Definition:  定义：
Antitrust is the body of law that controls the creation, use and abuse of market power. In some jurisdictions, including the United States, antitrust is another word for competition law. In the European Union, antitrust denotes the part of competition law that covers abuse of dominance and anticompetitive agreements but not merger control. This entry will use the word in the more generic sense.
反垄断法是控制市场力量的创造、使用和滥用的法律体系。在一些司法管辖区，包括美国，反垄断法是竞争法的另一个说法。在欧盟，反垄断是指竞争法中关于滥用支配地位和反竞争协议的部分，但不包括合并控制。本条目将使用更笼统的意义上的词语。

Definition:  定义：
Abuse of dominance is unilateral conduct using dominant market power (or a dominant position) to damage market competition and ultimately welfare. Most jurisdictions address the issue by prohibiting use of dominance or substantial market power, taking different approaches to terminology and the relevant threshold of market power. Dominance itself, or the degree of market power required by other wordings, is generally measured by the ability of an organisation to act without significant constraint, or to influence prices to exclude competition, or to profitably maintain prices above the cost of supply in the long run. Conduct which may infringe abuse of
滥用支配地位是指利用支配地位（或支配性地位）进行损害市场竞争并最终损害福利的单边行为。大多数司法管辖区通过禁止使用支配地位或实质性市场力量来解决这个问题，对术语和相关的市场力量门槛采取不同的方法。支配地位本身，或其他措辞所要求的市场力量程度，通常是指一个组织不受重大约束地行动或影响价格以排除竞争或在长期内以高于供应成本的价格盈利的能力。可能侵犯滥用支配地位的行为包括：
dominance and like provisions includes predatory pricing, exclusive dealing, loyalty rebates, tying and bundling, refusal to deal, and in some jurisdictions, excessive pricing.
包括掠夺性定价、独家交易、忠诚度回扣、捆绑销售、拒绝交易以及在某些司法管辖区过高的价格等。

Definition:  定义：
Abuse of economic dependence, also known as an abuse of a superior bargaining position (ASBP), is a legal concept that addresses a situation where one party to a transaction that is in a position of relative strength to another abuses such position. In contrast to abusive conduct by dominant undertakings prohibited by provisions such as Article 102 TFEU, abuse of economic dependence does not require a dominant position in any market. Instead, it requires some sort of superior position relative to the counterparty of a transaction, and aims to protect the weaker party from the abuse of such position by the party in the superior position.
经济依赖关系的滥用，也称为滥用优势地位 (ASBP)，是一个法律概念，它涉及一方在交易中处于相对优势地位时滥用其地位的情况。与《欧洲联盟运作条约》第 102 条等规定禁止的支配性企业滥用行为不同，经济依赖关系的滥用不要求在任何市场中都拥有支配地位。相反，它要求在交易的相对方中占据某种优势地位，并旨在保护较弱的一方免受优势地位的一方滥用其地位。

Definition:  定义：
An essential facility is an asset or infrastructure to which a third party needs access to offer its own product or service on a market. A facility is essential if no reasonable alternatives are available and duplication of the facility is not feasible due to legal, economic or technical obstacles. Different assets have
重要设施是指第三方需要使用以在其市场上提供其自身产品或服务的资产或基础设施。如果不存在合理的替代方案，并且由于法律、经济或技术障碍，设施的复制不可行，则该设施至关重要。不同的资产具有
been qualified as essential facilities: physical infrastructures like bridges or ports, intellectual property rights and sets of information. Denying access to an essential facility may amount to illegal monopolization (Section 2 of the Sherman Act) or abuse of dominance (Article 102 TFEU) by the undertaking controlling it.
禁止访问基本设施可能构成非法垄断（谢尔曼法第 2 条）或控制该设施的企业滥用支配地位（TFEU 第 102 条）。基本设施已被认定为：桥梁或港口等物理基础设施、知识产权和信息集合。

Definition:  定义：
An undertaking which occupies a dominant position in the provision of an essential facility and itself uses that facility (i. e. a facility or infrastructure, without access to which competitors cannot provide services to their customers), and which refuses other companies access to that facility without objective justification or grants access to competitors only on terms less favourable than those which it gives its own services, infringes Article 106 if the other conditions of that Article are met.
企业占据主要地位，以提供一项基本设施并自身使用该设施（即竞争对手无法在没有该设施的情况下向其客户提供服务），但以缺乏客观理由为由拒绝其他公司使用该设施，或仅以比其自身服务获得的条件更不优惠的条件向竞争对手授予使用权限，在符合该条其他条件的情况下，将违反第 106 条。

Definition:  定义：
A cartel is an anti-competitive agreement or concerted practice between two or more rival firms aimed at coordinating their competitive behaviour on the market or influencing other parameters of competition through practices
卡特尔是一种由两个或多个竞争对手之间达成的反竞争协议或协调行为，旨在协调其在市场上的竞争行为或通过某种方式影响其他竞争参数
that include but are not limited to: the direct or indirect fixing of prices or other trading conditions; the limitation or control of production, markets, technical developments or investment; the sharing of markets or sources of supply, including bidrigging; restrictions of imports or exports, or a combination of these practices. Exchange of competitively sensitive information can also be treated as cartel conduct in certain circumstances.
包括但不限于: 直接或间接地固定价格或其他交易条件；限制或控制生产、市场、技术发展或投资；分享市场或供应来源，包括串标；限制进出口，或以上行为的组合。在某些情况下，交换竞争敏感信息也可能被视为卡特尔行为。

Definition:  定义：
An oligopoly (from Ancient Greek “few” and “I sell, or I trade”) is a market structure in which market power (ability to raise prices above the competitive level and/or restrict competition otherwise) belongs to several undertakings.
寡头垄断（源自古希腊语“少数”和“我卖，或我交易”）是一种市场结构，其中市场力量（提高价格超过竞争水平和/或以其他方式限制竞争的能力）属于几家企业。

An oligopoly is one of the models of imperfect competition. In an oligopoly, undertakings can act as a “collective subject” being independent of each other. However, this happens not as a result of collusion but because of a peculiar market structure (primarily as a result of informational transparency). It is the market structure that allows oligopolists to foresee each other’s behaviour and repeat it (e.g. by simultaneously raising prices).
寡头垄断是不完全竞争模式之一。在寡头垄断中，企业可以作为一个“集体主体”，彼此独立。然而，这并非串通的结果，而是由于特殊的市场结构（主要是由于信息透明）。正是这种市场结构允许寡头垄断者预测彼此的行为并重复（例如，同时提高价格）。

Definition:  定义：
Strength of a firm on a particular market. In basic economic terms, market power is the ability of firms to price above marginal cost and for this to be profitable. In competition analysis, market power is determined with the help of a structural analysis of the market, notably the calculation of market shares, which necessitates an examination of the availability of other producers of the same or of substitutable products (substitutability). An assessment of market power also needs to include an assessment of barriers to entry or growth (entry barriers) and of the rate of innovation. Furthermore, it may involve qualitative criteria, such as the financial resources, the vertical integration or the product range of the undertaking concerned.
在基本的经济术语中，市场力量是指企业将价格定在高于边际成本水平并获利的能力。在竞争分析中，市场力量是通过市场结构分析确定的，特别是市场份额的计算，这需要考察其他同类或可替代产品生产商的可用性（可替代性）。市场力量评估还需要包括对进入或增长壁垒（进入壁垒）和创新速度的评估。此外，它可能涉及定性标准，如相关企业 的财务资源、纵向一体化或产品范围。

Definition:  定义：
Buyer power describes the bargaining position of a buyer with respect to its supplier(s) of goods or services. Through purchasing strategies, the buyer, unilaterally or through coordination with other buyers, can decrease the purchasing price of its input below the supplier’s standard selling price, above or below the competitive level. Two sub-types of buyer power are distinguished: first, monopsony power, which implies a withholding effect, being inefficient and dubbed the reverse of monopoly power; and second, bargaining (or
买方力量描述了买方相对于其商品或服务供应商的议价能力。通过采购策略，买方可以单独或通过与其他买方的协调，将其投入的价格降至低于供应商的标准售价、高于或低于竞争水平。买方力量主要包括两种类型：第一，买方垄断力量，它意味着一种抑制效应，效率低下，被称为垄断力量的反面；第二，议价力量（或双边力量），它描述了买方能够通过联合或集体谈判降低价格或提高质量的能力。
countervailing) power, in which tactics other than withholding may be used to the benefit of the buyer to reduce the input’s price. Bargaining power tends to be welfare enhancing as supra-competitive profits kept by the supplier are passed on to the buyer and eventually to the end consumers if there is competition in the retailing market.
抵消性权力，在这个权力中，除了扣留之外的策略可以被买方利用来降低投入的价格。议价权往往会提高福利，因为供应商保留的超竞争利润会传递给买方，并最终传递给终端消费者，如果零售市场存在竞争的话。

Definition:  定义：
Extraterritorial reach of competition laws refers to the extent to which jurisdictions are permitted to apply their domestic laws to conduct that occurs outside their jurisdiction, including the reach of remedies (i.e., prohibitions or requirements on foreign conduct or with respect to foreign assets).
境外竞争法及救济措施的效力是指，域外管辖的法律可以适用于域外行为的范围。

Definition:  定义：
Arrangement between actual or potential competitors, i.e. undertakings operating at the same level of the production or distribution chain, covering for example research and development, production, purchasing or commercialisation. Horizontal agreements may restrict competition in particular where they involve price fixing or market sharing, or where the see definition for market power resulting from the horizontal co-operation causes negative market effects with respect to
水平协议是在实际或潜在的竞争者之间，即在生产或分销链的同一水平上运营的企业之间做出的安排，例如涉及研究和开发、生产、采购或商业化。水平协议在特定情况下可能限制竞争，特别是在涉及价格固定或市场份额的情况下，或者当由水平合作产生的市场力量导致与有关
prices, output, innovation or the variety and quality of products. On the other hand, horizontal co-operation can be a means to share risk, save costs, pool know-how and launch innovation faster. In particular for small and medium-sized enterprises co-operation can be important means to adapt to the changing market place.
价格、产量、创新或产品的多样性和质量。另一方面，横向合作可以成为分担风险、节省成本、汇集专知和更快推出创新的手段。尤其是对于中小型企业而言，合作可以成为适应不断变化的市场的重要手段。

Definition:  定义：
Agreement or concerted Practice entered into between two or more undertakings each of which operates, for the purposes of the agreement, at a different level of the production or distribution chain, and relating to the conditions under which the parties may purchase, sell or resell certain goods or services.
在生产或分销链的不同层级运营的两个或多个企业之间达成的协议或协同行为，涉及这些企业购买、出售或转售某些商品或服务的条件。

Definition:  定义：
Bid rigging is a form of coordination between firms that may adversely affect the outcome of any sale or purchasing process in which bids are submitted. Such processes often, though not exclusively, relate to public procurement. Bid rigging may take a number of forms including: Bid suppression, where one or more parties agree not to bid; cover bidding, where parties agree to bid an artificially high price and bid rotation, where
串标是指企业之间进行的可能对任何投标或采购过程产生不利影响的协调行为，在该过程中，各企业提交投标。此类过程通常（但并非始终）与公共采购有关。串标可以采取多种形式，包括：抑制出价，其中一方或多方同意不出价；掩护出价，其中各方同意出价虚高；轮流出价，其中
parties may agree to bid, or bid only at an artificially high price, in rotation according to the number or value of contracts.
各方可以根据合同的数量或价值轮流竞标或仅以虚高价格竞标。

Definition:  定义：
A collective boycott occurs when a group of competitors agree to exclude an actual or potential competitor. This practice generally constitutes a restriction by object.
集体抵制是指一群竞争者同意排除一个实际或潜在竞争者的行为。这种做法通常构成一种限制性行为。

Definition:  定义：
Collusion is an anticompetitive business practice that firms perform in a coordinated manner to obtain benefits at the expense of consumer welfare. A distinction exists between explicit collusion, concerted practice, and tacit collusion. Explicit collusion between competitors, which includes communication and agreement with respect to core elements of competition, is illegal worldwide. Other practices that involve less explicit arrangements, such as information exchange, are known as “concerted practices.” These are also illegal if they might restrain competition. Tacit collusion, a practice where a competitor unilaterally follows the behaviour of other competitors, is not illegal in and of itself.
串通是一种反竞争的商业行为，公司以协调的方式进行，以牺牲消费者福利为代价获得利益。明示串通、一致行动和默示串通之间存在区别。竞争者之间的明示串通，包括关于竞争核心要素的沟通和协议，在世界范围内都是非法的。其他涉及不太明确安排的做法，如信息交换，被称为“一致行动”。如果它们可能限制竞争，也是非法的。默示串通是一种竞争者单方面跟随其他竞争者行为的做法，本身并不违法。

Definition:  定义：
Passing on, a concept well-accepted in economic theory, refers to the situation where an injured party passes on its actual loss resulting from an antitrust infringement (‘overcharge’) to the next level of the supply chain, by increasing the price of its products or services sold to its own customers at the downstream market-level (‘indirect purchasers’). Therefore, pass-on can serve as a ‘sword’, where an indirect purchaser alleges that the overcharge has caused it harm because of upstream pass-on. It can also be used as a ‘shield’, where an infringer invokes as a defence that downstream pass-on by the claimant had reduced the actual harm the latter has suffered.
在经济理论中，转嫁是指一个受损方将其因反垄断侵权行为而遭受的实际损失（“溢价”）转嫁给供应链的下一级，通过提高其在向下游市场级别出售的产品或服务的价格（“间接收买人”）来实现。因此，转嫁可以作为一个“剑”，间接收买人声称其因上游转嫁而遭受了损失。它也可以作为一个“盾”，侵权人辩称，被索赔人的下游转嫁减少了其遭受的实际损失。

Definition:  定义：
The term “concerted practice” is a form of anticompetitive market coordination without an agreement necessarily being reached. It may be defined as the coming together of two factors joined by a link of causality, based on the coordination between the parties through a way of contact whether direct or indirect, and the modification of the normal conditions of the market. A concerted practice has the purpose of harming competition where commercially sensitive information, such as an undertaking’s planned future pricing or output or
协调一致的行为是一种反竞争的市场协调形式，不一定是达成协议的行为。它可以被定义为两个因素通过因果关系而结合在一起，这取决于各方通过直接或间接的联系方式进行协调，以及市场正常条件的改变。协调一致的行为旨在损害竞争，其中包括商业敏感信息，例如企业计划的未来定价或产量或
capacity, is exchanged between actual and/or potential competitors.
实际竞争对手和/或潜在竞争对手之间交换容量。

Definition:  定义：
Unfair competition is conduct by a market participant which gains or seeks to gain an advantage over its rivals through misleading, deceptive, dishonest, fraudulent, coercive or unconscionable conduct in trade or commerce.
不公平竞争是指市场参与者通过误导、欺骗、不诚实、欺诈、胁迫或不公平的商业行为，获得或试图获得对竞争对手的优势。

Definition:  定义：
A “margin squeeze” is an exclusionary abuse of dominance that arises when a vertically-integrated monopolist sells an upstream bottleneck input to rival firms that also compete in a downstream market with the monopolist in the provision of a downstream product. A margin squeeze is said to arise when the margin between the price at which the monopolist sells the downstream product and the price at which the monopolist sells the upstream bottleneck product to its rivals is “too small” to allow an efficient downstream rival to effectively compete or survive. In order for a margin squeeze case to arise, three elements must be present. First, an upstream firm must produce an essential or bottleneck input with no substitutes and no scope for other firms to provide the
“利润挤压”是指垂直一体化垄断经营者在向也参与下游市场竞争的竞争企业销售上游瓶颈投入时滥用支配地位的一种排他性滥用行为。当垄断经营者销售下游产品的价格与向竞争者销售上游瓶颈产品的价格之间的差价“过小”时，以致无法让高效的下游竞争者有效竞争或生存，就会出现利润挤压。利润挤压案件的成立需要满足三个要素。首先，上游企业必须生产不可替代的或瓶颈投入，且其他企业无法提供该投入。

Definition:  定义：
Free riding arises in circumstances in which certain entities incur costs to secure a certain benefit while other entities enjoy that benefit without incurring those costs. Certain restraints (principally, vertical restraints) are sometimes deemed to be efficient mechanisms to counteract free-riding that may otherwise deter the provision of services (especially, pre-sale services by distributors) that benefit consumers and enhance competition in the relevant product market.
免费搭便车发生在某些实体承担成本以获得某些利益，而其他实体在不承担这些成本的情况下享受该利益的情况下。 某些约束（主要是垂直约束）有时被认为是有效的机制来抵消可能阻止提供服务（尤其是经销商的售前服务）的免费搭便车，这些服务有利于消费者并增强相关产品市场中的竞争。

Definition:  定义：
An undertaking over which the public authorities directly or indirectly exercise dominant influence by virtue of their ownership, financial participation, or the rules which govern it. A dominant influence of public authorities is in particular presumed when they: a) hold the major part of the
国有企业是指公有制企业，即国有资本占控股或主导地位的企业。国有企业通常由政府或其代理机构直接或间接控制。 公有制企业是社会主义经济制度下存在的一种企业类型，其特点是生产资料归国家所有，企业由国家直接经营或通过国家授权的机构经营。公有制企业在国民经济中发挥着重要的作用，是国家经济发展的重要支柱。
undertaking’s subscribed capital, b) control the majority of the votes attached to shares issued by the undertaking or c) are in a position to appoint more than half of the members of the undertaking’s administrative, managerial or supervisory body.
根据对企业的认定的相关条款，该条款规定了三种情况：a) 对企业的认定，b) 对企业发行的股份拥有多数表决权的控制权，或者 c) 能够任命企业超过一半的行政、管理或监督机构成员。

Definition:  定义：
It refers to severe restrictions, which are likely to restrict competition and harm consumers or are not indispensable to the attainment of efficiency-enhancing effects. Agreements containing hardcore restrictions are excluded from the benefit of the block exemption, irrespective of the parties’ market shares. Examples of hardcore restrictions include the imposition of fixed or minimum resale prices or certain territorial or customer sales restrictions in vertical agreements and market allocations, quantity restrictions or price fixing in horizontal agreements.
它指的是可能限制竞争和损害消费者或对提高效率没有不可或缺的作用的严重限制。包含核心限制的协议不能享受豁免，无论当事人的市场份额如何。核心限制的例子包括在垂直协议中设定固定或最低转售价格或某些地域或客户销售限制，以及在水平协议中设定数量限制或价格固定。

Definition:  定义：
Damages are a monetary relief available for the party harmed by a competition law infringement. The term refers to the sum of money that the claimant seeks compensation for and is causally connected to the anticompetitive conduct that injured the claimant in her business. Damages awards for competition
反垄断侵权行为可获得的损害赔偿是金钱上的救济。损害赔偿是指索赔人要求赔偿的金额，并与损害其业务的反竞争行为存在因果关系。竞争损害赔偿包括:
law infringements compensate the overcharge and loss of profits caused by the infringement, plus interest. Damages can also compensate the loss of chance and, occasionally, nonmaterial harm.
法律侵权行为应赔偿侵权造成的超额收费和利润损失，并加计利息。损害赔偿还可弥补机会损失，有时也可弥补非物质损害。

Definition:  定义：
The ‘rule of reason’ requires a court to balance an agreement’s pro-and anti-competitive effects under section 1 of the Sherman Act 1890 in the US; where the latter outweigh the former, the agreement will be regarded as an unlawful restraint of trade. EU competition law does not recognise a rule of reason under Article 101(1) TFEU. That is because the structure of Article 101 is different from that of section 1 of the Sherman Act; the pro-and anti-competitive effects of an agreement are weighed under Article 101(3) TFEU
《反垄断法》第 1 节规定的“理性规则”要求法院平衡协议的竞争和反竞争影响；如果后者超过前者，则该协议将被视为非法限制贸易。欧盟竞争法不承认《欧洲联盟运作条约》第 101(1) 条下的理性规则。这是因为第 101 条的结构不同于《反垄断法》第 1 节的结构；协议的竞争和反竞争影响根据《欧洲联盟运作条约》第 101(3) 条进行权衡

Definition:  定义：
The concept of predatory pricing comes into play when a dominant undertaking deliberately reduces its prices to a lossmaking level for a short-term to discipline its existing competitors or foreclose the market to new entrants with a view to strengthening or maintaining its market power later on by way of the foreclosing effect of such predation. To that end,
以掠夺性定价来巩固或维持其市场力量。为此，
in broad terms, predatory pricing could be defined as the setting of prices at an unreasonably low level (below a cost parameter) to induce a competitor to exit the market or to deter its entry or expansion.
从广义上讲，掠夺性定价可以定义为以不合理低的水平(低于成本参数)设定价格，以诱使竞争对手退出市场或阻止其进入或扩张。

Definition:  定义：
A downstream market means a market at the next stage of the production/distribution chain, for example, the distribution and sale of motor vehicles would be a downstream market in relation to the production of motor vehicles.
下游市场是指生产/分销链中的下一阶段市场，例如，汽车的分销和销售将是与汽车生产相关的下游市场。

A downstream firm purchases outputs of an upstream firm, utilizing them as inputs to manufacture products or provide services for sale in the downstream market. The market where transactions take place for a firm to sell its products or services to its customers is referred to as the “downstream market”. The customers (buyers) of the goods or services (inputs) provided or sold by firms or input suppliers are situated in the downstream market.
下游公司购买上游公司产品，并将其用作生产产品或向市场销售服务。企业出售其产品或服务的市场被称为 “下游市场”。企业或投入供应商提供或销售的商品或服务（投入）的客户（买方）位于下游市场。

Definition:  定义：
A network effect exists when the value of a product or service increases as the number of other people using the same
产品或服务的价值随使用相同产品或服务的人数增加而提升，这被称为网络效应
product or service increases. It has emerged as one of the primary sources of value in the digital economy and the leading theoretical basis for the competition law cases against large tech firms, beginning with the cases against Microsoft.
产品或服务的价值随价格的下降而增加了。在数字经济中，它成为了一个主要的价值来源，并且是针对大型科技公司的反垄断案件的主要理论依据，这从针对微软公司的案件开始。

Definition:  定义：
A patent is deemed to be essential whenever it would be impossible to implement the standard without making use of it. In order to prevent or reduce the risks of patent hold-up and increase the willingness to participate in the development of a standard, Standard Development Organisations (SDOs) typically adopt disclosure and licensing rules. Accordingly, firms taking part in a standardization initiative must disclose the existence of any patent that might be considered essential to the developing standard (SEP), and agree to license their SEPs on fair, reasonable, and non-discriminatory (FRAND) terms.
专利被认为是 Essential 的，只要它的缺失会使得无法实施该标准。为了预防或降低专利阻碍的风险并增加参与标准制定的意愿，标准制定组织（SDO）通常会采用披露和许可规则。因此，参与标准化举措的企业必须披露可能被视为标准必要专利（SEP）的任何专利的存在，并同意以公平、合理和无歧视（FRAND）的条件许可其 SEP。

Definition:  定义：
The term ‘two-sided market’ is used to emphasize that the demand for a product or service is characterized by two or more distinct customer or user groups - the two ‘sides’ - and where at least one of these groups cares significantly about the
术语“双边市场”是为了强调，对产品或服务的的需求有两个或多个不同的客户或用户群体，即“两边”，其中至少有一方非常关注
involvement of another group (so-called ‘indirect network effects’ or ‘cross-group externalities’). The product or service is thus some kind of platform or intermediation service connecting the distinct user groups, i.e. sellers and buyers, or readers, authors and advertisers. Examples include physical and digital marketplaces (i.e. stock exchanges, shopping malls), traditional and modern media (i.e. newspapers, broadcasters, social media), as well as software platforms or payment systems.
涉及另一个群体的参与（即所谓的“间接网络效应”或“跨群组外部性”）。因此，产品或服务是某种形式的平台或中介服务，连接不同的用户群体，例如卖方和买方，或读者、作者和广告主。示例包括实体和数字市场（即股票交易所、购物中心）、传统和现代媒体（即报纸、广播公司、社交媒体）以及软件平台或支付系统。