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Causes of Discrimination Towards Transgender People During the Pandemic: From an Intergroup Psychology Perspective
疫情期间对跨性别者歧视的原因：群际心理学的视角分析

Theories That Can Explain the Causation of the Problem
能够解释问题因果关系的理论

The term "transgender people" refers to individuals whose gender identity does not align with the sex they were assigned at birth. This population, despite significant progress in social and legal recognition over the past decade, continues to face widespread challenges in achieving social acceptance, legal protections, and equitable access to healthcare (Winter et al., 2016). These systemic obstacles significantly impact their physical and mental health, leaving transgender individuals particularly vulnerable to discrimination and exclusion. The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 exacerbated these inequalities globally, disproportionately affecting marginalized groups, including transgender people. During the pandemic, many transgender individuals faced disruptions to vital gender-affirming medical care, such as hormone therapy and surgeries, which were deprioritized as “non-essential” services. This contributed to heightened mental health challenges, compounded by job losses and social isolation (Puckett et al., 2021). According to Human Rights Watch (2020), transgender individuals also experienced increased systemic discrimination during the pandemic, struggling to access basic healthcare and essential resources. The marginalization of their needs in public health and pandemic response strategies illustrates the broader neglect of their specific challenges. Recognizing the diverse risks and vulnerabilities within transgender communities and involving them in the development of response measures is crucial to mitigating the double burden of systemic inequities and pandemic-related disruptions (Kia et al., 2020). Failure to address these issues not only worsens existing disparities but also perpetuates long-term harm to transgender individuals' overall well-being.
“跨性别者”是指性别认同与出生时分配的性别不一致的个体。尽管在过去十年中社会和法律认可方面取得了显著进展，但这一群体仍面临着在实现社会接受、法律保护和公平获得医疗服务方面的广泛挑战（Winter 等，2016）。这些系统性障碍对他们的身心健康产生了重大影响，使跨性别者特别容易受到歧视和排斥。2020 年初 COVID-19 大流行的爆发加剧了这些全球不平等，尤其对包括跨性别者在内的边缘化群体造成了不成比例的影响。在疫情期间，许多跨性别者的关键性别确认医疗服务遭到中断，例如激素治疗和手术，这些服务被视为“非必要”而被降级。这导致心理健康问题加剧，同时伴随着失业和社会孤立（Puckett 等，2021）。根据人权观察（2020）的报告，跨性别者在疫情期间还面临着更严重的系统性歧视，难以获得基本医疗和必要资源。他们的需求在公共卫生和疫情应对策略中被边缘化，反映了对他们特定挑战的普遍忽视。识别跨性别群体面临的多种风险和脆弱性，并让他们参与应对措施的制定，对于减轻系统性不平等和疫情带来的双重负担至关重要（Kia 等，2020）。如果不解决这些问题，不仅会加剧现有的不平等，还会对跨性别者的整体福祉造成长期的伤害。

Social identity theory
社会认同理论

Social Identity Theory (SIT; Tajfel, 1978), developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, explains how group membership shapes individuals' self-concept and intergroup behavior. The theory posits that individuals derive part of their self-esteem from the social groups with which they identify, a process termed social identity—defined as the part of one’s self-concept that stems from group membership and its associated emotional and evaluative significance (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). A key mechanism within SIT is in-group favoritism, which refers to the tendency to favor one’s own group over others, often to enhance the group’s relative status and boost personal self-esteem. SIT also emphasizes positive distinctiveness, where individuals seek to establish their group as superior to relevant out-groups, even in the absence of meaningful group differences (Hornsey, 2008).
社会身份理论（SIT；塔吉费尔，1978 年）是由亨利·塔吉费尔和约翰·特纳在 1970 年代提出的，旨在解释群体成员身份如何影响个体的自我概念和群际行为。该理论认为，个体的自尊部分来源于他们所认同的社会群体，这一过程被称为社会身份——即源于群体成员身份及其相关情感和评估意义的自我概念的一部分（塔吉费尔与特纳，1979 年）。SIT 中的一个重要机制是内部群体偏好，指的是个体倾向于偏爱自己的群体而非其他群体，这通常是为了提升群体的相对地位并增强个人的自尊。 SIT 还强调积极的独特性，个体试图将自己的群体视为优于相关的外群体，即使在缺乏显著的群体差异时也是如此（Hornsey，2008）。

The foundational method for SIT was the minimal group paradigm, a series of experiments designed to isolate the effects of group membership from other variables. In one notable study (Tajfel et al., 1971), participants were arbitrarily divided into groups based on meaningless criteria, such as being “overestimators” or “underestimators” of dots on a screen. Despite the lack of meaningful interaction or personal gain, participants consistently allocated more rewards to members of their own group than to out-group members. This demonstrated that in-group favoritism could emerge solely from the act of categorization, independent of competition or resource scarcity (Billig & Tajfel, 1973). SIT interprets these findings as evidence that social categorization activates a cognitive drive to enhance self-esteem through positive comparisons between one’s group and others (Diehl, 1990).
SIT 的基础方法是最小群体范式，这是一系列旨在将群体成员身份的影响与其他变量隔离的实验。在一项显著的研究中（Tajfel 等，1971），参与者根据毫无意义的标准被任意分为不同的群体，例如被称为“高估者”或“低估者”，这些标准是基于屏幕上点的数量。尽管缺乏有意义的互动或个人利益，参与者始终将更多的奖励分配给自己群体的成员，而不是外群体的成员。这表明，群体偏好仅仅通过分类的行为就可以产生，而与竞争或资源稀缺无关（Billig & Tajfel，1973）。 SIT 将这些发现视为证据，表明社会分类激发了一种认知驱动力，通过将自己群体与其他群体进行积极比较来提升自尊心（Diehl，1990）。

SIT has significantly advanced the understanding of intergroup relations by revealing how group identity drives behavior beyond individual-level explanations. It provides a framework for explaining phenomena such as group cohesion, social conformity, and prejudice, demonstrating that intergroup bias often stems from cognitive processes of identity and categorization rather than competition for tangible resources (Hornsey, 2008). This insight has made SIT a cornerstone of social psychology, influencing research on topics ranging from group dynamics to intergroup conflict and stereotyping.
SIT 显著推动了对群体关系的理解，揭示了群体身份如何驱动行为，超越了个体层面的解释。它为解释群体凝聚力、社会从众和偏见等现象提供了框架，表明群体偏见往往源于身份和分类的认知过程，而非对有形资源的竞争（Hornsey，2008）。这一见解使 SIT 成为社会心理学的基石，影响了从群体动态到群体冲突和刻板印象等多个研究领域。

The COVID-19 pandemic exposed and amplified systemic healthcare inequities, disproportionately impacting marginalized groups, including transgender individuals. SIT provides a critical framework for understanding these inequities by demonstrating how in-group favoritism reinforces exclusionary practices. Abrams et al. (2021) reviewed public health responses during the pandemic, identifying patterns of in-group bias where institutions prioritized the needs of dominant groups, such as cisgender individuals, over those of marginalized out-groups. For example, gender-affirming care—a vital healthcare service for transgender individuals—was often deprioritized as “non-essential,” aligning with SIT’s concept of positive distinctiveness, where dominant groups maintain their status by marginalizing others.
COVID-19 大流行揭示并加剧了系统性医疗不平等，尤其对边缘化群体（如跨性别者）造成了不成比例的影响。社会身份理论（SIT）提供了一个重要框架，帮助我们理解这些不平等现象，表明群体偏爱如何加强排斥性做法。Abrams 等人（2021）回顾了大流行期间的公共卫生应对，发现机构在满足需求时更倾向于优先考虑主导群体（如顺性别者），而忽视了边缘化群体的需求。例如，性别确认护理——对跨性别者至关重要的医疗服务——常常被视为“非必要”，这与 SIT 的积极独特性概念相符，主导群体通过边缘化他人来维持自己的地位。

Philip (2021) further documented how systemic stigma and discrimination compounded the vulnerabilities of transgender individuals during the pandemic. Through a narrative review, Philip highlighted the widespread denial of gender-affirming care, increased socio-economic instability, and significant mental health challenges faced by transgender individuals. These findings illustrate how structural and interpersonal biases intersect during crises, disproportionately burdening out-groups like transgender individuals.
菲利普（2021）进一步记录了系统性污名和歧视如何加剧了跨性别者在疫情期间的脆弱性。通过叙事综述，菲利普强调了性别确认护理的普遍拒绝、社会经济不稳定的加剧，以及跨性别者面临的重大心理健康挑战。这些发现表明，在危机期间，结构性和人际偏见如何交织在一起，给跨性别者等边缘群体带来了不成比例的负担。

Together, the insights from Abrams et al. (2021) and Philip (2021) emphasize that the healthcare inequities experienced by transgender individuals during the pandemic are deeply rooted in systemic reinforcement of dominant group priorities. Through the lens of SIT, these inequities underscore the urgent need for inclusive healthcare policies that address the unique vulnerabilities of marginalized groups, particularly during global crises.
Abrams 等人（2021）和 Philip（2021）的研究共同强调，在疫情期间，跨性别者所面临的医疗不平等问题深深植根于对主导群体优先事项的系统性强化。从社会身份理论的视角来看，这些不平等现象凸显了在全球危机中，迫切需要制定包容性的医疗政策，以应对边缘化群体的独特脆弱性。

Realistic conflict theory
现实冲突理论的观点

Realistic Group Conflict Theory (RGCT), developed by Sherif et al. (1961), explains how intergroup conflict arises from competition over scarce resources, such as jobs, territory, or political power. Central to RGCT is the concept of zero-sum perception, where one group’s gain is perceived as a direct threat to another group’s welfare. This perceived competition fosters negative intergroup attitudes, stereotypes, and discriminatory behaviors. Unlike identity-based frameworks like Social Identity Theory (SIT), which focus on symbolic or cultural conflicts, RGCT emphasizes material concerns, arguing that tangible resource scarcity is the primary driver of intergroup hostility (Jackson, 1993). Together, RGCT and SIT provide complementary insights into intergroup dynamics, balancing material and identity-based explanations.
现实群体冲突理论（RGCT）由 Sherif 等人于 1961 年提出，解释了群体间冲突是如何因对稀缺资源（如工作、领土或政治权力）的竞争而产生的。RGCT 的核心概念是零和感知，即一个群体的收益被视为对另一个群体福利的直接威胁。这种感知的竞争导致了负面的群体间态度、刻板印象和歧视行为。与关注象征性或文化冲突的身份基础框架（如社会身份理论 SIT）不同，RGCT 强调物质问题，认为有形资源的稀缺是群体间敌意的主要驱动力（Jackson，1993）。 RGCT 和 SIT 共同提供了对群体间动态的互补视角，平衡了物质和身份两方面的解释。

A foundational study supporting RGCT is Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment (1961), which demonstrated how resource-based competition fosters intergroup conflict. In this controlled field study, 22 boys aged 11 to 12 were divided into two groups, with researchers ensuring minimal pre-existing differences by selecting participants from similar middle-class, same-ethnicity, and same-religion backgrounds. Initially, the groups participated in activities to foster internal cohesion. However, when competitive tasks such as tug-of-war and treasure hunts were introduced—where groups competed for limited rewards like trophies and medals—hostility between the groups emerged. This hostility manifested in verbal insults, physical aggression, and destructive behaviors, such as raiding the opposing group’s cabins.
支持 RGCT 的基础研究是 Sherif 的强盗洞实验（1961），该实验展示了资源竞争如何导致群体间的冲突。在这项受控的实地研究中，22 名 11 至 12 岁的男孩被分成两组，研究人员通过选择来自相似的中产阶级、同种族和同宗教背景的参与者，确保了最小的先前差异。最初，这些小组参与了促进内部凝聚力的活动。然而，当引入拔河和寻宝等竞争性任务时，各组为了有限的奖励如奖杯和奖牌而竞争，导致了组间的敌意。这种敌意表现为语言侮辱、身体攻击以及破坏性行为，比如袭击对方小组的营地。

To resolve these conflicts, Sherif et al. (1961) introduced superordinate goals, requiring both groups to collaborate on tasks such as repairing a disrupted water supply or pulling a truck out of the mud. These shared objectives successfully reduced intergroup hostility, demonstrating that while competition over scarce resources generates conflict, cooperation toward mutual goals can mitigate tensions. The Robbers Cave Experiment provides empirical evidence for RGCT, illustrating that resource-based competition is a significant cause of intergroup hostility, while shared goals offer a pathway to resolution.
为了解决这些冲突，Sherif 等人（1961）提出了超越目标，要求两个小组在修复中断的供水系统或将卡车从泥中拉出来等任务上进行合作。这些共同目标成功地减少了小组之间的敌意，表明虽然对稀缺资源的竞争会引发冲突，但朝着共同目标的合作能够缓解紧张局势。强盗洞实验为资源竞争理论提供了实证支持，说明基于资源的竞争是小组敌意的重要原因，而共同目标则为解决冲突提供了途径。

The COVID-19 pandemic provides a contemporary context for applying RGCT. The scarcity of medical resources, such as hospital beds, ventilators, and healthcare personnel, necessitated prioritization decisions in clinical settings worldwide (Vonderschmitt et al., 2023). These decisions often created zero-sum perceptions, where dominant groups (e.g., cisgender individuals) were prioritized, while marginalized groups (e.g., transgender individuals) were excluded from essential care. Sherif (1966) posited that such perceived competition for limited resources fosters discriminatory behaviors and negative intergroup attitudes, particularly toward out-groups.
COVID-19 大流行为应用 RGCT 提供了一个现代背景。由于医疗资源的稀缺，如医院床位、呼吸机和医疗人员，全球临床环境中不得不做出优先决策（Vonderschmitt 等，2023）。这些决策常常导致零和的认知，即优先考虑主导群体（如顺性别者），而边缘化群体（如跨性别者）则被排除在基本护理之外。Sherif（1966）认为，这种对有限资源的竞争感知会导致歧视行为和对外群体的负面态度。

Kia et al. (2020) highlighted how transgender individuals faced heightened barriers to accessing healthcare during the pandemic. Gender-affirming procedures, which are critical to their physical and mental health, were often deprioritized as “non-essential,” reflecting systemic biases that align with RGCT’s predictions. Similarly, Vonderschmitt et al. (2023) conducted qualitative interviews with 39 bioethics experts across 34 countries, revealing how resource scarcity exacerbated existing inequities and disproportionately excluded vulnerable populations, including transgender individuals, from medical care. These findings demonstrate how out-groups are marginalized during resource shortages, as dominant in-groups strive to secure their own welfare.
Kia 等人（2020）指出，跨性别个体在疫情期间面临更大的医疗保健获取障碍。性别确认程序对他们的身心健康至关重要，但常常被视为“非必要”，这反映了与 RGCT 预测一致的系统性偏见。同样，Vonderschmitt 等人（2023）对来自 34 个国家的 39 位生物伦理学专家进行了定性访谈，揭示了资源稀缺加剧了现有的不平等，导致脆弱群体，包括跨性别个体，无法获得医疗服务。这些发现表明，在资源短缺的情况下，外群体被边缘化，而主导内群体则努力维护自身的福利。

By categorizing transgender individuals as an out-group competing for limited resources, healthcare institutions and policymakers unintentionally exacerbated discriminatory practices during the pandemic. RGCT provides a robust framework for understanding these dynamics, illustrating how perceived competition over resources fuels intergroup hostility and systemic exclusion. Addressing these inequities requires proactive measures to mitigate zero-sum perceptions and ensure equitable resource distribution, particularly for marginalized groups.
将跨性别者视为竞争有限资源的外群体，医疗机构和政策制定者在疫情期间无意中加剧了歧视性行为。RGCT 提供了一个有力的框架，帮助我们理解这些动态，展示了对资源竞争的感知如何加剧群体间的敌意和系统性排斥。要解决这些不平等现象，需要采取积极措施，减轻零和思维，确保资源的公平分配，特别是对边缘化群体。

Solution
解决方案

Building empathy
培养同理心:

One possible solution is implementing empathy-building activities in Japanese schools as early as possible to help reduce bullying. Empathy, according to (Machackova & Pfetsch, 2016, p. 174), is a multifaceted phenomenon, including cognitive empathy, the ability to comprehend the emotional situation and take the perspective of a person, and affective empathy, the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another person (Davis, 1994; Hoffman, 2001). Cognitive empathy leads to higher affective empathy (Batson et al., 2003) and both dimensions are negatively connected to aggression (Miller & Eisenberg, 1988), and offline bullying (Mitsopoulou & Giovazolias, 2015). Besides this correlational evidence, according to Walker (2023, p. 37), it is harder to hurt someone we care about or are concerned about. So, we can increase our circle of empathic concern, the group of people we care about, the group of people we are concerned for their welfare. The more people are included in that circle, the less likely we are to dehumanize those people, and the harder it will be to hurt them. Learn to build empathy from a young age, such as starting primary school, specifically building a positive attitude towards others since being young is more likely to reduce aggressive behaviour. When we form this kind of attitude as early as possible, we have more and more chances to reinforce this attitude, and when we use it repeatedly, it can be strong enough to be chronically accessible. Teachers in primary school can gather substantial evidence to help students confirm this attitude. When students are surrounded by others who share the same attitudes, the attitude can be more robust (Walker, 2023, p. 9). This can become part of the self-concept, which is Japanese students' core values and beliefs, resulting in more care and less aggressive behaviour toward other students or people.
一种可能的解决方案是在日本学校尽早开展培养同理心的活动，以帮助减少欺凌现象。根据（Machackova & Pfetsch，2016，p. 174）的研究，同理心是一种多维现象，包括认知同理心，即理解他人情感状况并从他人角度看问题的能力，以及情感同理心，即能够间接体验他人情感的能力（Davis，1994；Hoffman，2001）。认知同理心能够提高情感同理心（Batson 等，2003），而这两个维度与攻击性（Miller & Eisenberg，1988）和线下欺凌（Mitsopoulou & Giovazolias，2015）之间存在负相关关系。除了这些相关证据外，根据 Walker（2023，p. 伤害我们关心或担心的人是更困难的。因此，我们可以扩大我们的同情心圈子，即我们关心的人和我们关心他们福祉的人。圈子里的人越多，我们就越不容易去非人化他们，伤害他们也就越困难。从小就学习建立同理心，比如在上小学时，特别是从小就对他人保持积极态度，更有可能减少攻击性行为。当我们尽早形成这种态度时，我们就有更多机会来强化它，而当我们反复使用这种态度时，它可能会变得足够强大，长期保持可及性。小学教师可以收集大量证据，帮助学生确认这种态度。当学生身边有其他人持有相同的态度时，这种态度可能会变得更加坚定（Walker，2023，第 9 页）。这可能会成为自我概念的一部分，即日本学生的核心价值观和信念，从而使他们对其他学生或他人更加关心，表现出更少的攻击性行为。

Reference
参考资料

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