Time-lapse resistivity imaging and self-potential monitoring of experimentally induced saline intrusion in coastal aquifer sands
Highlights
- •Saltwater intrusion from abstraction in coastal aquifer mapped by time-lapse ERT
- •Self-Potential signals respond to tidal fluctuations and induced saltwater intrusion
- •Intertidal recirculation cell expands during spring tides
- •Deeper abstraction may offer better protection against saltwater intrusion
- •Potential of SP and ERT for early warning of saltwater intrusion in abstraction wells
Abstract
Keywords
1. Introduction
2. Site description and instrumentation

Fig. 1. Map of the study area location (A and B); positions of monitoring and pumping wells, ERT profile traces, SP reference electrodes R1 and R2, and tide markers: Mean High Water Mark (MHWM) and Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT) (C); 3D diagram showing design and layout of the wells (D).

Fig. 2. ERT profile diagonal to the shoreline for the site characterization collected on 2nd July 2019 (a); cross-sectional view of the conceptual model of the spatial distribution of resistivities in the shallowest 20 m of the sand aquifer (Águila et al., 2022) (HAT: Highest Astronomical Tide, MHWM: Mean High Water Mark, MLWM: Mean Low Water Mark) (b); and tidal heights at Portrush (Northern Ireland) from 25th July to 31st August 2020, with the pumping test timeframe highlighted in Red (c).
Table 1. Characteristics of the monitoring and pumping wells installed at the Magilligan test site.
Well ID | Diameter (mm) | Application | Monitoring devices | Screened Depth (metres b.g.s.) | Latitude | Longitude |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PW1 | 150 | Pumping | – | 5–10 | 55.169231 | −6.884934 |
PW2 | 150 | Pumping | – | 5–8 | 55.169203 | −6.885058 |
PW3 | 150 | Pumping | – | 5–8 | 55.169226 | −6.885051 |
A2 | 150 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 1–2 | 55.169184 | −6.885005 |
A4 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + Barologger + SP probe | 3–4 | 55.169182 | −6.885008 |
A6 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 5–6 | 55.169185 | −6.885013 |
A8 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 7–8 | 55.169187 | −6.885017 |
B2 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 1–2 | 55.169378 | −6.884951 |
B4 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 3–4 | 55.169372 | −6.884953 |
B6 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 5–6 | 55.169374 | −6.884964 |
B8 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 7–8 | 55.169372 | −6.884968 |
C2 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 1–2 | 55.169257 | −6.885072 |
C4 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 3–4 | 55.169251 | −6.885071 |
C6 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 5–6 | 55.169254 | −6.885087 |
C8 | 100 | Monitoring | Levelogger + SP probe | 7–8 | 55.169252 | −6.885084 |
3. Material and methods
3.1. Geophysical investigations under undisturbed conditions

Fig. 3. Sequences of ERT profiles diagonal to the shoreline generated during spring tide (left) and neap tide (right) under undisturbed conditions (a); and ratio of resistivities between ERT profiles generated during spring tide (ST1) and neap tide (NT5) (b). Resistivity fields remain nearly constant over semi-diurnal tidal cycles, but differences are evident between spring and neap tides. During spring tide, resistivities below 10 Ωm occur closer to the beach surface (∼90 m from the origin) compared to neap tide (∼110 m). Panel b highlights these differences, showing resistivity decreases near the beach surface at 70 m (seaward) during spring tide, extending to almost 10 m depth at 125 m from the origin. Additionally, resistivity increases from 100 m onward to depths >10 m during spring tide.
3.2. Investigations during the pumping test
4. Results
4.1. Data from geophysical investigations under undisturbed conditions

Fig. 4. SP signals from Pads A, B, and C over an eighteen-day period before the pumping test (top) are accompanied by the tide height record at Portrush. The SP signals are all referenced inland and are colored according to the pad (A - blue, B - red, and C - green), with the depths denoted by spaced symbols. The lower (tidal) plot also includes the SP signal from B8-Ref-Inland overlaid to aid in identifying a clear correlation with M2 (principal lunar) tidal signatures as well as possible lower-frequency (spring-neap) tidal signatures. Data gaps are due to pre-pumping experiments and maintenance.
4.2. Pumping test

Fig. 5. Time evolution of the drawdowns in the 4, 6 and 8 m deep monitoring wells (a); and tide height and specific electrical conductivity (SEC) measured at the discharge of the PW1 well during the pumping test (b).
4.3. Geophysical investigations during the pumping test

Fig. 6. ERT profiles perpendicular to the shoreline collected 4 h before pumping (a) and at 5 h (b), 14.5 h (c), 34 h (d) and 69 h (e) after the start of the pumping test. The dashed blue line shows the position of the water table, calculated from the drawdowns measured in the wells closest to the trace of the profile (PW1 and pads A and B). The low-resistivity zone in the upper part of the ERT profiles (dark blue areas in Fig. 6a and b) corresponds to the onset of the upper saline Intertidal Recirculation Cell. As pumping progresses, this zone gradually diminishes, moving downward from the upper aquifer towards the pumping well (PW1), forming a saline front or plume (green and yellow zones).

Fig. 7. ERT profiles parallel to the shoreline collected 5 h before pumping (a) and after 8.5 h (b), 24 h (c), 40 h (d) and 67 h (e) from the start of the pumping test.

Fig. 8. Resistivity changes between ERT profiles collected before starting pumping and after 69 h of pumping perpendicular (a) and parallel (b) to the shoreline (Rend/Rinitial); and time evolution of the tide height and resistivity changes near the screens of wells B2 (c), B4 (d), B6 (e) and B8 (f) projected from the ERT profiles (yellow circles in (a)). Resistivity variations, calculated as the differences between the resistivities at a given time and those just before pumping, for wells B2, B4 and B6 were derived from the ERT profile perpendicular to the shoreline, while those for well B8 were derived from the ERT profile parallel to the shoreline.

Fig. 9. SP signals from the monitoring wells grouped by depth. The period of pumping is highlighted in red, while the vertical dashed black lines indicate the time when the ERT profiles perpendicular to the shoreline shown in Fig. 6 were generated (a-e). The SP signals are all referenced inland and are colored according to the pad (A - blue, B - red, and C - green), with the depths denoted by spaced symbols.

Fig. 10. SP signal change over the 69 h of pumping in the monitoring wells compared to depth (left), and distance from the dunes towards the sea (right). A fitted regression line was used for the deeper wells in the second plot. The SP signals are all referenced inland and are colored according to the pad (A - blue, B - red, and C - green), with the depths denoted by spaced symbols.
5. Discussion
6. Summary and conclusions
Supplementary material
Supplementary Video 1. Sequence of resistivity images taken before, during, and after pumping, integrating the 28 ERT profiles generated perpendicular to the shoreline, including information on the tidal position at the time each ERT profile was collected.
Supplementary Video 2. Sequence of resistivity images taken before, during, and after pumping, integrating the 27 ERT profiles generated parallel to the shoreline, including information on the tidal position at the time each ERT profile was collected.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Declaration of competing interest
Acknowledgements
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