is the model according to which these literatures are produced. Instead the defining characteristics are more likely to be the local Englishes of the different nations, and it is thus a particular expressive use of Kenyan English or Malay English or Indian English in which literary texts are written within these cultures.
如同我們在 7.4 節所見，近年來後殖民情境下的英語文學呈現快速增長。在印度、奈及利亞、肯亞、馬來西亞和菲律賓等國家，存在著具有鮮明民族特色並挑戰西方殖民論述的豐富文學作品。這些屬於第二語言文學，因為作家們並非使用母語（可能是伊博語、塔加洛語、印地語、馬來語或其他語言）創作，而是選擇英語作為創作媒介。然而，這並不意味著這些文學作品是以殖民統治者的語言——英式英語或美式英語——為範本。相反，其定義特徵更可能是各國本土化的英語變體，因此這些文化中的文學文本往往運用肯亞英語、馬來英語或印度英語等特定表達方式進行創作。

Such literatures also have different ideological inflections. One objective is to seek ways of rewriting history from local perspectives. Another is to fashion themes which are specific to the realities of developing countries and to create characters who represent particular perspectives on life in those countries. Yet another is to explore national identities in the context of newly emerging nationhoods:
這類文學作品也蘊含著不同的意識形態色彩。其中一個目標是嘗試從在地視角重寫歷史；另一個目標則是塑造能反映發展中國家現實的特殊主題，並創造出代表這些國家生活特定觀點的角色；還有一個目標是在新興國家形成的脈絡下探索民族認同：

The classical culture of this region [i.e. Southeast Asia] has remained dormant through not being drawn upon during more than two centuries of colonial occupation . . . Why shouldn’t local writers in English re-examine this deep and varied past and put it to fresh purposes? . . . If mythic power is lacking in Malaysian literature in English as yet, it is not for want of traditions or history apart from the colonial . . . [The present is] profoundly complicated by western norms . . . [so the aim is not the] restoration of a bygone, relatively homogeneous Asian cultural order, but rather to retrieve and recast items of a great and neglected heritage in the light of the complexities of the second half of the twentieth century."
這個區域（即東南亞）的古典文化在超過兩個世紀的殖民統治期間，因未被重視而持續沉寂⋯⋯為何在地的英語作家不該重新審視這段深厚多元的過往，並賦予其新意義？⋯⋯如果馬來西亞英語文學迄今仍缺乏神話力量，並非由於缺乏殖民時期以外的傳統或歷史⋯⋯[當代]深受西方規範的複雜影響⋯⋯[因此目標不在於]恢復過往相對單一的亞洲文化秩序，而是根據二十世紀下半葉的複雜性，重新發掘並重塑這份被忽視的偉大文化遺產。

Lloyd Fernando 洛伊·費南多

Questions for discussion
討論問題

1 The following passage is an extract from a short story by the American writer Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1869-1935) and entitled The Yellow Wallpaper. The story recounts the experiences of a woman who is suffering a nervous breakdown. Read the following extract and consider, in particular, the possible significance of the room and the wallpaper both in the life of the ‘narrator’ and for a general meaning of the story as a whole: (John is the woman’s husband)
1 以下段落節錄自美國作家夏洛特·帕金斯·吉爾曼（1869-1935）的短篇小說《黃色壁紙》。故事講述一位經歷精神崩潰女性的遭遇。閱讀以下節錄時，請特別思考房間與壁紙對「敘述者」生活的可能意義，以及對整個故事整體意涵的影響：（約翰是女主角的丈夫）

I get unreasonably angry with John sometimes. I’m sure I never used to be sensitive. I think it is due to this nervous condition.
我有時會對約翰莫名發怒。我確信自己從前並不這麼敏感。我想這都是因為這種神經衰弱狀態。

But John says if I feel so I shall neglect proper self-control; so I take plans to control myself-before him, at least, and that makes me very tired.
但約翰說如果我這樣想，就會忽略適當的自我控制；所以我制定計劃來約束自己——至少在他面前如此，這讓我非常疲憊。

I don’t like our room a bit. I wanted one downstairs that opened onto the piazza and had roses all over the window, and such pretty oldfashioned chintz hangings! But John would not hear of it.
我一點也不喜歡我們的房間。我原本想要樓下那間，打開門就能通往露台，窗邊爬滿玫瑰，還有那些漂亮的老式印花棉布窗簾！但約翰根本不聽。

He said there was only one window and not room for two beds, and no near room for him if he took another.
他說那裡只有一扇窗戶，擺不下兩張床，而且如果他另住一間，附近也沒有合適的房間給他。

He is very careful and loving, and hardly lets me stir without special direction.
他非常細心體貼，幾乎不讓我在沒有特別指示的情況下隨意走動。

I have a schedule prescription for each hour in the day; he takes all care from me, and so I feel basely ungrateful not to value it more.
我每天每個小時都有固定的作息安排；他為我打點好一切，讓我覺得若不更加珍惜這份心意，簡直就是忘恩負義。

He said he came here solely on my account, that I was to have perfect rest and all the air I could get. “Your exercise depends on your strength, my dear,” said he, “and your food somewhat on your appetite: but air you absorb all the time.” So we took the nursery at the top of the house.
他說他來這裡完全是為了我，要我徹底休息並盡量呼吸新鮮空氣。「親愛的，你的運動量要視體力而定，」他說，「飲食則多少取決於你的胃口：但空氣可是隨時都在吸收的。」所以我們選了頂樓的育兒室。

It is a big, airy room, the whole floor nearly, with windows that look all ways, and air and sunshine galore. It was nursery first, and then playroom and gymnasium, I should judge, for the windows are barred for little children, and there are rings and things on the walls.
這是個寬敞通風的房間，幾乎佔據整層樓，四面都有窗戶，空氣和陽光都十分充足。我猜這裡最初是育兒室，後來變成遊戲間和健身房，因為窗戶裝了欄杆防止小孩墜落，牆上還掛著吊環等器材。

The paint and paper look as if a boys’ school had used it. It is stripped off-the paper-in great patches all around the head of my bed, about as far as I can reach, and in a great place on the other side of the room low down. I never saw a worse paper in my life. One of these sprawling, flamboyant patterns committing every artistic sin.
油漆和壁紙看起來像是男校用過的。我床頭周圍的壁紙大面積剝落，範圍約莫是我伸手可及之處，房間另一側低處也有大片剝落。這輩子沒見過更糟的壁紙——那種張牙舞爪的浮誇花紋，簡直集所有藝術敗筆於一身。

It is dull enough to confuse the eye in following, pronounced enough constantly to irritate and provoke study, and when you follow the lame uncertain curves for a little distance they suddenly commit suicide-plunge off at outrageous angles, destroy themselves in unheard-of contradictions.
那紋路單調得足以讓人眼花撩亂，卻又鮮明得不斷刺激著人去探究。當你順著那些蹣跚不穩的曲線追蹤片刻，它們便會突然自尋短見——以駭人的角度急轉直下，在聞所未聞的矛盾中自我毀滅。

The colour is repellent, almost revolting: a smouldering unclean yellow, strangely faded by the slow-turning sunlight. It is a dull yet lurid orange in some places, a sickly sulphur tint in others.
這顏色令人厭惡，幾乎作嘔：一種悶燒般的污濁黃色，被緩慢轉動的陽光奇怪地褪了色。某些地方是暗沉卻刺眼的橘色，另一些地方則是病態的硫磺色調。

No wonder the children hated it! I should hate it myself if I had to live in this room long.
難怪孩子們會討厭它！如果我也得在這個房間住上很久，我自己也會討厭的。

There comes John, and I must put this away-he hates to have me write a word.
約翰來了，我得把這個收起來——他討厭看到我寫任何東西。

Do you think your male and female students would reach different interpretations of
你認為你的男女學生會對以下內容產生不同的解讀嗎？
a) the reactions and behaviour of the woman?
a) 這位女性的反應與行為？
b) the significance of the room and the wallpaper?
b) 房間與壁紙的象徵意義？

Does this seem to you to be the kind of story you could teach to an exclusively male class? If yes, why? If not, why not? What balance do you try to establish in your classes between
你覺得這類故事適合在純男生的班級中教授嗎？如果適合，為什麼？如果不適合，原因為何？你在課堂上會試圖建立怎樣的平衡？
a) texts which are narrated from a woman’s point of view?
a) 以女性視角敘述的文本？
b) texts which are narrated from a man’s point of view?
b) 以男性觀點敘述的文本？
c) texts by women writers?
c) 女性作家創作的文本？
d) texts by men writers?
d) 男性作家創作的文本？

2 From the above extract it is hard to disentangle whether the woman is confined or believes herself to be confined to the room, whether the confinement is more properly a symbol for the restrictions of a marriage, or whether everything can be reduced to a particularly neurotic state of mind. (Much will probably depend here on whether you are reading the text as a man or as a woman.)
2 從上述節錄中，很難釐清這名女子是被禁錮於房間內，還是她自認為被禁錮於此；這種禁錮是否更適合作為婚姻限制的象徵，抑或這一切都能歸因於某種特別神經質的心理狀態。（這很可能在很大程度上取決於你身為男性或女性讀者的閱讀角度。）
In the poem ‘Song’ by Thomas Carew (see p.187) the actual form of the poem is a tightly regulated one of

aa / bb

. How many of those poems you teach which are love poems written by a man to a woman enshrine the women in such confined patterns? Is this practice as disabling as that of only
在托馬斯·卡魯（Thomas Carew）的詩作〈歌〉（參見第 187 頁）中，詩歌的實際形式是嚴格規範的

aa / bb

。你所教授的詩歌中有多少是由男性寫給女性的情詩，將女性禁錮在如此受限的模式中？這種做法是否與僅...
describing a woman in terms of physical bodily parts? Would you draw attention to such matters in your teaching or do you consider such interpretations of confinement of women by men to be unreasonable and invalid?
用身體部位來描述一位女性？在教學中你會強調這些問題嗎？或者你認為這種將女性侷限於男性觀點的詮釋是不合理且無效的？

3 The following is a cloze exercise (see p.80). On this occasion, however, the exercise is specifically targeted to assist students to understand how women are positioned in society, both in general and in the particular case of the nineteenth century novel Middlemarch from which it is extracted. In the example the following items are deleted: pronouns; reflexives (e.g. himself/ herself); names; key gender-marking words such as

Mr / Mrs

, boy/girl, etc. Ask your students and/or try yourself to insert the appropriate items. What does the exercise tell you?
3 以下是一個克漏字練習（參見第 80 頁）。不過這次的練習特別設計來幫助學生理解女性在社會中的定位，無論是普遍情況還是從十九世紀小說《米德鎮的春天》中摘錄的特定案例。在這個例子中，以下項目被刪除：代名詞；反身代詞（例如他自己/她自己）；名字；關鍵的性別標記詞，如

Mr / Mrs

、男孩/女孩等。請讓你的學生嘗試填入適當的詞語，或者你也可以自己試試看。這個練習告訴了你什麼？

Two hours later,

was seated in an inner room or boudoir of a handsome apartment in the Via Sistina.
兩小時後，

坐在西斯汀大道上一間豪華公寓的內室或閨房裡。

I am sorry to add that

was sobbing bitterly, with such abandonment to this relief of an oppressed heart as a

habitually controlled by pride on

own account and thoughtfulness for others will sometimes allow

when

feels securely alone. And

Casaubon was certain to remain away for some time at the Vatican.
我很遺憾地補充說，

正在痛哭流涕，如此放縱地宣洩受壓抑的心情，就像一個

習慣性地被驕傲控制，考慮到

自己和其他人，有時會允許

當

感到安全獨處時這樣做。而且

卡索邦肯定還會在梵蒂岡待上一段時間。

Yet

had no distinctly shapen grievance that

could state even to

and in the midst of

confused thought and passion, the mental act that was struggling forth into clearness was a self-accusing cry that

feeling of desolation was the fault of

own spiritual poverty.
然而

心中並無任何具體可向

甚至

傾訴的明確怨懟，在

混亂思緒與激烈情緒交織之際，那掙扎著要浮現清晰的內心獨白，竟是自我譴責的吶喊——

這份孤寂感實源於

自身心靈的貧瘠。

had married the

choice, and with the advantage over most that had contemplated

marriage chiefly as the beginning of new duties: from the very first

had thought of

Casaubon as having a mind so much above

選擇與

心儀的

結為連理，且比大多數人更為幸運的是，

始終將婚姻視為新責任的開端：從最初

便認定

卡索邦擁有超凡脫俗的智慧

own, that

must often be claimed by studies which

自己，那些

經常必須被研究宣稱的

could not entirely share; moreover, after the brief narrow experience of

girlhood

was beholding Rome, the city of visible history, where the past of a whole hemisphere seems moving in funeral procession with strange ancestral images and trophies gathered from afar.

無法完全認同；此外，在經歷了

少女時期

短暫而狹隘的視野後，如今凝視著羅馬這座歷史可見之城，整個半球的過往彷彿正以葬禮行列般移動，帶著從遠方收集而來的奇異祖先形象與戰利品。

But this stupendous fragmentariness heightened the dreamlike strangeness of

bridal life

had now been five weeks in Rome, and in the kindly mornings when autumn and winter seemed to go hand in hand like a happy aged couple one of whom would presently survive in chiller loneliness,

had driven about at first with Casaubon, but of late chiefly with Tantripp and their experienced courier.
但這種驚人的片段性，更加深了

新婚生活

如夢似幻的陌生感。如今已在羅馬五週，在那些秋冬季節彷彿一對幸福老夫妻攜手同行的和煦早晨——其中一位即將獨自面對更寒冷的孤寂——

起初常與卡索邦駕車出遊，但近來主要與坦特里普和他們經驗豐富的導遊同行。

had been led through the best galleries, had been taken to the chief points of view, had been shown the greatest ruins and the most glorious churches, and

had ended by oftenest choosing to drive out to the Campana where

could feel alone with the earth and sky, away from the oppressive masquerade of ages, in which

被帶領參觀最頂尖的美術館，造訪主要觀景點，欣賞最宏偉的遺跡與最輝煌的教堂，而

最終最常選擇驅車前往坎帕納，在那裡

能獨自感受天地，遠離那些年代壓抑的化裝舞會。

own life too seemed to become a masque with enigmatical costumes.

他自己的生活似乎也變成了一場充滿謎樣裝扮的假面舞會。
she/he boy/girl 她/他男孩/女孩
Dorothea/David 多蘿西婭/大衛
her/his Mr/Mrs herself/himself
她的/他的先生/女士她自己/他自己
8.6

Summary and future developments
摘要與未來發展

It is difficult to draw firm conclusions from recent work in literary and critical theory or to evaluate the likely impact of such work on future developments in literature and language teaching. Our view is a generally positive one, however. Although to date most of the theoretical investigations have taken place on the plane of ‘theory’ and although the precise nature of their relevance to pedagogy has yet to be fully explored, it is clear that there are important implications for the teaching of literature in a second or foreign language context. For example, the consistent exposure of the cultural relativity of liberal humanism and Eurocentrism inherent in much critical practice is especially valuable in such a context. Above all, however, recent work in literary theory remains challenging to the ways in which interpretations are made and the socio-cultural positions from which they are constructed. The claim that there is a universally valid reading of a text is shown to be suspect.
從近期的文學與批判理論研究中，要得出確切結論或評估這些研究對未來文學與語言教學發展的影響並不容易。然而，我們的觀點整體上是樂觀的。儘管迄今為止，大多數理論探討仍停留在「理論」層面，且其與教學法的具體關聯性尚待充分探討，但顯然這些研究對第二語言或外語情境中的文學教學具有重要啟示。舉例而言，持續揭露許多批判實踐中內含的自由人文主義與歐洲中心主義之文化相對性，在此類教學情境中尤其具有價值。不過最重要的是，當代文學理論研究仍持續挑戰我們解讀文本的方式，以及這些解讀所建構的社會文化立場。所謂存在普遍有效文本解讀的論點，已被證明是值得懷疑的。

Our position in this book is that recent developments in literary theory cannot be dismissed and that ways need to be found of sensitising students to the issues raised and the changes in critical practice prompted by such issues. Our strong view is, however, that it would be a mistake if such issues were to distract attention from the textuality of texts. This is paramount in the teaching of literature with students for whom the language of the texts is not their first language.
我們在本書中的立場是，近期的文學理論發展不容忽視，必須找到方法讓學生對這些議題所引發的問題及批評實踐的變化保持敏感。然而，我們強烈認為，若這些議題分散了對文本本身特性的關注，將是一個錯誤。對於文本語言非學生母語的文學教學而言，這點至關重要。

In this respect we do not see interest in the linguistic organisation of text diminishing, and continue to see it as a major responsibility of teachers of literature to assist students to respond to the uses of language in literature. This interest will need to be modified in the light of insights generated by literary theory and it is vital to pay more than token lip-service to theories of literature; but language-based approaches will, as we argue throughout the book, continue to generate practical, creative and systematic ‘ways in’ to literature and continue to constitute an important strand in genuinely integrated language and literature teaching. Necessarily, too, as we have again argued in many places, these approaches need to feed from and into the personal experience of students and awake their active engagement with texts. This remains central whatever the gender of the student, whatever the culture in which they are situated, whatever socio-historical positions they occupy and whatever the ideologies by which they are embraced.
在這方面，我們並不認為對文本語言組織的興趣會減弱，並持續將其視為文學教師的主要責任，以協助學生回應文學中的語言運用。這項興趣需要根據文學理論所產生的見解進行調整，且必須對文學理論付出超越表面敷衍的重視；但正如我們在書中始終主張的，以語言為基礎的方法將持續為文學開創實用、創意且系統性的「入門途徑」，並持續構成真正整合語言與文學教學的重要環節。同樣地，正如我們在多處所強調的，這些方法必須與學生的個人經驗相互滋養，並喚醒他們對文本的主動參與。無論學生的性別為何、身處何種文化背景、佔據何種社會歷史位置，或懷抱何種意識形態，這項核心原則都至關重要。

Select bibliography on literature and language teaching
文學與語言教學精選參考書目

This bibliography is a select bibliography. The items have been selected according to some specific principles, but exhaustive treatment of the field was not one of them and must await the work of future bibliographers. The guiding organisational principles of this bibliography are as follows:
這份書目是經過精選的參考文獻。所列項目皆依據特定原則篩選，但並未追求對該領域的全面涵蓋，這項工作有待未來的文獻學家完成。本參考書目的主要編排原則如下：

1 It aims to be an introductory guide to the field of literature and language teaching, mainly with reference to the second or foreign-language learner.
1. 旨在提供文學與語言教學領域的入門指南，主要針對第二語言或外語學習者。
2 In keeping with the chapters in this book there is coverage of work which is mainly methodological and classroom-based in orientation. Reference to books on stylistics is to those designed as student textbooks.
2. 為配合本書各章節內容，收錄著作以教學方法論及課堂實踐為主要取向。文體學相關書籍僅收錄專為學生編寫的教科書。
3 References to articles appearing in journals are normally to those journals which are widely read and used by language teachers.
3 期刊文章的參考資料通常選自語言教師廣泛閱讀與使用的期刊。
4 The terms 'literature and ‘reading’ are interpreted quite widely and the bibliography includes material devoted to structural readers. The reason for this is that learners regularly encounter such texts in the course of their literary studies.
4 「文學」與「閱讀」的定義在此採廣義解釋，書目亦包含結構式讀本相關資料。這是因為學習者在文學研習過程中經常接觸此類文本。
5 The period covered is 1970-1989.
5 收錄時間範圍為 1970 至 1989 年。
6 Classroom anthologies are not included unless heavily annotated as student textbooks.
6 除非經過大量註解作為學生課本使用，否則課堂選集不予收錄。
7 A short annotated bibliography is also provided giving information about the main textbooks published at the interface of literature and language teaching during the past five years - years which have seen a rapid growth of published material in this area.
7 同時也提供了一份簡短的附註書目，列出過去五年間在文學與語言教學交界領域出版的主要教材資訊——這段期間該領域的出版品呈現快速增長。
We alone are responsible for the subjectivities which inevitably govern selections. Any omissions, whether by design or by default, are also our responsibility.
我們必須為那些無可避免地主導選材的主觀判斷負責。無論是刻意或疏忽造成的遺漏，同樣都應由我們承擔。

Adeyanju, T K 1978 ‘Teaching literature and Human Values in ESL’. In ELT Journal 32/2
Adeyanju, T K 1978 〈ESL 中的文學教學與人文價值〉，刊載於《英語教學期刊》第 32 卷第 2 期
Allen, V F 1976 ‘Some Insights from Linguistics for the Teaching of Literature’. In English Teaching Forum 14/4
Allen, V F 1976 〈從語言學觀點看文學教學的若干啟示〉，刊載於《英語教學論壇》第 14 卷第 4 期

Barker, M E 1985 ‘Using Children’s Literature to Teach ESL to Young Learners’. In English Teaching Forum 23/1
Barker, M E 1985 〈運用兒童文學教導幼童英語作為第二語言〉。刊於《英語教學論壇》23/1
Boardman, R and Holden, S (eds.) 1987 Teaching Literature MEP
Boardman, R 和 Holden, S (編) 1987 《文學教學》 MEP
Bouman, L 1985 ‘Who’s Afraid of Reading (Part 1)’. In Modern English Teacher 12/3
Bouman, L 1985 〈誰害怕閱讀（第一部分）〉，刊於《現代英語教師》12/3
Bouman, L 1985 ‘Who’s Afraid of Reading (Part 2)’. In Modern English Teacher 12/4
Bouman, L 1985 〈誰害怕閱讀（第二部分）〉，刊於《現代英語教師》12/4
Brazil, D 1983 ‘Kinds of English: Spoken, Written and Literary’. In Readings on Language Schools and Classrooms, Stubbs, M and Hillier, H (eds.) Methuen
Brazil, D 1983 〈英語的種類：口語、書面語與文學〉，刊於《語言學校與課堂讀本》，Stubbs, M 和 Hillier, H (編) Methuen
Brumfit, C J 1979 Readers for Foreign Learners of English Information Guide 7, British Council
Brumfit, C J 1979 《英語外語學習者讀本資訊指南 7》，英國文化協會
Brumfit, C J 1981 ‘Reading Skills and the Study of Literature in a Foreign Language’ System 9/1
Brumfit, C J 1981 〈外語學習中的閱讀技巧與文學研究〉，《系統》期刊第 9 卷第 1 期
Brumfit, C J (ed.) 1983 Teaching Literature Overseas: Language Based Approaches. ELT Documents 114 Pergamon Press/British Council
Brumfit, C J（編）1983 《海外文學教學：以語言為基礎的教學法》，ELT 文獻 114，培格曼出版社/英國文化協會
Brumfit, C J 1985 Language and Literature Teaching Pergamon
Brumfit, C J 1985 《語言與文學教學》，培格曼
Brumfit, C J and Carter R A (eds.) 1986 Literature and Language Teaching Oxford University Press
Brumfit, C J 與 Carter R A（編）1986 《文學與語言教學》牛津大學出版社

Campbell, N 1987 ‘Adapted Literary Texts and the EFL Reading Programme’. In ELT Journal 41/2
Campbell, N 1987 「改編文學文本與 EFL 閱讀課程」。《ELT 期刊》41/2
Carter, R A (ed.) 1982 Language and Literature Allen & Unwin
卡特（R. A. Carter）編 1982 《語言與文學》艾倫與昂溫出版社
Carter, R A and Burton, D (eds.) 1982 Literary Text and Language Study Edward Arnold
Carter, R A 與 Burton, D（編）1982 《文學文本與語言研究》Edward Arnold
Carter, R A 1987 ‘Reading Literature in a Foreign Language: Language-Based Approaches’. In Praxis 11/3
卡特，R A 1987 〈外語文學閱讀：語言本位取徑〉。刊於《實踐》11/3
Carter, R A and Long, M N 1987 The Web of Words: Exploring Literature Through Language Cambridge University Press
卡特，R A 與朗，M N 1987 《詞語網絡：透過語言探索文學》劍橋大學出版社
Carter, R A, Walker, R J and Brumfit, C J (eds.) 1989 Literature and the Language Learner: Methodological Approaches ELT Docs

130 MEP /

Macmillan, The British Council
卡特，R A、沃克，R J 與布倫菲特，C J（編）1989 《文學與語言學習者：教學法取徑》英語教學文獻

130 MEP /

麥克米倫出版社、英國文化協會
Collie, J and Slater, S 1987 Literature in the Language Classroom Cambridge University Press
科利，J 與斯萊特，S 1987 《語言課堂中的文學》劍橋大學出版社
Cummings, M and Simmons, R 1983 The Language of Literature Pergamon Press
康明斯與西蒙斯 1983 《文學的語言》培格曼出版社

D’haen, T (ed.) 1986 Linguistics and the Study of Literature Rodopi, Amsterdam
德安主編 1986 《語言學與文學研究》阿姆斯特丹羅多比出版社
Dillon, G 1978 Language Processing and the Reading of Literature Indiana University Press, Indiana
狄龍 1978 《語言處理與文學閱讀》印第安納大學出版社
Duff, A and Maley, A (forthcoming) Literature Teachers’ Resource Book Series Oxford University Press
達夫與馬利（即將出版）《文學教師資源手冊系列》牛津大學出版社

Ferrar, M 1984 ‘Linguistics and the Literary Text’. In The Use of English 35/2
費拉爾，M 1984 〈語言學與文學文本〉，刊於《英語運用》第 35 卷第 2 期

Fish, S 1980 Is There a Text in this Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities Harvard University Press, Harvard
費許，S 1980 《這堂課有文本嗎？詮釋社群的權威》哈佛大學出版社，哈佛
Fowler, R 1971 The Languages of Literature Routledge and Kegan Paul
佛勒，R 1971 《文學的語言》勞特利奇與基根保羅出版社
Fowler, R 1981 Literature as Social Discourse Batsford
佛勒，R 1981 《作為社會話語的文學》貝茨福德出版社
Gower, R 1986 ‘Can Stylistic Analysis Help the EFL Learner to Read Literature?’ In ELT Journal 40/2
高爾，R 1986 〈文體分析能否幫助英語學習者閱讀文學作品？〉，《英語教學期刊》40/2
Gower, R and Pearson, M 1986 Reading Literature Longman
高爾，R 與皮爾森，M 1986 《文學閱讀》朗文出版社
Greenwood, J M 1989 Classroom Readers Teachers’ Resource Book Series Oxford University Press
格林伍德，J M 1989 《課堂讀者教師資源手冊系列》牛津大學出版社

Hedge, T 1985 Using Readers in Language Teaching Macmillan
赫奇，T 1985 《語言教學中的讀者運用》麥克米倫出版社
Holden, S (ed.) 1988 Language and Literature MEP
霍爾頓，S（編）1988 《語言與文學》 MEP
Jones, R T 1986 Studying Poetry Edward Arnold
瓊斯，R T 1986 《詩歌研究》愛德華·阿諾德出版社
Knight, R 1982 ‘Literature and the Language of Linguists’. In The Use of English 33/3
奈特，R 1982 年〈文學與語言學家的語言〉，刊於《英語運用》第 33 卷第 3 期

Leech, G N and Short, M H 1981 Style in Fiction Longman
李奇，G N 與蕭特，M H 1981 年《小說文體》，朗文出版社
Littlewood, W T 1976 ‘Literary and Informational Texts in Language Teaching’. In Praxis 1/1
利特爾伍德，W T 1976 年〈語言教學中的文學文本與資訊文本〉，刊於《實踐》第 1 卷第 1 期
Lott, B 1986 A Course in English Language and Literature Edward Arnold
洛特，B 1986 《英語語言與文學課程》愛德華·阿諾德出版社
Maher, J C 1982 ‘Poetry for Instructional Purposes’. In English Teaching Forum 20/1
馬赫，J C 1982 〈教學用途的詩歌〉收錄於《英語教學論壇》20/1 期
Maley, A and Moulding, S 1986 Poem into Poem Cambridge University Press
馬利，A 與莫爾丁，S 1986 《詩中詩》劍橋大學出版社
Markwardt, A H 1978 The Place of Literature in the Teaching of ELT as a Second or Foreign Language East-West Centre, Hawaii
馬克沃特，A H 1978 《文學在英語作為第二語言或外語教學中的地位》夏威夷東西中心
Markwardt, A H 1981 ‘What Literature to Teach: Principles of Selection and Class Treatment’. In English Teaching Forum 19/1
馬克瓦特，A H 1981 年〈該教什麼文學：選擇與課堂處理的原則〉，刊於《英語教學論壇》19/1 期
Marshall, M 1979 ‘Love and Death in Eden’ : Teaching English Literature to ESL Students’. In TESOL Quarterly 13/1
馬歇爾，M 1979 年〈伊甸園中的愛與死：對 ESL 學生的英語文學教學〉，刊於《TESOL 季刊》13/1 期
McConachie, J and Sage, H ‘Since Feeling is First: Thoughts on Sharing Poetry in the ESOL Classroom’. In English Teaching Forum 23/1
麥康納奇，J 與塞奇，H〈既然感覺優先：ESOL 課堂分享詩歌的思考〉，刊於《英語教學論壇》23/1 期
McKay, S and Pettit, D 1982 At the Door Prentice Hall, New York
麥凱，S 與佩蒂特，D 1982 年《在門邊》，普倫蒂斯霍爾出版社，紐約
McRae, J 1985 Using Drama in the Language Classroom Pergamon ELT
麥克雷，J 1985 《戲劇在語言課堂中的運用》培格曼英語教學出版社
Melville, M (et al.) 1980 Towards the Creative Teaching of English Allen and Unwin
梅爾維爾，M（等人）1980 《邁向英語創意教學》艾倫與昂溫出版社
Moody, H L B 1971 The Teaching of Literature Longman
穆迪，H L B 1971 《文學教學》朗文出版社
Morgan, J and Rinvolucri, M 1983 Once Upon a Time: Using Stories in the Language Classroom Cambridge University Press
摩根，J 與林沃魯克里，M 1983 《從前從前：故事在語言課堂中的運用》劍橋大學出版社
Muyskens, J A 1983 ‘Teaching Second Language Literature: Past, Present and Future’. In Modern Languages Journal 67/4
穆伊斯肯斯，J A 1983 年〈第二語言文學教學：過去、現在與未來〉，刊於《現代語言期刊》67/4 期

O’Brien, V 1985 Teaching Poetry in the Secondary School, Edward Arnold
歐布萊恩，V 1985 年《中學詩歌教學》，愛德華·阿諾德出版社
Page, N (ed.) 1984 The Language of Literature Macmillan
佩吉，N（編）1984 年《文學的語言》，麥克米倫出版社
Pickett, D (ed.) 1982 Literature in Foreign Language Teaching British Council Seminar Proceedings
皮克特，D（編）1982 年《外語教學中的文學》，英國文化協會研討會論文集
Power, H W 1981 ‘Literature for Language Students: the Question of Value and Valuable Questions’. In English Teaching Forum 19/1
Power, H W 1981 〈文學對語言學生的價值：價值問題與有價值的提問〉，刊於《英語教學論壇》19/1 期

Annotated bibliography: textbooks
附註書目：教科書類

本處所列書籍皆針對中高級/高級英語學習者。Boardman, R 與 McRae, J 1984 年《字裡行間》劍橋大學出版社。含學生用書與教師手冊。全書分十個主題單元，收錄經典與非經典文本，並摘錄報章雜誌內容。教師手冊詳盡引導「開放式」回應教學。

All books annotated here are targeted at upper-intermediate/advanced students of English.

Boardman, R and McRae, J 1984 Reading Between the Lines Cambridge University Press. Students' Book and Teacher's Book. Ten thematicallyorganised units. Mixture of canonical and non-canonical texts, plus extracts from newspapers, magazines, etc. Very detailed Teacher's Book encourages 'open' responses.

卡特（R. Carter）與朗（M. N. Long）合著，1987 年出版《文字之網：透過語言探索文學》，由劍橋大學出版社發行。包含學生用書與教師手冊，共十個單元，依據語言教學法編排（如預測、克漏字、朗讀、排序、角色扮演等）。採活動導向的溝通式教學法。克拉克（D. Clarke）1989 年著作《談論文學》，由阿諾德/霍德與斯托頓出版社發行。全書分五大主題單元，結合理解測驗與活動任務，串連語言與文學教學。

Carter, R and Long, M N 1987 The Web of Words: Exploring Literature Through Language Cambridge University Press. Students' Book and Teacher's Book. Ten units organised according to langua ye-based approaches (e.g. prediction; cloze; reading aloud; ranking; role play, etc.) Activity-centred, communicative approach.

Clarke, D 1989 Talk About Literature Arnold/Hodder and Stoughton. Five theme-based sections combining comprehension with activity and task and linking language and literature.

Durant, A and Fabb, N 1989 Literary Studies in Action Routledge. A unique activity-based introduction to literary studies containing over 100 tasks covering literary history, literary theory, interpretation, literatures in English, etc.
杜蘭特，A 與法布，N 1989 《文學研究實戰》羅德里奇出版社。一本獨特的活動式文學研究入門，包含超過 100 項任務，涵蓋文學史、文學理論、文本詮釋、英語文學等領域。

Gower, R and Pearson M 1986 Reading Literature Longman. Students’ Book. Ten units focused on developing responses to theme and dominant literary forms and structures. Wide selection of texts thoroughly glossed and annotated.
高爾（R. Gower）與皮爾森（M. Pearson）1986 年合著《文學閱讀》（Reading Literature），由朗文出版社發行。此學生用書共分十單元，著重培養對文學主題、主流文類與結構的賞析能力。全書精選多元文本，並附詳盡註解與詞彙釋義。

Lott, B 1986 A Coursebook in English Language and Literature Edward Arnold. Students’ and Teacher’s Book. Traditional textbook concentrating on comprehension. Teacher-centred (compared with other books on this list). Language sections devoted to language forms rather than to functions. Twenty units each devoted to the study of extracts from a wide range of texts, including Indian and African literature in English.
洛特，B 1986 《英語語言與文學課程教材》愛德華·阿諾德出版社。學生用書與教師用書。傳統教材著重理解能力培養。相較於本書單其他教材更以教師為中心。語言章節側重語言形式而非功能。共二十單元，每單元精選各類文本節錄研讀，包含印度與非洲英語文學作品。

Tomlinson, B 1987 Openings Lingual House. Students’ Book. Forty extracts organised in eight thematic sections and chosen on the principle of English as an international language. Numerous suggested activities leading to communicative exercises.
湯林森，B 1987 《開端》語言之家出版社。學生用書。四十篇節錄文本按八大主題編排，選材基於英語作為國際語言的原則。提供大量引導至交際練習的活動建議。

Walker, R 1983 Language for Literature Collins. Balanced mix of comprehension and exploratory language activities on a range of texts. Ten texts taken for close study including African writers and a spectrum of different literary forms.
沃克，R 1983 《文學語言》柯林斯出版社。均衡融合理解性與探索性語言活動，涵蓋多種文本類型。精選十篇文本深入研讀，包含非洲作家作品及各類文學形式光譜。
Wiley, G and Dunk, M 1985 Integrated English Cambridge University Press. Students’ Book. Aimed at mother-tongue school students but usable in EFL/ ESL classrooms. Thematically organised. Eighteen units containing linked language and literary activities. Mainly comprehension-based.
威利，G 與鄧克，M 1985 《整合英語》劍橋大學出版社。學生用書。雖以母語學生為主要對象，亦適用於 EFL/ESL 課堂。按主題編排。十八個單元包含相互關聯的語言與文學活動，主要基於理解訓練。

I In Carter, R A. Walker, R J and Brumfit, C J (cds) 1989 Literature and the Learner: Methodological Approaches Macmillan; MEP.
I 收錄於卡特、R.A.、沃克、R.J.與布倫菲特、C.J.合編之 1989 年著作《文學與學習者：方法論探討》，由麥克米倫出版社與 MEP 出版。
$^{1}$ For further examples sec Carter, R A and Long, M N 1987 The Web of Words CUP especially Unit 5 ‘Patterns of Language’. Many more extensive examples can be found in Malcy, A and Moulding. S 1985 Poem into Poem CUP.
$^{1}$ 更多範例可參閱卡特、R.A.與朗、M.N.於 1987 年合著之《文字之網》（劍橋大學出版社），尤以第五單元「語言模式」為要。更詳盡的範例可參考馬爾西、A.與莫爾丁、S.於 1985 年合編之《詩中詩》（劍橋大學出版社）。

Teaching Literature 文學教學

2

Literature and experience文學與經驗

2.0 Introduction 2.0 導論

Literature and life 文學與生活

Relevance 相關性

The role of the teacher教師的角色

2.1

Question A 《沉浸式翻譯 - AI 驅動的 PDF 翻譯：公式辨識，表格辨識，多欄支援，一鍵匯出》

Commentary 《沉浸式翻譯 - AI 驅動的 PDF 翻譯：公式辨識，表格辨識，多欄支援，一鍵匯出》

Question B 問題 B

Question C 問題 C

2.1.1

2.2 Processes of reading2.2 閱讀過程

2.3

NEIGHBOURS 睦鄰關係

2.4

Neighbours 鄰居

2.4.2

Futility 徒勞

2.5 Relating prereading activities to text2.5 預讀活動與文本的關聯

2.6 Teacher-centred literature classes2.6 以教師為中心的文學課堂

2.6.1 Classroom presentation of literature2.6.1 文學的課堂呈現

2.7

2.7.1

2.7.2

THE POEM 詩作原文

2.7.4

2.8 Experiencing language: elementary stylistics2.8 體驗語言：基礎文體學

2.9 Conclusion 2.9 結論

2.10

A dishwasher for those who'd like to tuck away dinner for six and still stay slim.一款洗碗機，專為那些想輕鬆收拾六人晚餐卻仍想保持苗條的人設計。

Discussion 討論

A dishwasher for those who'd like to tuck away dinner for six and still stay slim.這款洗碗機適合想一次清洗六人份晚餐餐具，同時保持身材苗條的人。

4

Language-based approaches以語言為基礎的教學方法

4.0 Introduction 4.0 導論

4.1 Jigsaw reading 4.1 拼圖閱讀法

4.1.1

The Road Not Taken〈未行之路〉

The Hill Wife 山居之妻

A

F

E

D

H

G

B

Beginnings and endings 開端與結局

Beginnings 開端

1

3

4

Endings 終章

A

B

C

D

Acknowledgement 致謝

Really? 真的嗎？

4.3.2

4.4.3

Harvest Hymn 豐收讚美詩

Introduction for the student學生導讀

Orientation 導讀方向

Reading aloud 1 朗讀練習 1

The General 將軍

4.5 Alternative versions: the uses of paraphrase4.5 替代版本：改寫的運用

1 'A slumber' (Wordsworth)1 〈沉睡〉（華茲華斯）

2 'The Red Wheelbarrow' (William Carlos Williams)2 〈紅色手推車〉（威廉·卡洛斯·威廉斯）

3 In a Station of the Metro' (Ezra Pound)3 在地鐵站（艾茲拉·龐德）

4.6 Writing creatively in a foreign language4.6 用外語進行創意寫作

1 Focusing first line1 聚焦首行

2 Thin poems 2 精簡詩

3 Cinquain 3 五行詩

4 Sound poems 4 首聲音詩

5 Noun phrase poem5 名詞片語詩

6 The Magic Box6 魔法盒子

4.6.1

4.7 Conclusion 4.7 結論

Literature and experience
文學與經驗

The role of the teacher
教師的角色

2.2
Processes of reading
2.2 閱讀過程

2.5
Relating prereading activities to text
2.5 預讀活動與文本的關聯

2.6
Teacher-centred literature classes
2.6 以教師為中心的文學課堂

2.6.1
Classroom presentation of literature
2.6.1 文學的課堂呈現

2.8 Experiencing language: elementary stylistics
2.8 體驗語言：基礎文體學

A dishwasher for those who'd like to tuck away dinner for six and still stay slim.
一款洗碗機，專為那些想輕鬆收拾六人晚餐卻仍想保持苗條的人設計。

A dishwasher for those who'd like to tuck away dinner for six and still stay slim.
這款洗碗機適合想一次清洗六人份晚餐餐具，同時保持身材苗條的人。

Language-based approaches
以語言為基礎的教學方法

4.1
Jigsaw reading 4.1 拼圖閱讀法

The Road Not Taken
〈未行之路〉

Introduction for the student
學生導讀

4.5
Alternative versions: the uses of paraphrase
4.5 替代版本：改寫的運用

1 'A slumber' (Wordsworth)
1 〈沉睡〉（華茲華斯）

2 'The Red Wheelbarrow' (William Carlos Williams)
2 〈紅色手推車〉（威廉·卡洛斯·威廉斯）

3 In a Station of the Metro' (Ezra Pound)
3 在地鐵站（艾茲拉·龐德）

4.6
Writing creatively in a foreign language
4.6 用外語進行創意寫作

1 Focusing first line
1 聚焦首行

5 Noun phrase poem
5 名詞片語詩

6 The Magic Box
6 魔法盒子

4.7
Conclusion 4.7 結論

Questions for discussion
討論問題

8.4
Reading as a woman
8.4 女性視角的閱讀

Questions for discussion
討論問題

Select bibliography on literature and language teaching
文學與語言教學精選參考書目