The authors are grateful to Joseph B. Walther, Ph.D., for his input and suggestions regarding our colloquial definition; to Nicole B. Ellison, Ph.D., for her thoughtful feedback; and to the special issue editor and three anonymous reviewers for their feedback which provided some lively discussions and engaging thought experiments.
作者感谢约瑟夫-B-瓦尔特（Joseph B. Walther）博士就我们的口语化定义提出的意见和建议；感谢妮可-B-埃里森（Nicole B. Ellison）博士提供的深思熟虑的反馈意见；感谢特刊编辑和三位匿名审稿人提供的反馈意见，他们为我们提供了一些生动的讨论和引人入胜的思想实验。
作者感谢约瑟夫-B-瓦尔特（Joseph B. Walther）博士就我们的口语化定义提出的意见和建议；感谢妮可-B-埃里森（Nicole B. Ellison）博士提供的深思熟虑的反馈意见；感谢特刊编辑和三位匿名审稿人提供的反馈意见，他们为我们提供了一些生动的讨论和引人入胜的思想实验。
An earlier version of this manuscript was presented at the 2014 meeting of the National Communication Association in Chicago, IL.
本手稿的早期版本曾在伊利诺伊州芝加哥市举行的全国传播协会 2014 年会议上发表。
本手稿的早期版本曾在伊利诺伊州芝加哥市举行的全国传播协会 2014 年会议上发表。
May be referenced as:
可作为参考文献：
可作为参考文献：
Carr, C. T., & Hayes, R. A. (2015). Social media: Defining, developing, and divining. Atlantic Journal of Communication, 23(1). doi: 10.1080/15456870.2015.972282
Abstract 摘要
What is a social medium, and how may one moderate, isolate, and influence communicative processes within? While scholars assume an inherent understanding of social media based on extant technology, there is no commonly-accepted definition of what social media are, both functionally and theoretically, within communication studies. Given this lack of understanding, cogent theorizing regarding the uses and effects of social media has been limited. This work first draws on extant definitions of social media and subcategories (e.g., social network sites) from public relations, information technology, and management scholarship, as well as the popular press, to develop a definition of social media precise enough to embody these technologies yet robust enough to remain applicable in 2035. It then broadly explores emerging developments in the features, uses, and users of social media for which future theories will need to account. Finally, it divines and prioritizes challenges that may not yet be apparent to theorizing communication processes with and in mercurial social media. We address how social media may uniquely isolate and test communicative principles to advance our understanding of human-human and human-computer interaction. In all, this article provides a common framework to ground and facilitate future communication scholarship and beyond.
什么是社交媒体？如何在社交媒体中调节、隔离和影响传播过程？虽然学者们基于现有技术对社交媒体有固有的理解，但在传播学研究领域，社交媒体在功能和理论上都没有公认的定义。由于缺乏这种理解，关于社交媒体的使用和影响的有说服力的理论研究一直很有限。本研究首先借鉴了公共关系、信息技术和管理学术界以及大众媒体对社交媒体和子类（如社交网站）的现有定义，为社交媒体下了一个足够精确的定义，既能体现这些技术，又能在 2035 年继续适用。然后，它广泛探讨了社交媒体的特征、用途和用户方面的新发展，未来的理论需要考虑到这些新发展。最后，本报告将对使用多变的社交媒体和在社交媒体中进行传播过程理论化所面临的挑战进行分析，并确定其优先次序。我们探讨了社交媒体如何独特地分离和检验传播原则，以促进我们对人与人以及人机交互的理解。总之，本文提供了一个共同框架，为未来的传播学术研究及其他领域提供基础和便利。
Keywords: Social media; definition; theory; explication; future developments
关键词社交媒体；定义；理论；阐释；未来发展
关键词社交媒体；定义；理论；阐释；未来发展
Social Media: Defining, Developing, and Divining
社交媒体：定义、发展和预测
Introduction 导言
What are social media? Were you to ask a group of bystanders, you would likely readily receive a list of many social tools including Facebook and Twitter, but would be challenged to find a pair who agreed on a concrete definition of a social medium. Scholarship of social media is similarly convoluted, as there tends to be a general consensus of what tools may be considered social media, but without a consensus on what defines these tools as social media, especially across disciplines. In short, while we know what social media are, we are not necessarily able to articulate why they are what they are, and various disciplines address social media disparately. Moreover, defining social media by exemplars limits our ability to develop broad, robust theories, as a theory of interaction on Twitter remains utile only as long as Twitter remains stable, both in technology and how users communicate through tweets, and cannot be extended beyond Twitter to other media, further limiting the utility of the theory.
什么是社交媒体？如果你去问一群旁观者，你很可能会很容易地得到一份包括 Facebook 和 Twitter 在内的众多社交工具的清单，但要找到一对就社交媒体的具体定义达成一致的人却很困难。有关社交媒体的学术研究也同样错综复杂，因为人们往往对哪些工具可被视为社交媒体达成普遍共识，但对这些工具如何定义为社交媒体却没有共识，尤其是在不同学科之间。简而言之，虽然我们知道什么是社交媒体，但不一定能说清楚为什么是社交媒体，而且不同学科对社交媒体的定义也不尽相同。此外，通过范例来定义社交媒体也限制了我们发展广泛而稳健的理论的能力，因为只有在 Twitter 保持稳定的情况下，Twitter 上的互动理论才能发挥作用，无论是在技术上还是在用户通过推文进行交流的方式上。
什么是社交媒体？如果你去问一群旁观者，你很可能会很容易地得到一份包括 Facebook 和 Twitter 在内的众多社交工具的清单，但要找到一对就社交媒体的具体定义达成一致的人却很困难。有关社交媒体的学术研究也同样错综复杂，因为人们往往对哪些工具可被视为社交媒体达成普遍共识，但对这些工具如何定义为社交媒体却没有共识，尤其是在不同学科之间。简而言之，虽然我们知道什么是社交媒体，但不一定能说清楚为什么是社交媒体，而且不同学科对社交媒体的定义也不尽相同。此外，通过范例来定义社交媒体也限制了我们发展广泛而稳健的理论的能力，因为只有在 Twitter 保持稳定的情况下，Twitter 上的互动理论才能发挥作用，无论是在技术上还是在用户通过推文进行交流的方式上。
This special issue seeks to provide a theoretical foundation for the scholarship of social media twenty years hence. Yet a challenge to the building meaningful theories of social media is the development of a common understanding of the construct of social media to guide the inclusion or exclusion of communicative tools-many which will emerge in the coming decades alongside radical technical and social advances-to which these theories apply. Particularly given the mercurial nature of social media features and tools, a unified conceptual definition, "conveys the meaning we attach to the concept" (Shoemaker, Tankard, & Lasorsa, 2003, p. 26), providing the foundational understanding of social media critical to permitting theory development. A unified definition facilitates systematic theory building that transcends disciplines and contexts (Hempel, 1966) by enabling the explication of links between concepts
本特刊旨在为二十年后的社交媒体学术研究奠定理论基础。然而，建立有意义的社交媒体理论所面临的一个挑战是，如何对社交媒体的概念形成共识，以指导这些理论所适用的传播工具的纳入或排除--在未来几十年中，随着技术和社会的激进进步，许多传播工具也将出现。特别是考虑到社交媒体功能和工具的多变性，一个统一的概念定义 "传达了我们对这一概念所赋予的意义"（Shoemaker, Tankard, & Lasorsa, 2003, p.26），提供了对社交媒体的基础性理解，这对理论的发展至关重要。统一的定义有助于系统化的理论建设，从而超越学科和语境（Hempel, 1966），使概念之间的联系得到阐述。
本特刊旨在为二十年后的社交媒体学术研究奠定理论基础。然而，建立有意义的社交媒体理论所面临的一个挑战是，如何对社交媒体的概念形成共识，以指导这些理论所适用的传播工具的纳入或排除--在未来几十年中，随着技术和社会的激进进步，许多传播工具也将出现。特别是考虑到社交媒体功能和工具的多变性，一个统一的概念定义 "传达了我们对这一概念所赋予的意义"（Shoemaker, Tankard, & Lasorsa, 2003, p.26），提供了对社交媒体的基础性理解，这对理论的发展至关重要。统一的定义有助于系统化的理论建设，从而超越学科和语境（Hempel, 1966），使概念之间的联系得到阐述。
(Shoemaker et al., 2003). Only through a common understanding of social media may we, both within the communication discipline and across others, theorize the processes and effects of social media. Indeed, as Ledbetter (2014) argues the communication field needs to more meticulously theorize the connection between a communication medium and the message, we argue that penultimate to connection is understanding the medium itself. Yet, the present paucity of a clear definition of social media-one precise enough to encompass currently-understood social media yet robust enough to include future social media tools that have not yet emergedhamstrings researchers by limiting the conceptual foundation of social media on which theory and future scholarship may build.
(Shoemaker 等人，2003 年）。只有通过对社交媒体的共同理解，我们才能在传播学科内部和其他学科之间对社交媒体的过程和效果进行理论化。事实上，正如莱德贝特（2014）认为传播领域需要更细致地理论化传播媒介与信息之间的联系一样，我们认为联系的倒数第二位是理解媒介本身。然而，目前缺乏对社交媒体的明确定义--既要精确到足以涵盖目前已被理解的社交媒体，又要强大到足以包含尚未出现的未来社交媒体工具--这就限制了研究人员对社交媒体的概念基础进行研究，而理论和未来的学术研究都可能建立在这一基础之上。
(Shoemaker 等人，2003 年）。只有通过对社交媒体的共同理解，我们才能在传播学科内部和其他学科之间对社交媒体的过程和效果进行理论化。事实上，正如莱德贝特（2014）认为传播领域需要更细致地理论化传播媒介与信息之间的联系一样，我们认为联系的倒数第二位是理解媒介本身。然而，目前缺乏对社交媒体的明确定义--既要精确到足以涵盖目前已被理解的社交媒体，又要强大到足以包含尚未出现的未来社交媒体工具--这就限制了研究人员对社交媒体的概念基础进行研究，而理论和未来的学术研究都可能建立在这一基础之上。
Consequently, this article contributes to the discussion of social media and theory in 2035 by first examining the myriad of extant definitions and characteristics of social media to frame and forward a robust definition to guide the next two decades of multidisciplinary social media scholarship. After defining social media, it explores developing technological, social, and communicative features that will alter (and stabilize) social media interactions in the future. Finally, we divine and prioritize several directions for the field as it seeks to develop, validate, and apply theories of social media between now and 2035. In all, this article can serve as a roadmap for future scholarship exploring and advancing our understanding of communication within and communicative effects of social media.
因此，本文首先研究了社交媒体的众多现存定义和特征，从而构建并提出了一个强有力的定义，以指导未来二十年的多学科社交媒体学术研究，从而为 2035 年的社交媒体和理论讨论做出贡献。在定义了社交媒体之后，本报告探讨了未来将改变（和稳定）社交媒体互动的技术、社会和交流特征。最后，我们预测并优先考虑了从现在到 2035 年期间该领域寻求发展、验证和应用社交媒体理论的几个方向。总之，这篇文章可以作为未来学术研究的路线图，探索和推进我们对社交媒体内部交流和社交媒体交流效果的理解。
因此，本文首先研究了社交媒体的众多现存定义和特征，从而构建并提出了一个强有力的定义，以指导未来二十年的多学科社交媒体学术研究，从而为 2035 年的社交媒体和理论讨论做出贡献。在定义了社交媒体之后，本报告探讨了未来将改变（和稳定）社交媒体互动的技术、社会和交流特征。最后，我们预测并优先考虑了从现在到 2035 年期间该领域寻求发展、验证和应用社交媒体理论的几个方向。总之，这篇文章可以作为未来学术研究的路线图，探索和推进我们对社交媒体内部交流和社交媒体交流效果的理解。
Defining Social Media 定义社交媒体
Previous Definitions 以前的定义
Several nascent definitions of social media have been offered, both within the communication discipline and across related disciplines such as public relations, information science, and mass media. Definitions typically converge around the notion social media refer to
无论是在传播学科内部，还是在公共关系、信息科学和大众传媒等相关学科之间，都有一些关于社交媒体的新定义。这些定义通常都围绕着这样一个概念：社交媒体指的是
digital technologies emphasizing user-generated content or interaction (e.g,. Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Terry, 2009). Often social media are referred to by channel characteristics, identifying either directionality of messages (e.g., Kent, 2010) or using specific tools like Facebook or Twitter to exemplify modes of interaction (e.g., Howard & Parks, 2012). Though several definitions exist, there remains a lack of a formal, concise, and mutually-agreed upon definition of social media (Effing, van Hillegersberg, & Huibers, 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010), particularly across disciplines. The lack of a common definition can result in multiple connotations of a concept, making it difficult to create a shared understanding (Hempel, 1966) to guide theory and research. Indeed, extant social media definitions vary widely in their complexity, focus, and applicability outside their home discipline.
强调用户生成内容或互动的数字技术（例如，Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Terry, 2009）。社交媒体通常以渠道特征来称呼，确定信息的方向性（如 Kent, 2010），或使用 Facebook 或 Twitter 等特定工具来体现互动模式（如 Howard & Parks, 2012）。尽管有多种定义，但仍缺乏一个正式、简洁和共同认可的社交媒体定义（Effing, van Hillegersberg, & Huibers, 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010），尤其是跨学科的定义。缺乏共同的定义会导致概念的多重内涵，从而难以形成共同的理解（Hempel, 1966）来指导理论和研究。事实上，现存的社交媒体定义在其复杂性、关注点和本学科以外的适用性方面存在很大差异。
无论是在传播学科内部，还是在公共关系、信息科学和大众传媒等相关学科之间，都有一些关于社交媒体的新定义。这些定义通常都围绕着这样一个概念：社交媒体指的是
digital technologies emphasizing user-generated content or interaction (e.g,. Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Terry, 2009). Often social media are referred to by channel characteristics, identifying either directionality of messages (e.g., Kent, 2010) or using specific tools like Facebook or Twitter to exemplify modes of interaction (e.g., Howard & Parks, 2012). Though several definitions exist, there remains a lack of a formal, concise, and mutually-agreed upon definition of social media (Effing, van Hillegersberg, & Huibers, 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010), particularly across disciplines. The lack of a common definition can result in multiple connotations of a concept, making it difficult to create a shared understanding (Hempel, 1966) to guide theory and research. Indeed, extant social media definitions vary widely in their complexity, focus, and applicability outside their home discipline.
强调用户生成内容或互动的数字技术（例如，Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Terry, 2009）。社交媒体通常以渠道特征来称呼，确定信息的方向性（如 Kent, 2010），或使用 Facebook 或 Twitter 等特定工具来体现互动模式（如 Howard & Parks, 2012）。尽管有多种定义，但仍缺乏一个正式、简洁和共同认可的社交媒体定义（Effing, van Hillegersberg, & Huibers, 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010），尤其是跨学科的定义。缺乏共同的定义会导致概念的多重内涵，从而难以形成共同的理解（Hempel, 1966）来指导理论和研究。事实上，现存的社交媒体定义在其复杂性、关注点和本学科以外的适用性方面存在很大差异。
Some extant definitions are relatively simple, focusing on the nature of message construction in social media. For example, Russo, Watkins, Kelly, and Chan (2008) defined social media as, "those that facilitate online communication, networking, and/or collaboration" (p. 22). Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) offer a similarly brief definition of social media as, "a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content" (p. 61). Even less precise, Lewis (2010) noted "social media" simply serve as a, "label for digital technologies that allow people to connect, interact, produce and share content" (p. 2). These definitions are problematic in that they could easily be applied to other communication technologies such as email, missing the unique technological and social affordances that distinguish social media.
一些现存的定义相对简单，侧重于社交媒体中信息构建的性质。例如，Russo、Watkins、Kelly 和 Chan（2008 年）将社交媒体定义为 "促进在线交流、联网和/或协作的媒体"（第 22 页）。Kaplan 和 Haenlein（2010 年）对社交媒体的定义同样简短："一组基于互联网的应用程序，建立在 Web 2.0 的思想和技术基础之上，允许创建和交换用户生成的内容"（第 61 页）。更不精确的是，Lewis（2010 年）指出，"社交媒体 "只是 "允许人们连接、互动、制作和分享内容的数字技术的标签"（第 2 页）。这些定义是有问题的，因为它们可以很容易地应用于其他通信技术，如电子邮件，而忽略了社交媒体独特的技术和社会功能。
一些现存的定义相对简单，侧重于社交媒体中信息构建的性质。例如，Russo、Watkins、Kelly 和 Chan（2008 年）将社交媒体定义为 "促进在线交流、联网和/或协作的媒体"（第 22 页）。Kaplan 和 Haenlein（2010 年）对社交媒体的定义同样简短："一组基于互联网的应用程序，建立在 Web 2.0 的思想和技术基础之上，允许创建和交换用户生成的内容"（第 61 页）。更不精确的是，Lewis（2010 年）指出，"社交媒体 "只是 "允许人们连接、互动、制作和分享内容的数字技术的标签"（第 2 页）。这些定义是有问题的，因为它们可以很容易地应用于其他通信技术，如电子邮件，而忽略了社交媒体独特的技术和社会功能。
Howard and Parks (2012) proffered a more complex definition of social media as consisting of three parts: “ (a) the information infrastructure and tools used to produce and distribute content; (b) the content that takes the digital form of personal messages, news, ideas,
Howard 和 Parks（2012 年）为社交媒体下了一个更复杂的定义，即社交媒体由三部分组成："(a) 用于制作和发布内容的信息基础设施和工具；(b) 以数字形式发布的个人信息、新闻和观点等内容、
and cultural products; and (c) the people, organizations, and industries that produce and consume digital content" (p. 362). They further specify social media are frequently denoted in the literature, not by their traits and characteristics, but by merely invoking specific applications such as Facebook or YouTube. Though a more robust definition, this focus on specific tools can be problematic as it misses the actual and potential social impacts of those tools and limits possible contributions to theory building, restricting applicability to descriptive studies.
和文化产品；以及 (c) 生产和消费数字内容的人、组织和行业"（第 362 页）。他们进一步指出，文献中对社交媒体的描述往往不是根据其特征和特性，而是仅仅引用 Facebook 或 YouTube 等具体应用。虽然这种定义更为严谨，但这种对具体工具的关注可能会产生问题，因为它忽略了这些工具的实际和潜在社会影响，限制了对理论建设的可能贡献，使其只适用于描述性研究。
Howard 和 Parks（2012 年）为社交媒体下了一个更复杂的定义，即社交媒体由三部分组成："(a) 用于制作和发布内容的信息基础设施和工具；(b) 以数字形式发布的个人信息、新闻和观点等内容、
and cultural products; and (c) the people, organizations, and industries that produce and consume digital content" (p. 362). They further specify social media are frequently denoted in the literature, not by their traits and characteristics, but by merely invoking specific applications such as Facebook or YouTube. Though a more robust definition, this focus on specific tools can be problematic as it misses the actual and potential social impacts of those tools and limits possible contributions to theory building, restricting applicability to descriptive studies.
和文化产品；以及 (c) 生产和消费数字内容的人、组织和行业"（第 362 页）。他们进一步指出，文献中对社交媒体的描述往往不是根据其特征和特性，而是仅仅引用 Facebook 或 YouTube 等具体应用。虽然这种定义更为严谨，但这种对具体工具的关注可能会产生问题，因为它忽略了这些工具的实际和潜在社会影响，限制了对理论建设的可能贡献，使其只适用于描述性研究。
Additional definitions of social media have been offered from beyond communication science. Within public relations, Kent (2010) broadly defined social media as, "any interactive communication channel that allows for two-way interaction and feedback," further specifying modern social media are characterized by their, "potential for real-time interaction, reduced anonymity, a sense of propinquity, short response times, and the ability to 'time shift,' or engage the social network whenever suits each particular member" (p. 645). Yet it is notable that fledgling online tools such as Whisper (whisper.sh) and Ask.fm are reversing earlier trends by re-embracing anonymous online communication, albeit at the cost of interactivity. Within medicine, social media has been, "loosely defined as user-generated content utilizing Internetbased publishing technologies, distinct from traditional print and broadcast media," (Terry, 2009) and distinguished from traditional media by user-generated content creation. It is of interest to note both of these definitions partially define social media by differentiating between social and traditional (either print or online) media, but do not clearly exclude other 'new media,' such as email and text messaging, which are not typically included in typological lists of social media.
除了传播学之外，还有其他关于社交媒体的定义。在公共关系领域，Kent（2010）将社交媒体广义地定义为 "任何允许双向互动和反馈的互动交流渠道"，并进一步指出现代社交媒体的特点是 "实时互动的潜力、匿名性的降低、先入为主的感觉、短响应时间，以及'时间转移'的能力，或者说在适合每个特定成员的时候参与社交网络的能力"（第 645 页）。然而，值得注意的是，诸如 Whisper（whisper.sh）和 Ask.fm 等新兴在线工具正在扭转先前的趋势，重新拥抱匿名在线交流，尽管是以互动性为代价的。在医学界，社交媒体被 "松散地定义为利用基于互联网的出版技术的用户生成内容，有别于传统的印刷和广播媒体"（Terry，2009 年），并以用户生成内容的方式与传统媒体区分开来。值得注意的是，这两个定义通过区分社交媒体和传统媒体（印刷媒体或网络媒体）对社交媒体进行了部分定义，但并没有明确排除其他 "新媒体"，如电子邮件和短信，这些通常不包括在社交媒体的类型列表中。
除了传播学之外，还有其他关于社交媒体的定义。在公共关系领域，Kent（2010）将社交媒体广义地定义为 "任何允许双向互动和反馈的互动交流渠道"，并进一步指出现代社交媒体的特点是 "实时互动的潜力、匿名性的降低、先入为主的感觉、短响应时间，以及'时间转移'的能力，或者说在适合每个特定成员的时候参与社交网络的能力"（第 645 页）。然而，值得注意的是，诸如 Whisper（whisper.sh）和 Ask.fm 等新兴在线工具正在扭转先前的趋势，重新拥抱匿名在线交流，尽管是以互动性为代价的。在医学界，社交媒体被 "松散地定义为利用基于互联网的出版技术的用户生成内容，有别于传统的印刷和广播媒体"（Terry，2009 年），并以用户生成内容的方式与传统媒体区分开来。值得注意的是，这两个定义通过区分社交媒体和传统媒体（印刷媒体或网络媒体）对社交媒体进行了部分定义，但并没有明确排除其他 "新媒体"，如电子邮件和短信，这些通常不包括在社交媒体的类型列表中。
Social media have often been conceptualized techno-centrically, based on specific devices or tool affordances, often considered to be synonymous with Web 2.0 or the collaborative Web (e.g., Agichtein, Castillo, Donato, Gionis, & Mishne, 2008). Web 2.0 refers
社交媒体往往被技术中心化地概念化，基于特定的设备或工具能力，通常被认为是 Web 2.0 或协作网络的同义词（例如，Agichtein, Castillo, Donato, Gionis, & Mishne, 2008）。Web 2.0 是指
to Web-based, collaborative tools relying on user-generated content that constantly evolve and improve (O'Reilly, 2005). Even more problematic has been the conflation of "social media" and "social network sites." boyd and Ellison (2007) seminally defined social network sites (SNSs) as "web-based services that allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system" (p. 211). Unfortunately, this definition has frequently been errantly cross-applied as an overarching definition of social media. Though SNSs-by their nature—are typically social media tools, not all social media are inherently social network sites. The misapplication and misattribution of boyd and Ellison's definition have led to imprecision in some of the literature around social media, which could impede theoretical development of social media more broadly.
到基于网络的协作工具，这些工具依靠用户生成的内容不断发展和完善（O'Reilly, 2005）。Boyd 和 Ellison（2007 年）将社交网站（SNS）定义为 "基于网络的服务，允许个人 (1) 在一个有边界的系统中建立一个公开或半公开的个人资料，(2) 列出一个与他们有共同联系的其他用户的名单，(3) 查看和遍历他们的联系名单和系统中其他人建立的联系"（第 211 页）。遗憾的是，这一定义经常被错误地交叉应用，成为社交媒体的总体定义。虽然从本质上讲，社交网络系统是典型的社交媒体工具，但并非所有社交媒体本质上都是社交网络站点。博伊德和埃里森定义的错误应用和错误归属导致了一些围绕社交媒体的文献的不精确性，这可能会阻碍社交媒体更广泛的理论发展。
社交媒体往往被技术中心化地概念化，基于特定的设备或工具能力，通常被认为是 Web 2.0 或协作网络的同义词（例如，Agichtein, Castillo, Donato, Gionis, & Mishne, 2008）。Web 2.0 是指
to Web-based, collaborative tools relying on user-generated content that constantly evolve and improve (O'Reilly, 2005). Even more problematic has been the conflation of "social media" and "social network sites." boyd and Ellison (2007) seminally defined social network sites (SNSs) as "web-based services that allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system" (p. 211). Unfortunately, this definition has frequently been errantly cross-applied as an overarching definition of social media. Though SNSs-by their nature—are typically social media tools, not all social media are inherently social network sites. The misapplication and misattribution of boyd and Ellison's definition have led to imprecision in some of the literature around social media, which could impede theoretical development of social media more broadly.
到基于网络的协作工具，这些工具依靠用户生成的内容不断发展和完善（O'Reilly, 2005）。Boyd 和 Ellison（2007 年）将社交网站（SNS）定义为 "基于网络的服务，允许个人 (1) 在一个有边界的系统中建立一个公开或半公开的个人资料，(2) 列出一个与他们有共同联系的其他用户的名单，(3) 查看和遍历他们的联系名单和系统中其他人建立的联系"（第 211 页）。遗憾的是，这一定义经常被错误地交叉应用，成为社交媒体的总体定义。虽然从本质上讲，社交网络系统是典型的社交媒体工具，但并非所有社交媒体本质上都是社交网络站点。博伊德和埃里森定义的错误应用和错误归属导致了一些围绕社交媒体的文献的不精确性，这可能会阻碍社交媒体更广泛的理论发展。
As evidenced from the myriad of prior definitions, social media have sometimes been considered as amalgamations of site features, and at others defined by specific features or technological affordances, minimizing their unique communicative properties. This technocentric and inductive approach to defining leaves thinking on social media grounded in current specific and extant technological affordances, and misses much of what makes social media unique both as a technology and as a construct. As a result, these definitions pose problems for theorists by muddying the foundation of research and constraining theorizing to current technologies, services, and practices.
从之前的众多定义中可以看出，社交媒体有时被认为是网站功能的混合体，有时则被定义为特定功能或技术能力，从而将其独特的传播属性降到最低。这种以技术为中心的归纳式定义方法使人们对社交媒体的思考停留在当前特定的和现存的技术能力上，而忽略了社交媒体作为一种技术和一种构建的独特性。因此，这些定义给理论家带来了问题，使研究的基础变得模糊不清，并将理论研究局限于当前的技术、服务和实践。
从之前的众多定义中可以看出，社交媒体有时被认为是网站功能的混合体，有时则被定义为特定功能或技术能力，从而将其独特的传播属性降到最低。这种以技术为中心的归纳式定义方法使人们对社交媒体的思考停留在当前特定的和现存的技术能力上，而忽略了社交媒体作为一种技术和一种构建的独特性。因此，这些定义给理论家带来了问题，使研究的基础变得模糊不清，并将理论研究局限于当前的技术、服务和实践。
This lack of a stable, yet robust, definition also poses a significant problem for the pursuit of future scholarship of social media. Without objectively agreeing upon what social media are, it will be difficult to understand how to approach and theorize issues occurring within social media from a communicative perspective and beyond. From these definitions and some of the
缺乏一个稳定而有力的定义，也给未来的社交媒体学术研究带来了重大问题。如果不能客观地就什么是社交媒体达成一致，就很难理解如何从传播学的角度以及其他角度来处理社交媒体中出现的问题并对其进行理论化。从这些定义和一些
expected directions of social media discussed in the next section, we thus posit a new definition of social media that is deductive, descriptive, and robust: As applicable to today's social media as to the social media of 2035, whatever form they take.
因此，我们提出了一个新的社交媒体定义，它具有演绎性、描述性和稳健性：它既适用于今天的社交媒体，也适用于 2035 年的社交媒体，无论其形式如何。
缺乏一个稳定而有力的定义，也给未来的社交媒体学术研究带来了重大问题。如果不能客观地就什么是社交媒体达成一致，就很难理解如何从传播学的角度以及其他角度来处理社交媒体中出现的问题并对其进行理论化。从这些定义和一些
expected directions of social media discussed in the next section, we thus posit a new definition of social media that is deductive, descriptive, and robust: As applicable to today's social media as to the social media of 2035, whatever form they take.
因此，我们提出了一个新的社交媒体定义，它具有演绎性、描述性和稳健性：它既适用于今天的社交媒体，也适用于 2035 年的社交媒体，无论其形式如何。
A New Definition of "Social Media"
社交媒体 "的新定义
One impetus of this work is to forward a new, broad yet precise, and atemporal definition of social media. We think it prudent to initially delineate between a social medium and a medium that facilitates socialness. Rather than addressing a medium that can be used for socioemotional communication, we distinguish social media as a distinct subset of media tools that share a common set of traits and characteristics, where the affordances for disparate individuals and groups to contribute to the creation of the content they are consuming provide intrinsic value far greater than what each individual site feature provides. As such, we formally define social media as the following:
这项工作的推动力之一是为社交媒体下一个新的、宽泛而又精确的时空定义。我们认为，首先应将社交媒体与促进社交的媒体区分开来。与其说社交媒体是一种可用于社会情感交流的媒介，不如说社交媒体是媒体工具的一个独特子集，它们具有一系列共同的特征和特点，不同的个人和群体都能为他们所消费的内容的创造做出贡献，其内在价值远远超过每个网站所提供的功能。因此，我们将社交媒体正式定义如下：
这项工作的推动力之一是为社交媒体下一个新的、宽泛而又精确的时空定义。我们认为，首先应将社交媒体与促进社交的媒体区分开来。与其说社交媒体是一种可用于社会情感交流的媒介，不如说社交媒体是媒体工具的一个独特子集，它们具有一系列共同的特征和特点，不同的个人和群体都能为他们所消费的内容的创造做出贡献，其内在价值远远超过每个网站所提供的功能。因此，我们将社交媒体正式定义如下：
Social media are Internet-based, disentrained, and persistent channels of masspersonal communication facilitating perceptions of interactions among users, deriving value primarily from user-generated content.
社交媒体是以互联网为基础的、不受约束的、持久的大众个人交流渠道，促进用户之间的互动感知，其价值主要来自用户生成的内容。
社交媒体是以互联网为基础的、不受约束的、持久的大众个人交流渠道，促进用户之间的互动感知，其价值主要来自用户生成的内容。
Though precise, this definition is admittedly complex and technical. Thus, we offer a rephrased, slightly more verbose, but potentially more accessible explication:
这个定义虽然精确，但不得不承认其复杂性和技术性。因此，我们提供了一个重新表述的、稍显啰嗦但可能更通俗易懂的解释：
这个定义虽然精确，但不得不承认其复杂性和技术性。因此，我们提供了一个重新表述的、稍显啰嗦但可能更通俗易懂的解释：
Social media are Internet-based channels that allow users to opportunistically interact and selectively self-present, either in real-time or asynchronously, with both broad and narrow audiences who derive value from user-generated content and the perception of interaction with others.
社交媒体是以互联网为基础的渠道，允许用户与广泛和狭隘的受众进行实时或非同步的互动和选择性自我展示，这些受众从用户生成的内容和与他人互动的感知中获取价值。
社交媒体是以互联网为基础的渠道，允许用户与广泛和狭隘的受众进行实时或非同步的互动和选择性自我展示，这些受众从用户生成的内容和与他人互动的感知中获取价值。
Though we clarify and explicate the formal definition's key elements in the following subsections, this rephrased definition summarizes the intended conceptualization of social media.
尽管我们将在下文各小节中澄清和阐释正式定义的关键要素，但这一重新表述的定义概括了社交媒体的预期概念化。
尽管我们将在下文各小节中澄清和阐释正式定义的关键要素，但这一重新表述的定义概括了社交媒体的预期概念化。
Internet-based 基于互联网
Foundational to our definition is that social media are online tools operating via the broader Internet, acknowledging that social media need not be Web-based. The Internet refers to the interconnected computer networks across the globe, and refers predominantly to the system infrastructure; while the World Wide Web is one of many applications using the Internet's infrastructure to communicate through audiovisual hyperlinks and accessed through a browser. Increasingly developers are moving away from browser-based Web tools to include stand-alone app[lication]s that do not require the Web to function.
我们定义的基础是，社交媒体是通过更广泛的互联网运作的在线工具，同时承认社交媒体不一定是基于网络的。互联网是指全球互联的计算机网络，主要指系统基础设施；而万维网则是使用互联网基础设施，通过视听超链接进行通信，并通过浏览器访问的众多应用程序之一。越来越多的开发人员开始放弃基于浏览器的网络工具，转而开发无需网络即可运行的独立应用程序。
我们定义的基础是，社交媒体是通过更广泛的互联网运作的在线工具，同时承认社交媒体不一定是基于网络的。互联网是指全球互联的计算机网络，主要指系统基础设施；而万维网则是使用互联网基础设施，通过视听超链接进行通信，并通过浏览器访问的众多应用程序之一。越来越多的开发人员开始放弃基于浏览器的网络工具，转而开发无需网络即可运行的独立应用程序。
Divorcing the definition of social media from current notions of Web 2.0 tools such as Facebook and Instagram allows for the inclusion of tools that transcend current notions of the Web and online applications, yet still include social tools that operate on the multi-site private intranets of organizations (which are connected via the internet) such as IBM's Beehive (cf. DiMicco, Millen, Geyer, & Dugan, 2008; Thom-Santelli, Millen, & DiMicco, 2010). As social media developers continue to embrace apps at the expense of the Web as a platform, social media may rely on other applications of the Internet, including file transfer protocols (FTP) and media streaming to facilitate communication by circumventing the Web all together. Although the Web may be sufficient for social media tools, it is not necessary.
将社交媒体的定义与当前的 Web 2.0 工具（如 Facebook 和 Instagram）的概念区分开来，可以将超越当前网络和在线应用概念的工具纳入其中，但仍包括在组织的多站点私有内联网（通过互联网连接）上运行的社交工具，如 IBM 的 Beehive（参见 DiMicco、Millen、Geyer 和 Dugan，2008 年；Thom-Santelli、Millen 和 DiMicco，2010 年）。随着社交媒体开发者继续将应用程序作为平台而放弃网络，社交媒体可能会依赖互联网的其他应用，包括文件传输协议（FTP）和媒体流，从而避开网络来促进交流。尽管网络对于社交媒体工具来说可能已经足够，但并非必要。
将社交媒体的定义与当前的 Web 2.0 工具（如 Facebook 和 Instagram）的概念区分开来，可以将超越当前网络和在线应用概念的工具纳入其中，但仍包括在组织的多站点私有内联网（通过互联网连接）上运行的社交工具，如 IBM 的 Beehive（参见 DiMicco、Millen、Geyer 和 Dugan，2008 年；Thom-Santelli、Millen 和 DiMicco，2010 年）。随着社交媒体开发者继续将应用程序作为平台而放弃网络，社交媒体可能会依赖互联网的其他应用，包括文件传输协议（FTP）和媒体流，从而避开网络来促进交流。尽管网络对于社交媒体工具来说可能已经足够，但并非必要。
Disentrained, persistent channels
排水不畅的持久性航道
Channel disentrainment is communication facilitated by a particular channel in which the user participates when he or she can commit to participating, as opposed to face-to-face communication, when both members of the communication dyad need to be committed at the same time (Walther, 1996). Its root, entrainment, comes from the organizational behavior and natural sciences literature and means to adjust one's pace or cycle to match that of another
与面对面交流不同，面对面交流需要交流双方同时投入（Walther，1996 年）。它的词根 "entrainment "来自于组织行为学和自然科学文献，意思是调整一个人的节奏或周期以配合另一个人的节奏或周期。
与面对面交流不同，面对面交流需要交流双方同时投入（Walther，1996 年）。它的词根 "entrainment "来自于组织行为学和自然科学文献，意思是调整一个人的节奏或周期以配合另一个人的节奏或周期。
(Ancona & Chong, 1996); and thus, disentrained means that this adjustment is unnecessary. Social media provide communicators disentrained, asynchronous communication tools, thus avoiding a, "scarcity of temporal resources," (McGrath, 1991, p. 162). Asynchronous tools do not require simultaneous attention from interaction partners, make temporal commitments discretionary, and allow greater self-presentation by providing individuals time to selectively and opportunistically construct and present themselves online (Walther, 1995, 1996). Channel disentrainment therefore allows for unique communicative processes over entrained channels such as face-to-face interactions or real-time text or video chats such as instant messenger or Skype interactions. Scholars, particularly Kent (2010) in his definition of social media, emphasize the value of time-shifting feedback to a network member. Though value of real-time interaction via social media is noted (as many social media integrate synchronous or real-time messaging capabilities), we forward a defining feature of social media is that the channel is persistently available whether a user is active or not, facilitating disentrained communication.
(Ancona & Chong, 1996）；因此，无约束意味着这种调整是不必要的。社交媒体为交流者提供了不受约束的异步交流工具，从而避免了 "时间资源的稀缺"（McGrath, 1991, p.162）。异步工具不需要互动伙伴的同时关注，使时间承诺具有随意性，并通过为个人提供时间来选择性地和机会性地构建和展示自己的在线形象，从而允许更多的自我展示（Walther, 1995, 1996）。因此，在面对面互动或实时文字或视频聊天（如即时通讯工具或 Skype 互动）等受约束的渠道上，渠道脱节允许独特的交流过程。学者们，尤其是 Kent（2010 年）在其社交媒体定义中强调了向网络成员提供时移反馈的价值。尽管我们注意到了社交媒体实时互动的价值（因为许多社交媒体都集成了同步或实时信息功能），但我们认为社交媒体的一个决定性特征是，无论用户是否活跃，该渠道都是持续可用的，从而促进了无拘无束的交流。
(Ancona & Chong, 1996）；因此，无约束意味着这种调整是不必要的。社交媒体为交流者提供了不受约束的异步交流工具，从而避免了 "时间资源的稀缺"（McGrath, 1991, p.162）。异步工具不需要互动伙伴的同时关注，使时间承诺具有随意性，并通过为个人提供时间来选择性地和机会性地构建和展示自己的在线形象，从而允许更多的自我展示（Walther, 1995, 1996）。因此，在面对面互动或实时文字或视频聊天（如即时通讯工具或 Skype 互动）等受约束的渠道上，渠道脱节允许独特的交流过程。学者们，尤其是 Kent（2010 年）在其社交媒体定义中强调了向网络成员提供时移反馈的价值。尽管我们注意到了社交媒体实时互动的价值（因为许多社交媒体都集成了同步或实时信息功能），但我们认为社交媒体的一个决定性特征是，无论用户是否活跃，该渠道都是持续可用的，从而促进了无拘无束的交流。
This disentrainment is facilitated by the persistence or continuation of the social medium's service even when an individual user is not online or active. Thus far, channel persistence has been the focus primarily of scholars investigating virtual worlds (e.g., World of Warcraft, SecondLife) whose processes continue to function regardless of whether individual users are logged in and actively engaged in the virtual world (Bainbridge, 2007; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006). Like World of Warcraft's world of Azeroth, the world of Facebook does not cease to function or decline in value because a single user is not online; rather the service operates continually as the aggregated user base is able to log on at a time of their choosing (thus taking further advantage of social media's disentrainment) to use the service. Unlike synchronous services like ChatRoulette.com or Skype which require a user be online to
即使个人用户不在线或不活跃，社交媒体服务的持续性也会促进这种解脱。迄今为止，研究虚拟世界（如《魔兽世界》、《第二人生》）的学者主要关注的是渠道的持续性，无论个人用户是否登录并积极参与虚拟世界，这些虚拟世界的进程都会继续发挥作用（Bainbridge, 2007; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006）。与《魔兽世界》的艾泽拉斯世界一样，Facebook 世界不会因为单个用户不在线而停止运作或价值下降；相反，由于聚集的用户群能够在他们选择的时间登录（从而进一步利用社交媒体的无约束性）使用服务，因此该服务能够持续运作。与 ChatRoulette.com 或 Skype 等同步服务不同的是，这些服务要求用户在线才能
communicate, social media create persistent online places for messages to be created, transmitted, and consumed regardless of which individuals are online. Moreover, it is important to distinguish that services like Whisper and Snapchat, which allow users to send text or images that are deleted shortly after viewing (reminiscent of Mission: Impossible briefings), are persistent services as the channels are continuously accessible, even if specific messages are not.
社交媒体为信息的创建、传播和消费创造了持久的在线场所，无论哪些人在线。此外，必须区分的是，像 Whisper 和 Snapchat 这样允许用户发送文字或图片，并在观看后不久即被删除的服务（让人想起《不可能的任务》中的简报），也属于持久性服务，因为这些渠道可以持续访问，即使具体信息无法访问。
即使个人用户不在线或不活跃，社交媒体服务的持续性也会促进这种解脱。迄今为止，研究虚拟世界（如《魔兽世界》、《第二人生》）的学者主要关注的是渠道的持续性，无论个人用户是否登录并积极参与虚拟世界，这些虚拟世界的进程都会继续发挥作用（Bainbridge, 2007; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006）。与《魔兽世界》的艾泽拉斯世界一样，Facebook 世界不会因为单个用户不在线而停止运作或价值下降；相反，由于聚集的用户群能够在他们选择的时间登录（从而进一步利用社交媒体的无约束性）使用服务，因此该服务能够持续运作。与 ChatRoulette.com 或 Skype 等同步服务不同的是，这些服务要求用户在线才能
communicate, social media create persistent online places for messages to be created, transmitted, and consumed regardless of which individuals are online. Moreover, it is important to distinguish that services like Whisper and Snapchat, which allow users to send text or images that are deleted shortly after viewing (reminiscent of Mission: Impossible briefings), are persistent services as the channels are continuously accessible, even if specific messages are not.
社交媒体为信息的创建、传播和消费创造了持久的在线场所，无论哪些人在线。此外，必须区分的是，像 Whisper 和 Snapchat 这样允许用户发送文字或图片，并在观看后不久即被删除的服务（让人想起《不可能的任务》中的简报），也属于持久性服务，因为这些渠道可以持续访问，即使具体信息无法访问。
Perceived interactivity 互动感知
Though some previous definitions have predicated interactivity among users as a requisite for social media (e.g., Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Kent, 2010), we specify the mere perception of interactivity with other users is necessary to distinguish a social media.
尽管之前的一些定义将用户间的互动性作为社交媒体的必要条件（如 Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Kent, 2010），但我们明确指出，仅仅感知到与其他用户的互动性是区分社交媒体的必要条件。
尽管之前的一些定义将用户间的互动性作为社交媒体的必要条件（如 Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Kent, 2010），但我们明确指出，仅仅感知到与其他用户的互动性是区分社交媒体的必要条件。
Particularly as digital agents, algorithms, and other mechanistic features operate online, it is most critical that users perceive an interactive element to consider the medium social, even if that interaction is not with other users. A social medium is inherently social in nature, in that it seeks to create, capitalize on, or maintain social interactions among its users. However, these social interactions need not be specifically interpersonal in nature, provided the user is afforded a sense of interactive engagement with others.
尤其是当数字代理、算法和其他机械功能在网络上运行时，最关键的是用户能感知到互动元素，从而将媒介视为社会媒介，即使这种互动不是与其他用户进行的。社交媒体本身就具有社交性质，因为它旨在创造、利用或维持用户之间的社交互动。然而，这些社会交往不一定是具体的人际交往，只要用户有一种与他人互动的参与感就可以了。
尤其是当数字代理、算法和其他机械功能在网络上运行时，最关键的是用户能感知到互动元素，从而将媒介视为社会媒介，即使这种互动不是与其他用户进行的。社交媒体本身就具有社交性质，因为它旨在创造、利用或维持用户之间的社交互动。然而，这些社会交往不一定是具体的人际交往，只要用户有一种与他人互动的参与感就可以了。
As computer programs and virtual agents increase in complexity, individuals will send and receive messages from algorithms-programs with enhanced response capabilities that mimic true interactivity by adapting to stimuli and messages (Rafaeli, 1988; Sundar, 2007), yet are limited to a predefined (albeit large) response set (cf. Wegner, 1997). Just as with soap opera characters (Perse & Rubin, 1989) or celebrities on Twitter (Lueck, in press), individuals may perceive interactivity and social connectedness even when Luke Spencer or Kim Kardashian is not actually responding to the individuals' messages, thus fostering parasocial interactions, messages, and relationships. Additionally, the platforms of social media themselves may afford
随着计算机程序和虚拟代理复杂性的增加，个人将发送和接收来自算法的信息--算法具有增强的响应能力，通过适应刺激和信息来模拟真正的交互性（Rafaeli, 1988; Sundar, 2007），但仅限于预定义的（尽管很大的）响应集（参见 Wegner, 1997）。就像肥皂剧人物（Perse & Rubin, 1989）或推特上的名人（Lueck, in press）一样，即使卢克-斯宾塞（Luke Spencer）或金-卡戴珊（Kim Kardashian）实际上并没有回应个人的信息，个人也可能感知到互动性和社会联系，从而促进了寄生社会互动、信息和关系。此外，社交媒体平台本身可能会提供
a sense of interactivity even when there is none, as a medium itself may foster perceived interaction (Lin & Lin, 2014). Particularly geocentric services like Foursquare and Tinder may allow an individual to perceive herself or himself as interacting with others in a specific location (e.g., airport terminal, city park) even without message exchange-merely acknowledging the presence of others may facilitate perceptions of interaction (Lindqvist, Cranshaw, Wiese, Hong, & Zimmerman, 2011). Given these considerations and advances, most critical to social media is that users perceive they are interacting with others, even if the sending and receiving of messages does not meet the criteria typically associated with interaction (Rafaeli, 1988).
即使没有互动，也能产生互动感，因为媒介本身就能促进可感知的互动（Lin & Lin, 2014）。特别是以地理为中心的服务，如 Foursquare 和 Tinder，即使没有信息交换，也能让个人认为自己在特定地点（如机场航站楼、城市公园）与他人互动--仅仅承认他人的存在就能促进互动感知（Lindqvist, Cranshaw, Wiese, Hong, & Zimmerman, 2011）。鉴于这些考虑和进展，社交媒体最关键的一点是，即使信息的收发不符合通常与互动相关的标准，用户也能感觉到他们在与他人互动（Rafaeli, 1988）。
随着计算机程序和虚拟代理复杂性的增加，个人将发送和接收来自算法的信息--算法具有增强的响应能力，通过适应刺激和信息来模拟真正的交互性（Rafaeli, 1988; Sundar, 2007），但仅限于预定义的（尽管很大的）响应集（参见 Wegner, 1997）。就像肥皂剧人物（Perse & Rubin, 1989）或推特上的名人（Lueck, in press）一样，即使卢克-斯宾塞（Luke Spencer）或金-卡戴珊（Kim Kardashian）实际上并没有回应个人的信息，个人也可能感知到互动性和社会联系，从而促进了寄生社会互动、信息和关系。此外，社交媒体平台本身可能会提供
a sense of interactivity even when there is none, as a medium itself may foster perceived interaction (Lin & Lin, 2014). Particularly geocentric services like Foursquare and Tinder may allow an individual to perceive herself or himself as interacting with others in a specific location (e.g., airport terminal, city park) even without message exchange-merely acknowledging the presence of others may facilitate perceptions of interaction (Lindqvist, Cranshaw, Wiese, Hong, & Zimmerman, 2011). Given these considerations and advances, most critical to social media is that users perceive they are interacting with others, even if the sending and receiving of messages does not meet the criteria typically associated with interaction (Rafaeli, 1988).
即使没有互动，也能产生互动感，因为媒介本身就能促进可感知的互动（Lin & Lin, 2014）。特别是以地理为中心的服务，如 Foursquare 和 Tinder，即使没有信息交换，也能让个人认为自己在特定地点（如机场航站楼、城市公园）与他人互动--仅仅承认他人的存在就能促进互动感知（Lindqvist, Cranshaw, Wiese, Hong, & Zimmerman, 2011）。鉴于这些考虑和进展，社交媒体最关键的一点是，即使信息的收发不符合通常与互动相关的标准，用户也能感觉到他们在与他人互动（Rafaeli, 1988）。
User-generated value 用户创造的价值
The value (i.e., benefit or enjoyment) of using social media is derived from the contributions from or interactions with other users rather than content generated by organization or individual hosting the medium. The value of the social medium may be different from its content, which needs not be generated by an individual user: Content can be organizationally generated and promoted in addition to or instead of contributions from individual users. For example, though a public service announcement may be created and promoted by an organization, individuals may derive greater utility and value from the user-generated comments about the PSA and find their product perceptions influenced more by the peer interactions than the intended message (Walther, DeAndrea, Kim, & Anthony, 2010). The interaction with other users is the motivation for the continual involvement with the content.
使用社交媒体的价值（即利益或享受）来自于其他用户的贡献或与其他用户的互动，而不是托管媒体的组织或个人生成的内容。社交媒体的价值可能不同于其内容，后者不一定由用户个人生成：除了个人用户的贡献之外，内容也可以由组织生成和推广。例如，尽管公益广告可能是由组织创建和推广的，但个人可能会从用户对公益广告的评论中获得更大的效用和价值，并发现他们对产品的看法更多地受到同伴互动的影响，而非预期信息的影响（Walther, DeAndrea, Kim, & Anthony, 2010）。与其他用户的互动是用户持续参与内容的动力。
使用社交媒体的价值（即利益或享受）来自于其他用户的贡献或与其他用户的互动，而不是托管媒体的组织或个人生成的内容。社交媒体的价值可能不同于其内容，后者不一定由用户个人生成：除了个人用户的贡献之外，内容也可以由组织生成和推广。例如，尽管公益广告可能是由组织创建和推广的，但个人可能会从用户对公益广告的评论中获得更大的效用和价值，并发现他们对产品的看法更多地受到同伴互动的影响，而非预期信息的影响（Walther, DeAndrea, Kim, & Anthony, 2010）。与其他用户的互动是用户持续参与内容的动力。
An immediate question is, "Who decides from where value is derived in an online tool?" We posit ultimately that a service's users decide its value, echoing Shirky's (2010) assertion that the intrinsic rewards of providing content to a site contributes to the popularity and utility of social media. Desanctis and Poole's (1994) adaptive structuration theory (AST) posits users can
一个直接的问题是："谁来决定在线工具的价值来源？我们的最终假设是，一项服务的价值由用户决定，这与 Shirky（2010 年）的论断不谋而合，即向网站提供内容的内在回报促成了社交媒体的流行和实用性。德桑克蒂斯和普尔（1994 年）的适应性结构化理论（AST）认为，用户可以
either faithfully or ironically adopt a technology by either using it for its intended or unintended purposes, respectively. Viewed through the lens of AST, users may derive value from a service not intended to provide value through user-generated content and ironically adopt an asocial medium, using it as a social medium. For example, though imgur.com is a simple image-sharing website, users often derive gratification from interactive user comments and exchanges below each picture (Mikal, Rice, Kent, & Uchino, 2014) and have appropriated the service for political activism and journalism (Pearce, 2014). Thus, understanding from where utility is derived for a specific medium may be an idiosyncratic process.
用户或忠实地采用某种技术，或讽刺性地采用某种技术，分别将其用于预期目的或非预期目的。从 AST 的角度来看，用户可能会通过用户生成的内容从一项无意提供价值的服务中获得价值，并讽刺性地采用一种非社会媒介，将其用作一种社会媒介。例如，imgur.com 虽然是一个简单的图片分享网站，但用户往往从每张图片下方的用户互动评论和交流中获得满足感（Mikal, Rice, Kent, & Uchino, 2014），并将该服务用于政治活动和新闻报道（Pearce, 2014）。因此，了解特定媒体的效用来源可能是一个独特的过程。
一个直接的问题是："谁来决定在线工具的价值来源？我们的最终假设是，一项服务的价值由用户决定，这与 Shirky（2010 年）的论断不谋而合，即向网站提供内容的内在回报促成了社交媒体的流行和实用性。德桑克蒂斯和普尔（1994 年）的适应性结构化理论（AST）认为，用户可以
either faithfully or ironically adopt a technology by either using it for its intended or unintended purposes, respectively. Viewed through the lens of AST, users may derive value from a service not intended to provide value through user-generated content and ironically adopt an asocial medium, using it as a social medium. For example, though imgur.com is a simple image-sharing website, users often derive gratification from interactive user comments and exchanges below each picture (Mikal, Rice, Kent, & Uchino, 2014) and have appropriated the service for political activism and journalism (Pearce, 2014). Thus, understanding from where utility is derived for a specific medium may be an idiosyncratic process.
用户或忠实地采用某种技术，或讽刺性地采用某种技术，分别将其用于预期目的或非预期目的。从 AST 的角度来看，用户可能会通过用户生成的内容从一项无意提供价值的服务中获得价值，并讽刺性地采用一种非社会媒介，将其用作一种社会媒介。例如，imgur.com 虽然是一个简单的图片分享网站，但用户往往从每张图片下方的用户互动评论和交流中获得满足感（Mikal, Rice, Kent, & Uchino, 2014），并将该服务用于政治活动和新闻报道（Pearce, 2014）。因此，了解特定媒体的效用来源可能是一个独特的过程。
Masspersonal communication
大众传播
Masspersonal communication refers to instances where mass communication channels are used for interpersonal communication, interpersonal channels are used for mass communication, and when individuals simultaneously engage in mass and interpersonal communication (O'Sullivan, 2005). Tools like Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter have been identified as ideal venues in which to explore masspersonal communication, as they allow individuals to broadcast messages to a large, yet often interpersonal, mass audience, while receivers may reply either interpersonally to the individual or through a mass message of their own (Walther, Carr, et al., 2010). Rather than being limited to dyadic interpersonal interactions such as text messages or letters, or to limited-feedback mass media channels such as radio or television broadcasts, messages can flow from user-to-user, user-to-audience, audience-to-user, or audience-to-audience in social media. This multidirectionality of communication flow allows messages to be sent and received as mass and/or interpersonal messages, bridging the divide between these historically-clear boundaries of communication (O'Sullivan, 1999).
大众传播是指大众传播渠道被用于人际传播，人际传播渠道被用于大众传播，以及个人同时参与大众传播和人际传播的情况（O'Sullivan，2005）。Facebook、YouTube和Twitter等工具被认为是探索大众人际传播的理想场所，因为它们允许个人向大量但通常是人际的大众受众发布信息，而接收者可以通过人际方式回复个人或通过自己的大众信息进行回复（Walther, Carr, et al.）在社交媒体中，信息可以在用户与用户之间、用户与受众之间、受众与用户之间或受众与受众之间流动，而不局限于文本信息或信件等二元人际互动，或广播或电视广播等反馈有限的大众媒体渠道。这种传播流动的多向性使得信息可以作为大众信息和/或人际信息发送和接收，弥合了这些历史上清晰的传播界限之间的鸿沟（O'Sullivan，1999）。
大众传播是指大众传播渠道被用于人际传播，人际传播渠道被用于大众传播，以及个人同时参与大众传播和人际传播的情况（O'Sullivan，2005）。Facebook、YouTube和Twitter等工具被认为是探索大众人际传播的理想场所，因为它们允许个人向大量但通常是人际的大众受众发布信息，而接收者可以通过人际方式回复个人或通过自己的大众信息进行回复（Walther, Carr, et al.）在社交媒体中，信息可以在用户与用户之间、用户与受众之间、受众与用户之间或受众与受众之间流动，而不局限于文本信息或信件等二元人际互动，或广播或电视广播等反馈有限的大众媒体渠道。这种传播流动的多向性使得信息可以作为大众信息和/或人际信息发送和接收，弥合了这些历史上清晰的传播界限之间的鸿沟（O'Sullivan，1999）。
Next Steps 下一步工作
Taken together, these elements constitute an inductive, abstract conceptualization of social media encompassing the diversity of tools and functions that will remain utile alongside socio-technical developments, yet can guide categorization of today's social media (see Table 1). This definition was forged in the fires of earlier attempts to do the same that were hampered by 1) being too focused on emerging trends in technology, media, and users, limiting their temporal applicability, 2) by being so broad that they could easily be applied to other communication technology, such as email, or 3) being so discipline-specific that they were limited in their contribution to theory-building. To avoid similarly limiting our own definition, we turn to developments on the horizon for social media-both of the media tools and of the users-to help temper our definition and to advance scholarship in the social media that will be, even if it not yet is. Later, we divine what these technosocial developments will mean for communication theory and suggest issues that will need to be addressed to understand the effects and limitations of the evolving social media landscape.
总之，这些要素构成了社交媒体的一个归纳性抽象概念，涵盖了各种工具和功能，这些工具和功能将随着社会技术的发展而继续发挥作用，但也可以指导当今社交媒体的分类（见表 1）。这一定义是在早期尝试的基础上形成的，而早期的尝试由于以下原因而受阻：1）过于关注技术、媒体和用户的新兴趋势，限制了其在时间上的适用性；2）过于宽泛，以至于很容易被应用于其他通信技术，如电子邮件；或 3）过于针对具体学科，以至于对理论建设的贡献有限。为了避免我们自己的定义受到类似的限制，我们转而关注社交媒体--无论是媒体工具还是用户--的发展前景，以帮助完善我们的定义，并推进社交媒体的学术研究。随后，我们将预测这些技术-社会发展对传播理论的意义，并提出需要解决的问题，以了解不断演变的社交媒体景观的影响和局限性。
总之，这些要素构成了社交媒体的一个归纳性抽象概念，涵盖了各种工具和功能，这些工具和功能将随着社会技术的发展而继续发挥作用，但也可以指导当今社交媒体的分类（见表 1）。这一定义是在早期尝试的基础上形成的，而早期的尝试由于以下原因而受阻：1）过于关注技术、媒体和用户的新兴趋势，限制了其在时间上的适用性；2）过于宽泛，以至于很容易被应用于其他通信技术，如电子邮件；或 3）过于针对具体学科，以至于对理论建设的贡献有限。为了避免我们自己的定义受到类似的限制，我们转而关注社交媒体--无论是媒体工具还是用户--的发展前景，以帮助完善我们的定义，并推进社交媒体的学术研究。随后，我们将预测这些技术-社会发展对传播理论的意义，并提出需要解决的问题，以了解不断演变的社交媒体景观的影响和局限性。
[INSERT TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE]
[此处插入表 1]
Developments in Social Media
社交媒体的发展
The development of the technical infrastructure and social use of social media over the next twenty years has broad implications for the allied communication fields and will influence both theory building and application. The algorithms underlying social media, how users interact with social media, and the increasing value of interactions with and within social media will innately change the tools themselves, the phenomena of interest to scholars, and the methods of that study.
未来二十年，社交媒体的技术基础设施和社会应用的发展对相关传播领域有着广泛的影响，并将影响理论建设和应用。社交媒体的基础算法、用户与社交媒体的互动方式、与社交媒体的互动以及社交媒体内部互动的价值不断增加，这些都将在本质上改变社交媒体工具本身、学者们感兴趣的现象以及研究方法。
未来二十年，社交媒体的技术基础设施和社会应用的发展对相关传播领域有着广泛的影响，并将影响理论建设和应用。社交媒体的基础算法、用户与社交媒体的互动方式、与社交媒体的互动以及社交媒体内部互动的价值不断增加，这些都将在本质上改变社交媒体工具本身、学者们感兴趣的现象以及研究方法。
Changes in Infrastructure - Mobile & Data Driven
基础设施的变化--移动和数据驱动
The technical infrastructure underlying the Internet, and therefore social media, is already changing, both in how we access systems and how those systems operate. First, the Internet is progressively accessed by means other than the World Wide Web. The rapid diffusion of smartphones and mobile devices (e.g., tablet computing) facilitating access to social media through applications (i.e., apps) and direct interfaces, often without going through a web browser. Thus, over the next two decades we will increasingly access the Internet not via desktop or laptop computers, but rather we will access and integrate social media tools in situ via the Internet of Things (e.g., watches, pens, writing tablets, vehicles; cf. Atzori, Iera, & Morabito, 2010), further blurring the lines between online and offline location.
互联网以及社交媒体的技术基础设施已经在发生变化，无论是我们访问系统的方式，还是这些系统的运行方式。首先，人们逐渐通过万维网以外的方式访问互联网。智能手机和移动设备（如平板电脑）的迅速普及为通过应用程序（即应用程序）和直接界面访问社交媒体提供了便利，通常无需通过网络浏览器。因此，在未来二十年里，我们将越来越多地不通过台式电脑或笔记本电脑访问互联网，而是通过物联网（如手表、笔、写字板、汽车；参见 Atzori, Iera, & Morabito, 2010）就地访问和整合社交媒体工具，从而进一步模糊在线和离线位置之间的界限。
互联网以及社交媒体的技术基础设施已经在发生变化，无论是我们访问系统的方式，还是这些系统的运行方式。首先，人们逐渐通过万维网以外的方式访问互联网。智能手机和移动设备（如平板电脑）的迅速普及为通过应用程序（即应用程序）和直接界面访问社交媒体提供了便利，通常无需通过网络浏览器。因此，在未来二十年里，我们将越来越多地不通过台式电脑或笔记本电脑访问互联网，而是通过物联网（如手表、笔、写字板、汽车；参见 Atzori, Iera, & Morabito, 2010）就地访问和整合社交媒体工具，从而进一步模糊在线和离线位置之间的界限。
Second, the computer systems underlying the Internet will continue to change, altering the way information is stored, processed, and retrieved, resulting in data-driven tools. This datadriven infrastructure is visible in the emergent Web 3.0 (the Sematic Web; Berners-Lee, Hendler, & Lassila, 2001), which utilizes complex algorithms, enormous computing power, and machine learning to scan and synthesize swaths of information from across a myriad of databases to alter user experiences. Already Twitter recommends accounts users may follow based on a complex algorithm, including one's expanded social network, topics tweeted, and patterns of use. As social media tools become more adaptive, knowledgeable, and personable, users will increasingly communicate without a clear sense of whether they are interacting with another human or a computer program behind an on-screen persona. Already, research (e.g., Bailenson, Yee, Blascovich, & Guadagno, 2008; Lim & Reeves, 2010; Nowak & Biocca, 2003) indicates different communicative and interaction processes when varying the actual or perceived agency of a communication partner-whether their on-screen interactant' actions are directed by another user (an avatar) or by an automated response program (an agent). The artificial intelligence
其次，作为互联网基础的计算机系统将继续发生变化，改变信息的存储、处理和检索方式，从而产生数据驱动的工具。这种数据驱动的基础设施在新兴的 Web 3.0（语义网；Berners-Lee, Hendler, & Lassila, 2001）中显而易见，它利用复杂的算法、巨大的计算能力和机器学习来扫描和综合来自无数数据库的大量信息，从而改变用户体验。目前，Twitter 已根据复杂的算法，包括用户扩大的社交网络、推特主题和使用模式，推荐用户关注的账户。随着社交媒体工具的适应性、知识性和人性化越来越强，用户在交流时将越来越不清楚自己是在与另一个人互动，还是在与屏幕角色背后的计算机程序互动。已有研究（例如，Bailenson, Yee, Blascovich, & Guadagno, 2008; Lim & Reeves, 2010; Nowak & Biocca, 2003）表明，当交流伙伴的实际或感知机构发生变化时，他们的交流和互动过程也会不同--无论屏幕上的互动者的行动是由其他用户（化身）还是自动响应程序（代理）指挥的。人工智能
algorithm-driven Cleverbot, (cleverbot.com), Google Now
算法驱动的 Cleverbot、（ cleverbot.com）、Google Now
其次，作为互联网基础的计算机系统将继续发生变化，改变信息的存储、处理和检索方式，从而产生数据驱动的工具。这种数据驱动的基础设施在新兴的 Web 3.0（语义网；Berners-Lee, Hendler, & Lassila, 2001）中显而易见，它利用复杂的算法、巨大的计算能力和机器学习来扫描和综合来自无数数据库的大量信息，从而改变用户体验。目前，Twitter 已根据复杂的算法，包括用户扩大的社交网络、推特主题和使用模式，推荐用户关注的账户。随着社交媒体工具的适应性、知识性和人性化越来越强，用户在交流时将越来越不清楚自己是在与另一个人互动，还是在与屏幕角色背后的计算机程序互动。已有研究（例如，Bailenson, Yee, Blascovich, & Guadagno, 2008; Lim & Reeves, 2010; Nowak & Biocca, 2003）表明，当交流伙伴的实际或感知机构发生变化时，他们的交流和互动过程也会不同--无论屏幕上的互动者的行动是由其他用户（化身）还是自动响应程序（代理）指挥的。人工智能
algorithm-driven Cleverbot, (cleverbot.com), Google Now
算法驱动的 Cleverbot、（ cleverbot.com）、Google Now
(http://www.google.com/landing/now/) and Apple's personal assistant program Siri are extant previews of data-driven interactions for future social media.
( http://www.google.com/landing/now/) 和苹果公司的个人助理程序 Siri 是未来社交媒体数据驱动型互动的现存预览。
( http://www.google.com/landing/now/) 和苹果公司的个人助理程序 Siri 是未来社交媒体数据驱动型互动的现存预览。
Changes in Interactions - Constant Massive, Masspersonal Interactions
互动中的变化--持续的大规模人际互动
Social media will increasingly take advantage of the masspersonal, persistent nature of its channels, changing the scale of communicative interactions by allowing mass messages that can be received, interpreted, and replied to interpersonally, and vice versa (cf. Walther, Carr, et al., 2010). Online messages will be increasingly designed for mass audiences, taking advantage of social media's abilities to connect with large, contextually-diverse audiences (Marwick & boyd, 2011). Concurrently, messages will seem interpersonal, appearing to be sent by an individuated sender even as they are increasingly authored by groups (e.g., social media teams) and automated, algorithmic, programs. Masspersonal exchanges in mass media among individuals and amorphous others may therefore increasingly reflect the "illusion of intimacy" associated with parasocial interactions (Alperstein, 1991), further blurring extant conceptualizations of communication and interaction.
社交媒体将越来越多地利用其渠道的大众性和持久性，通过允许人与人之间接收、解释和回复大众信息来改变传播互动的规模，反之亦然（参见 Walther, Carr, et al.）在线信息将越来越多地为大众受众而设计，利用社交媒体与大量不同背景的受众建立联系的能力（Marwick & boyd, 2011）。与此同时，尽管信息越来越多地由群体（如社交媒体团队）和自动化算法程序撰写，但信息看起来仍是人际间的，似乎是由个体发送者发出的。因此，大众媒体中个人与无定形他人之间的大规模交流可能会越来越多地反映出与寄生社会互动相关的 "亲密错觉"（Alperstein，1991），从而进一步模糊了现有的交流与互动概念。
社交媒体将越来越多地利用其渠道的大众性和持久性，通过允许人与人之间接收、解释和回复大众信息来改变传播互动的规模，反之亦然（参见 Walther, Carr, et al.）在线信息将越来越多地为大众受众而设计，利用社交媒体与大量不同背景的受众建立联系的能力（Marwick & boyd, 2011）。与此同时，尽管信息越来越多地由群体（如社交媒体团队）和自动化算法程序撰写，但信息看起来仍是人际间的，似乎是由个体发送者发出的。因此，大众媒体中个人与无定形他人之间的大规模交流可能会越来越多地反映出与寄生社会互动相关的 "亲密错觉"（Alperstein，1991），从而进一步模糊了现有的交流与互动概念。
These developments have potential ethical implications, as these amorphous or falsely personal interactions run the risk of generating emotional responses and dependence in users, and could affect both decision making and personal relationships. Wanelo (wanelo.com) users creating clothing outfits or home decorating could believe they are interacting with a person or a brand personality when in fact it is an algorithmic agent, designed to provide potentially persuasive content and messages based on user characteristics and behavior. This type of manipulation is already evidenced in targeted online advertising delivery services, such as
这些发展具有潜在的道德影响，因为这些无定形或虚假的个人互动有可能使用户产生情绪反应和依赖性，并可能影响决策和人际关系。Wanelo（wanelo.com）的用户在设计服装或家居装饰时，可能会认为他们是在与一个人或一个品牌个性进行互动，而实际上这是一个算法代理，旨在根据用户的特征和行为提供具有潜在说服力的内容和信息。这类操纵行为在有针对性的在线广告投放服务中已有体现，例如
这些发展具有潜在的道德影响，因为这些无定形或虚假的个人互动有可能使用户产生情绪反应和依赖性，并可能影响决策和人际关系。Wanelo（wanelo.com）的用户在设计服装或家居装饰时，可能会认为他们是在与一个人或一个品牌个性进行互动，而实际上这是一个算法代理，旨在根据用户的特征和行为提供具有潜在说服力的内容和信息。这类操纵行为在有针对性的在线广告投放服务中已有体现，例如
Google Ad Sense; but the implications of algorithmic agents generating targeted interpersonal messages are broader and potentially more problematic.
Google Ad Sense；但算法代理生成有针对性的人际信息的影响范围更广，潜在的问题也更多。
Google Ad Sense；但算法代理生成有针对性的人际信息的影响范围更广，潜在的问题也更多。
Communicative convergence will encompass more than the blurring of lines between human and automated or mass and interpersonal communication, further challenging extant notions and theories. Already we see social media blurring the lines between previously clear delineations of interpersonal and organizational communication: Employers' perceptions of job applicants are influenced by personal information beyond the organizational context (Carr & Walther, 2014), often readily accessible via information extracted from the individual's personal social media presence. Likewise, the convergence of the personal and professional in social media will affect how individuals expect to interact with organizations and how they utilize the opportunities (i.e., the disentrainment) afforded by social media for selective-self presentation. Publics will increasingly expect a personal face to represent organizations and corporations on social media, fostering interaction at all times of the day. Whether managed by a human or computer, this anthropomorphous organizational persona will collect and process user data to personalize each user's experience, fostering a perceived interpersonal interaction.
传播融合将不仅仅是人类传播与自动化传播、大众传播与人际传播之间界限的模糊，而是对现有概念和理论的进一步挑战。我们已经看到社交媒体模糊了人际传播与组织传播之间的界限：雇主对求职者的看法会受到组织背景之外的个人信息的影响（Carr & Walther, 2014），而这些信息往往可以通过从个人社交媒体中提取的信息轻易获取。同样，社交媒体中个人与职业的融合也会影响个人与组织的互动方式，以及他们如何利用社交媒体提供的机会（即限制）进行选择性的自我展示。公众将越来越期待在社交媒体上以个人面孔代表组织和公司，从而促进全天候的互动。无论是由人类还是计算机管理，这种拟人化的组织角色都将收集和处理用户数据，以个性化每个用户的体验，促进可感知的人际互动。
传播融合将不仅仅是人类传播与自动化传播、大众传播与人际传播之间界限的模糊，而是对现有概念和理论的进一步挑战。我们已经看到社交媒体模糊了人际传播与组织传播之间的界限：雇主对求职者的看法会受到组织背景之外的个人信息的影响（Carr & Walther, 2014），而这些信息往往可以通过从个人社交媒体中提取的信息轻易获取。同样，社交媒体中个人与职业的融合也会影响个人与组织的互动方式，以及他们如何利用社交媒体提供的机会（即限制）进行选择性的自我展示。公众将越来越期待在社交媒体上以个人面孔代表组织和公司，从而促进全天候的互动。无论是由人类还是计算机管理，这种拟人化的组织角色都将收集和处理用户数据，以个性化每个用户的体验，促进可感知的人际互动。
These changes in interactions will lead to challenges for extant theories, typically myopically focused on predicting and explaining one facet of communication. Notions such as electronic propinquity (Korzenny, 1978), the perception of psychological closeness between individuals, will need to be revisited to determine whether the interpersonal processes they relate still correlate when individuals interact with data-driven computer systems as online agents, rather than another person. Similarly, questions of intercultural communication may change and evolve as systems are able to translate messages (text, audio, and potentially even visual cues) in real-time between languages and cultures. In sum, the ability to constantly access social media
互动中的这些变化将给现有理论带来挑战，因为这些理论通常都是以预测和解释交流的一个方面为重点的。电子亲和力（Korzenny，1978 年）等概念，即人与人之间的心理亲近感，需要重新审视，以确定当个人作为在线代理与数据驱动的计算机系统而非他人互动时，这些概念所涉及的人际交往过程是否仍然相关。同样，当系统能够在不同语言和文化之间实时翻译信息（文本、音频，甚至可能是视觉线索）时，跨文化交流的问题可能会发生变化和发展。总之，不断访问社交媒体的能力
that transcend contexts, cultures, and current thinking of what constitutes "communication" will challenge our present understanding of the discipline and its processes.
超越背景、文化和当前对 "传播 "的理解，将挑战我们目前对这门学科及其过程的理解。
互动中的这些变化将给现有理论带来挑战，因为这些理论通常都是以预测和解释交流的一个方面为重点的。电子亲和力（Korzenny，1978 年）等概念，即人与人之间的心理亲近感，需要重新审视，以确定当个人作为在线代理与数据驱动的计算机系统而非他人互动时，这些概念所涉及的人际交往过程是否仍然相关。同样，当系统能够在不同语言和文化之间实时翻译信息（文本、音频，甚至可能是视觉线索）时，跨文化交流的问题可能会发生变化和发展。总之，不断访问社交媒体的能力
that transcend contexts, cultures, and current thinking of what constitutes "communication" will challenge our present understanding of the discipline and its processes.
超越背景、文化和当前对 "传播 "的理解，将挑战我们目前对这门学科及其过程的理解。
Changes in Organizing - Organizing the Unorganizable
组织工作的变化--组织无法组织的人
Increasingly, the affordances of social media will enable persistent and ad hoc groups and organizations to form and collaborate. Rather than necessitating collocation to facilitate organizing behaviors and interactions, social media afford a virtual place for individuals with common interests to associate in both planned and informal interactions (Carr & Zube, in press; Rheingold, 2003; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006). Social media will continue to make it easier for groups to form around common interests and goals. As more organizations (especially those geographically distributed) implement proprietary intranet-based social media platforms, work flows will also streamline while costs associated with organizing and coordinating diminish (Shirky, 2008; Tapscott & Williams, 2008). Already we see educational environments, both formal (massive open online courses like the University of West Virginia's [http://wvucommmooc.org/]) and informal (e.g., YouTube videos), transformed by social media, allowing students to co-learn masspersonally (Carr, Zube, Dickens, Hayter, & Barterian, 2013).
社交媒体的功能越来越多地使持久性和临时性团体和组织得以形成和合作。社交媒体为具有共同兴趣爱好的个人提供了一个虚拟场所，让他们在有计划的和非正式的互动中建立联系（Carr & Zube, in press; Rheingold, 2003; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006）。社交媒体将继续使围绕共同利益和目标形成的群体变得更加容易。随着越来越多的组织（尤其是那些地理分布广泛的组织）实施基于内部网的专有社交媒体平台，工作流程也将得到简化，同时与组织和协调相关的成本也将降低（Shirky, 2008; Tapscott & Williams, 2008）。我们已经看到正式（大规模开放式在线课程，如西弗吉尼亚大学的[ http://wvucommmooc.org/]）和非正式（如 YouTube 视频）的教育环境都被社交媒体所改变，使学生能够进行大规模的共同学习（Carr, Zube, Dickens, Hayter, & Barterian, 2013）。
社交媒体的功能越来越多地使持久性和临时性团体和组织得以形成和合作。社交媒体为具有共同兴趣爱好的个人提供了一个虚拟场所，让他们在有计划的和非正式的互动中建立联系（Carr & Zube, in press; Rheingold, 2003; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006）。社交媒体将继续使围绕共同利益和目标形成的群体变得更加容易。随着越来越多的组织（尤其是那些地理分布广泛的组织）实施基于内部网的专有社交媒体平台，工作流程也将得到简化，同时与组织和协调相关的成本也将降低（Shirky, 2008; Tapscott & Williams, 2008）。我们已经看到正式（大规模开放式在线课程，如西弗吉尼亚大学的[ http://wvucommmooc.org/]）和非正式（如 YouTube 视频）的教育环境都被社交媒体所改变，使学生能够进行大规模的共同学习（Carr, Zube, Dickens, Hayter, & Barterian, 2013）。
Social media will more readily allow organizations to conduct environmental scanning, monitoring and evaluating their communicative efforts, including those of individual employees and stakeholders. Social media provide a place for individuals to share and collaborate around interests, such how they view an organization. Particularly as social media tracking tools (e.g., Clemson's Social Media Listening Center [smlc.clemson.edu]) improve, organizations can utilize social media to passively scan public sentiment, reacting to events before they hit a critical mass and allowing for better design and targeting of messages. The ability to observe and analyze large amounts of real-time data will also facilitate organizational crisis monitoring
社交媒体将使组织更容易进行环境扫描、监测和评估其宣传工作，包括员工个人和利益相关者的宣传工作。社交媒体为个人提供了一个围绕兴趣（如他们如何看待组织）进行分享和协作的场所。特别是随着社交媒体跟踪工具（如克莱姆森大学的社交媒体聆听中心[ smlc.clemson.edu] ）的改进，组织可以利用社交媒体被动地扫描公众情绪，在事件达到临界点之前做出反应，从而更好地设计和定位信息。观察和分析大量实时数据的能力也将有助于组织危机监测
and response, facilitating healthier and more productive dialogue between organizations and their publics by enabling rapid and tailored message design (cf. Kent, 2010; Kent, 2013).
通过快速、有针对性的信息设计，促进组织与公众之间更健康、更富有成效的对话（参见 Kent，2010；Kent，2013）。
社交媒体将使组织更容易进行环境扫描、监测和评估其宣传工作，包括员工个人和利益相关者的宣传工作。社交媒体为个人提供了一个围绕兴趣（如他们如何看待组织）进行分享和协作的场所。特别是随着社交媒体跟踪工具（如克莱姆森大学的社交媒体聆听中心[ smlc.clemson.edu] ）的改进，组织可以利用社交媒体被动地扫描公众情绪，在事件达到临界点之前做出反应，从而更好地设计和定位信息。观察和分析大量实时数据的能力也将有助于组织危机监测
and response, facilitating healthier and more productive dialogue between organizations and their publics by enabling rapid and tailored message design (cf. Kent, 2010; Kent, 2013).
通过快速、有针对性的信息设计，促进组织与公众之间更健康、更富有成效的对话（参见 Kent，2010；Kent，2013）。
Divining Directions for Theories of Social Media
为社交媒体理论指明方向
Given these developments, how should communication scholarship addressing social media proceed? As social media and their uses have evolved rapidly even over the past ten years, trying to predict where they will be and how they will be used in another twenty may be a mercurial, elusive challenge. This final section attempts to meet this challenge by divining and prioritizing directions for future scholarship. Specifically, considering the aforementioned social and technical developments expected of social media, we call for the reconceptualization of communication, an influx of new research methods and tools, reconsidering relationships between communication and media studies, and the exploring effects of social media access for future social media scholarship.
鉴于这些发展，传播学术界应如何处理社交媒体？即使在过去的十年中，社交媒体及其应用也在迅速发展，因此，试图预测二十年后社交媒体的发展方向和应用方式可能是一个难以捉摸的挑战。最后一节试图通过对未来学术研究方向的预测和优先排序来应对这一挑战。具体而言，考虑到上述社交媒体的社会和技术发展预期，我们呼吁对传播进行重新概念化，引入新的研究方法和工具，重新考虑传播和媒体研究之间的关系，并探索社交媒体访问对未来社交媒体学术研究的影响。
鉴于这些发展，传播学术界应如何处理社交媒体？即使在过去的十年中，社交媒体及其应用也在迅速发展，因此，试图预测二十年后社交媒体的发展方向和应用方式可能是一个难以捉摸的挑战。最后一节试图通过对未来学术研究方向的预测和优先排序来应对这一挑战。具体而言，考虑到上述社交媒体的社会和技术发展预期，我们呼吁对传播进行重新概念化，引入新的研究方法和工具，重新考虑传播和媒体研究之间的关系，并探索社交媒体访问对未来社交媒体学术研究的影响。
New Notions of Communication
传播的新概念
Firstly, social media scholars will need a clear understanding of communication, which may not reflect current thinking. Historically, communication is conceptualized to occur, "whenever humans interact in some way" (Dean, 2002, p. 2) and represents the intentional exchange of meaning (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005). However, as reflected in our definition, social media alter the messages transmitted and how individuals perceive interactive exchanges. Thus, social media may spur a paradigm shift (Kuhn, 1996), calling for the development and application of novel ways of thinking about and discussing communication, starting with the reconsideration of its very nature.
首先，社交媒体学者需要对传播有一个清晰的认识，这可能并不反映当前的思想。从历史上看，"只要人类以某种方式进行互动"（Dean, 2002, 第 2 页），传播就会发生，并代表着有意的意义交流（Littlejohn & Foss, 2005）。然而，正如我们的定义所反映的那样，社交媒体改变了信息的传播方式和个人对互动交流的感知方式。因此，社交媒体可能会刺激范式的转变（Kuhn, 1996），要求从重新考虑传播的本质入手，开发和应用思考和讨论传播的新方法。
首先，社交媒体学者需要对传播有一个清晰的认识，这可能并不反映当前的思想。从历史上看，"只要人类以某种方式进行互动"（Dean, 2002, 第 2 页），传播就会发生，并代表着有意的意义交流（Littlejohn & Foss, 2005）。然而，正如我们的定义所反映的那样，社交媒体改变了信息的传播方式和个人对互动交流的感知方式。因此，社交媒体可能会刺激范式的转变（Kuhn, 1996），要求从重新考虑传播的本质入手，开发和应用思考和讨论传播的新方法。
Future work in communication studies should consider the nature and role of computergenerated messages and interactions, common in data-driven Internet architecture yet not
未来的传播研究工作应考虑计算机生成的信息和互动的性质和作用，这些信息和互动在数据驱动的互联网架构中很常见，但却没有被考虑在内。
accounted for in Dean's (2002) definition as they do not reflect human-to-human communication. Already research has demonstrated system-generated cues given off-neither intentionally transmitted by a sender or requested by a receiver-significantly influence perceptions (Carr & Stefaniak, 2012; Tong, Van Der Heide, Langwell, & Walther, 2008). In other words, system- (rather than human-)generated cues serve a communicative role, which should be considered in new paradigms of understanding what constitutes communication.
Dean（2002）的定义中没有考虑到这一点，因为它们并不反映人与人之间的交流。已有研究表明，由系统生成的提示--无论是发送者有意传送的还是接收者要求的--都会对感知产生重大影响（Carr & Stefaniak, 2012; Tong, Van Der Heide, Langwell, & Walther, 2008）。换句话说，由系统（而非人类）生成的线索具有传播作用，在理解什么是传播的新范式中应考虑到这一点。
未来的传播研究工作应考虑计算机生成的信息和互动的性质和作用，这些信息和互动在数据驱动的互联网架构中很常见，但却没有被考虑在内。
accounted for in Dean's (2002) definition as they do not reflect human-to-human communication. Already research has demonstrated system-generated cues given off-neither intentionally transmitted by a sender or requested by a receiver-significantly influence perceptions (Carr & Stefaniak, 2012; Tong, Van Der Heide, Langwell, & Walther, 2008). In other words, system- (rather than human-)generated cues serve a communicative role, which should be considered in new paradigms of understanding what constitutes communication.
Dean（2002）的定义中没有考虑到这一点，因为它们并不反映人与人之间的交流。已有研究表明，由系统生成的提示--无论是发送者有意传送的还是接收者要求的--都会对感知产生重大影响（Carr & Stefaniak, 2012; Tong, Van Der Heide, Langwell, & Walther, 2008）。换句话说，由系统（而非人类）生成的线索具有传播作用，在理解什么是传播的新范式中应考虑到这一点。
To this end, though communication should continue to seek to develop theories of its own (Berger, 1991), it should not hesitate to look to other disciplines, and particularly computer and information science, for theories to extend and inspire anew. As one example, the computers-as-social-actors paradigm (CASA; Nass, Steuer, & Tauber, 1994) has already provided a useful tool to understanding human-computer interaction, and moreover how individuals communicate with systems. We know users incorporate feedback about their selfpresentation into their identity similarly whether that feedback is provided by another user or automatically generated by a linguistic-analysis system (Walther et al., 2011). Moreover, recent results indicate individuals communicate differently when they are primed to think they are interacting with a robot rather than a human partner (Spence, Westerman, Edwards, & Edwards, 2014), suggesting the perceived interactivity of a partner matters. As systems evolve and adapt more naturalistic processing and interaction with users, research should seek to understand how individuals assign agency to interaction partners (cf. Krämer, von der Pütten, & Eimler, 2012), media themselves (Li & Li, 2014), and their effects on communication patterns and outcomes.
为此，尽管传播学应继续寻求发展自己的理论（Berger, 1991），但也应毫不犹豫地向其他学科，特别是计算机和信息科学，寻求理论的延伸和新的启发。例如，计算机即社会角色范式（CASA; Nass, Steuer, & Tauber, 1994）已经为理解人机交互，以及个人如何与系统交流提供了有用的工具。我们知道，无论反馈是由其他用户提供的，还是由语言分析系统自动生成的，用户都会将有关自我展示的反馈纳入其身份认同中（Walther 等人，2011 年）。此外，最近的研究结果表明，当人们认为自己是在与机器人而非人类伙伴互动时，他们的交流方式也会有所不同（Spence, Westerman, Edwards, & Edwards, 2014），这表明伙伴的互动性很重要。随着系统的发展和适应更自然的处理方式以及与用户的互动，研究应寻求了解个人如何将代理权赋予互动伙伴（参见 Krämer, von der Pütten, & Eimler, 2012）、媒体本身（Li & Li, 2014），以及它们对交流模式和结果的影响。
为此，尽管传播学应继续寻求发展自己的理论（Berger, 1991），但也应毫不犹豫地向其他学科，特别是计算机和信息科学，寻求理论的延伸和新的启发。例如，计算机即社会角色范式（CASA; Nass, Steuer, & Tauber, 1994）已经为理解人机交互，以及个人如何与系统交流提供了有用的工具。我们知道，无论反馈是由其他用户提供的，还是由语言分析系统自动生成的，用户都会将有关自我展示的反馈纳入其身份认同中（Walther 等人，2011 年）。此外，最近的研究结果表明，当人们认为自己是在与机器人而非人类伙伴互动时，他们的交流方式也会有所不同（Spence, Westerman, Edwards, & Edwards, 2014），这表明伙伴的互动性很重要。随着系统的发展和适应更自然的处理方式以及与用户的互动，研究应寻求了解个人如何将代理权赋予互动伙伴（参见 Krämer, von der Pütten, & Eimler, 2012）、媒体本身（Li & Li, 2014），以及它们对交流模式和结果的影响。
For example, Walther et al.'s (2011), participants were explicitly told feedback was provided by either a human research assistant or an automated algorithm. What would happen were subjects left to guess whether feedback was human-generated or computer-generated, and
例如，Walther 等人（2011 年）的研究明确告诉受试者，反馈是由人类研究助理或自动算法提供的。如果让受试者猜测反馈是由人类生成还是计算机生成，结果会怎样？
what cues would they use to determine that agency? Future theories will need to build on and extend the CASA paradigm to account for more advanced and nuanced human-computer interactions, specifically how individuals detect and alter exchanges with automated (rather than human) interaction partners. Individuals seeking a logical and unbiased opinion free of stigma or human bias may prefer confiding in known automated agents (e.g., a Siri-like psychologist) rather than close friends or anonymous others on social media to work through intense emotional issues, free from human judgment. Their communication of those issues may be predicated on and guided by their knowledge (or at least perception) of the agent with whom they interact. Needless to say, there are also a multitude of ethical implications for a virtual therapist to be probed as well.
他们会使用什么线索来确定这种代理？未来的理论需要以 CASA 范式为基础并加以扩展，以解释更先进、更细微的人机交互，特别是个人如何发现并改变与自动化（而非人类）交互伙伴的交流。寻求无成见或人类偏见的逻辑和公正意见的个人可能更愿意向已知的自动代理（如类似 Siri 的心理学家）倾诉，而不是社交媒体上的密友或匿名者，以便在没有人类评判的情况下解决激烈的情感问题。他们对这些问题的交流可能是以他们对与之互动的代理的了解（或至少是感知）为前提和指导的。毋庸置疑，虚拟治疗师也有许多伦理方面的问题需要探讨。
例如，Walther 等人（2011 年）的研究明确告诉受试者，反馈是由人类研究助理或自动算法提供的。如果让受试者猜测反馈是由人类生成还是计算机生成，结果会怎样？
what cues would they use to determine that agency? Future theories will need to build on and extend the CASA paradigm to account for more advanced and nuanced human-computer interactions, specifically how individuals detect and alter exchanges with automated (rather than human) interaction partners. Individuals seeking a logical and unbiased opinion free of stigma or human bias may prefer confiding in known automated agents (e.g., a Siri-like psychologist) rather than close friends or anonymous others on social media to work through intense emotional issues, free from human judgment. Their communication of those issues may be predicated on and guided by their knowledge (or at least perception) of the agent with whom they interact. Needless to say, there are also a multitude of ethical implications for a virtual therapist to be probed as well.
他们会使用什么线索来确定这种代理？未来的理论需要以 CASA 范式为基础并加以扩展，以解释更先进、更细微的人机交互，特别是个人如何发现并改变与自动化（而非人类）交互伙伴的交流。寻求无成见或人类偏见的逻辑和公正意见的个人可能更愿意向已知的自动代理（如类似 Siri 的心理学家）倾诉，而不是社交媒体上的密友或匿名者，以便在没有人类评判的情况下解决激烈的情感问题。他们对这些问题的交流可能是以他们对与之互动的代理的了解（或至少是感知）为前提和指导的。毋庸置疑，虚拟治疗师也有许多伦理方面的问题需要探讨。
In the next twenty years, we will need to wrestle with the basic underpinnings of the field, namely, "What is communication?" We posit as individuals regularly interact with ubiquitous computers and systems, human-computer interaction will be perceived as communicative as interpersonal interaction, thus calling for a paradigmatic shift in our field. This shift will revitalize Berger's (1991) call for communication-specific theories, this time with a renewed focus on what constitutes communication, collapsing previously distinct subdisciplines as interpersonal, mass, organizational, and intercultural communication converge.
未来二十年，我们将需要解决这一领域的基本问题，即 "什么是交流？我们认为，随着个人经常与无所不在的计算机和系统进行交互，人机交互将被视为与人际交往一样具有传播性，从而要求我们的领域进行范式转变。这种转变将重振伯杰（1991 年）对传播学特定理论的呼吁，这一次，我们将重新关注传播学的构成要素，将人际传播学、大众传播学、组织传播学和跨文化传播学等以前截然不同的分支学科融合在一起。
未来二十年，我们将需要解决这一领域的基本问题，即 "什么是交流？我们认为，随着个人经常与无所不在的计算机和系统进行交互，人机交互将被视为与人际交往一样具有传播性，从而要求我们的领域进行范式转变。这种转变将重振伯杰（1991 年）对传播学特定理论的呼吁，这一次，我们将重新关注传播学的构成要素，将人际传播学、大众传播学、组织传播学和跨文化传播学等以前截然不同的分支学科融合在一起。
New Tools for Exploration
新的探索工具
Once we have reconsidered the nature of "communication" in social media, our field will need to methodologically adapt to explore the questions and theories driven by that concept. Advancements in the infrastructure supporting social media over the next two decades will increasingly necessitate researchers expand their data collection and analysis toolsets. Research moving beyond its present emphasis on individual or dyadic perceptions to focus on the macro-
一旦我们重新考虑了社交媒体中 "传播 "的本质，我们的研究领域就需要在方法论上进行调整，以探索由这一概念驱动的问题和理论。在未来二十年里，支持社交媒体的基础设施将不断进步，这就要求研究人员扩大数据收集和分析工具集。研究将超越目前对个体或二元认知的重视，转而关注宏观和微观层面。
level masspersonal communication occurring via social media (users talking to other individuals, across social groups, and simply broadcasting a message for a multitude of users to see, read, and/or hear) will require new tools for collecting and interpreting data. Interactions among billions of users may reflect quintillions of networked, interdependent interactions and data points, far exceeding an individual researcher's ability to collect or interpret. We will need new tools to empirically validate new theories of the huge data corpus generated by social media.
通过社交媒体进行的大规模个人交流（用户与其他个人、跨社交群体交谈，以及简单地向众多用户发布信息，供其查看、阅读和/或收听）将需要新的数据收集和解释工具。数十亿用户之间的互动可能会反映出五万亿个相互依存的网络互动和数据点，远远超出单个研究人员的收集或解释能力。我们将需要新的工具，对社交媒体产生的庞大数据群进行经验验证，从而提出新的理论。
一旦我们重新考虑了社交媒体中 "传播 "的本质，我们的研究领域就需要在方法论上进行调整，以探索由这一概念驱动的问题和理论。在未来二十年里，支持社交媒体的基础设施将不断进步，这就要求研究人员扩大数据收集和分析工具集。研究将超越目前对个体或二元认知的重视，转而关注宏观和微观层面。
level masspersonal communication occurring via social media (users talking to other individuals, across social groups, and simply broadcasting a message for a multitude of users to see, read, and/or hear) will require new tools for collecting and interpreting data. Interactions among billions of users may reflect quintillions of networked, interdependent interactions and data points, far exceeding an individual researcher's ability to collect or interpret. We will need new tools to empirically validate new theories of the huge data corpus generated by social media.
通过社交媒体进行的大规模个人交流（用户与其他个人、跨社交群体交谈，以及简单地向众多用户发布信息，供其查看、阅读和/或收听）将需要新的数据收集和解释工具。数十亿用户之间的互动可能会反映出五万亿个相互依存的网络互动和数据点，远远超出单个研究人员的收集或解释能力。我们将需要新的工具，对社交媒体产生的庞大数据群进行经验验证，从而提出新的理论。
Communication scholars will increasingly need to learn new languages and tools to access, collect, and make sense of these huge data sets, which often represent challenges far beyond those of data collections of even
传播学者将越来越多地需要学习新的语言和工具来访问、收集和理解这些庞大的数据集，而这些数据集所带来的挑战甚至远远超过了
传播学者将越来越多地需要学习新的语言和工具来访问、收集和理解这些庞大的数据集，而这些数据集所带来的挑战甚至远远超过了
Though a very pragmatic divination, this call for enhanced tools for communication science has theoretical implications. Foremost is the ability to empirically validate new theories of social media. Knoke, Bohrnstedt, and Mee (2002) note that the development and testing of good theories are reliant on analyzing data to either confirm or reject the theories' propositions. As theories emerge to account for the large-scale, masspersonal, and data-driven communication
尽管这只是一个非常实用的预言，但这一关于加强传播科学工具的呼吁却具有理论意义。最重要的是能够通过经验验证社交媒体的新理论。Knoke、Bohrnstedt 和 Mee（2002 年）指出，好理论的发展和检验有赖于对数据的分析，以确认或否定理论的命题。随着解释大规模、大众化和数据驱动的传播的理论不断涌现，社交媒体的理论也在不断发展。
of social media, as a field we will need to utilize these enhanced tools to facilitate the quantitative validation of these theories. Additionally, expanding our methodological toolsets through multidisciplinary collaborations will facilitate formulating and answering complex communicative questions. Already we see this tactic exemplified in studies predicting stock prices from the valence of Twitter posts (Bollen, Mao, & Zeng, 2011), understanding complex, global interactions in virtual worlds (Shen, Monge, & Williams, 2014), and tracking political sentiment during elections in real-time (Wang, Can, Kazemzadeh, Bar, & Narayanan, 2012). These studies reflect communication scholars working with colleagues outside the discipline, bringing together communication's interest in the exchange of messages and meaning and other fields' knowledge of how to access systems and information to provide the necessary data. In all, new methodological tools will help us ask new questions of emergent social media and empower us to answer those questions.
作为一个领域，我们需要利用这些增强的工具来促进这些理论的定量验证。此外，通过多学科合作扩展我们的方法工具集将有助于提出和回答复杂的传播问题。我们已经在以下研究中看到了这种策略的实例：通过推特帖子的价值预测股票价格（Bollen、Mao 和 Zeng，2011 年），理解虚拟世界中复杂的全球互动（Shen、Monge 和 Williams，2014 年），以及实时跟踪选举期间的政治情绪（Wang、Can、Kazemzadeh、Bar 和 Narayanan，2012 年）。这些研究反映了传播学者与学科外同行的合作，将传播学对信息和意义交流的兴趣与其他领域关于如何获取系统和信息以提供必要数据的知识结合起来。总之，新的方法论工具将帮助我们对新兴社交媒体提出新的问题，并使我们有能力回答这些问题。
尽管这只是一个非常实用的预言，但这一关于加强传播科学工具的呼吁却具有理论意义。最重要的是能够通过经验验证社交媒体的新理论。Knoke、Bohrnstedt 和 Mee（2002 年）指出，好理论的发展和检验有赖于对数据的分析，以确认或否定理论的命题。随着解释大规模、大众化和数据驱动的传播的理论不断涌现，社交媒体的理论也在不断发展。
of social media, as a field we will need to utilize these enhanced tools to facilitate the quantitative validation of these theories. Additionally, expanding our methodological toolsets through multidisciplinary collaborations will facilitate formulating and answering complex communicative questions. Already we see this tactic exemplified in studies predicting stock prices from the valence of Twitter posts (Bollen, Mao, & Zeng, 2011), understanding complex, global interactions in virtual worlds (Shen, Monge, & Williams, 2014), and tracking political sentiment during elections in real-time (Wang, Can, Kazemzadeh, Bar, & Narayanan, 2012). These studies reflect communication scholars working with colleagues outside the discipline, bringing together communication's interest in the exchange of messages and meaning and other fields' knowledge of how to access systems and information to provide the necessary data. In all, new methodological tools will help us ask new questions of emergent social media and empower us to answer those questions.
作为一个领域，我们需要利用这些增强的工具来促进这些理论的定量验证。此外，通过多学科合作扩展我们的方法工具集将有助于提出和回答复杂的传播问题。我们已经在以下研究中看到了这种策略的实例：通过推特帖子的价值预测股票价格（Bollen、Mao 和 Zeng，2011 年），理解虚拟世界中复杂的全球互动（Shen、Monge 和 Williams，2014 年），以及实时跟踪选举期间的政治情绪（Wang、Can、Kazemzadeh、Bar 和 Narayanan，2012 年）。这些研究反映了传播学者与学科外同行的合作，将传播学对信息和意义交流的兴趣与其他领域关于如何获取系统和信息以提供必要数据的知识结合起来。总之，新的方法论工具将帮助我们对新兴社交媒体提出新的问题，并使我们有能力回答这些问题。
New Relationships between Communication and Media Studies
传播学与媒体研究之间的新关系
A third priority for the study of social media is the resurgence of an old priority of CMC studies: Distinguishing the confluence and divergence of studies exploring communicative phenomena and media effects. Early studies of computer-mediation were media studies, seeking to understand how different channels facilitated messages (e.g., Daft & Lengel, 1984; Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976). Later studies focused on communication, seeking to uncover how the affordances of various channels enabled (or limited) messages and socioemotional effects (e.g., Reicher, Spears, & Postmes, 1995; Walther, 1996). Though the field continues to try to parse out communication and media studies (as reflected in the division of mass media and technology/computer divisions in most of the field's professional associations), these two related interests will become further conflated with the progression of social media. The communication
社交媒体研究的第三个重点是恢复传播媒介研究的老重点：区分探索传播现象和媒体效果的研究的汇合点和分歧点。早期的计算机媒体研究属于媒体研究，旨在了解不同渠道是如何促进信息传播的（例如，Daft & Lengel, 1984; Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976）。后来的研究侧重于交流，试图揭示各种渠道的承受能力如何促成（或限制）信息和社会情感效应（例如，Reicher、Spears 和 Postmes，1995；Walther，1996）。尽管该领域仍在努力将传播学和媒体研究区分开来（正如该领域大多数专业协会中的大众媒体和技术/计算机部门的划分所反映的那样），但随着社交媒体的发展，这两种相关的兴趣将进一步混为一谈。传播学
channel needs to be reconsidered as being both a modifier (having an impact on construction) and a mediator (a component in a causal chain of media effects) of the message (Ledbetter, 2014). Scholars will need to understand what effects result from the communication within and what effects result from the channels of social media.
需要重新考虑的是，渠道既是信息的调节器（对构建产生影响），也是中介（媒体效应因果链中的一个组成部分）（Ledbetter，2014）。学者们需要了解社交媒体内部传播产生了哪些影响，社交媒体渠道又产生了哪些影响。
社交媒体研究的第三个重点是恢复传播媒介研究的老重点：区分探索传播现象和媒体效果的研究的汇合点和分歧点。早期的计算机媒体研究属于媒体研究，旨在了解不同渠道是如何促进信息传播的（例如，Daft & Lengel, 1984; Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976）。后来的研究侧重于交流，试图揭示各种渠道的承受能力如何促成（或限制）信息和社会情感效应（例如，Reicher、Spears 和 Postmes，1995；Walther，1996）。尽管该领域仍在努力将传播学和媒体研究区分开来（正如该领域大多数专业协会中的大众媒体和技术/计算机部门的划分所反映的那样），但随着社交媒体的发展，这两种相关的兴趣将进一步混为一谈。传播学
channel needs to be reconsidered as being both a modifier (having an impact on construction) and a mediator (a component in a causal chain of media effects) of the message (Ledbetter, 2014). Scholars will need to understand what effects result from the communication within and what effects result from the channels of social media.
需要重新考虑的是，渠道既是信息的调节器（对构建产生影响），也是中介（媒体效应因果链中的一个组成部分）（Ledbetter，2014）。学者们需要了解社交媒体内部传播产生了哪些影响，社交媒体渠道又产生了哪些影响。
For example, the interactivity of social media differentiate them from Web 1.0 tools like static web pages by allowing users to derive value from interaction and other users' content. Hayes and Carr (in press) found merely affording users the opportunity to generate content (e.g., respond to posts, provide feedback or reviews) can alter characteristics of the original content, regardless of whether users actually generate content. Their study demonstrated a media effect, varying the nature of the medium used for communication; however, results also suggest the medium may be a cue in itself, as users generate perceptions of the source based on the characteristics of the channel selected for interaction. A user (be it an individual or organization) may be perceived differently whether they choose to interact online via a static or social medium.
例如，社交媒体的互动性使其有别于静态网页等 Web 1.0 工具，允许用户从互动和其他用户的内容中获取价值。Hayes 和 Carr（出版中）发现，仅仅为用户提供生成内容的机会（如回复帖子、提供反馈或评论）就能改变原始内容的特征，而与用户是否实际生成内容无关。他们的研究证明了媒介效应，即用于交流的媒介的性质不同；然而，研究结果也表明，媒介本身可能就是一种提示，因为用户会根据所选互动渠道的特点产生对来源的看法。用户（无论是个人还是组织）选择通过静态媒介还是社交媒介进行在线互动，可能会产生不同的感知。
例如，社交媒体的互动性使其有别于静态网页等 Web 1.0 工具，允许用户从互动和其他用户的内容中获取价值。Hayes 和 Carr（出版中）发现，仅仅为用户提供生成内容的机会（如回复帖子、提供反馈或评论）就能改变原始内容的特征，而与用户是否实际生成内容无关。他们的研究证明了媒介效应，即用于交流的媒介的性质不同；然而，研究结果也表明，媒介本身可能就是一种提示，因为用户会根据所选互动渠道的特点产生对来源的看法。用户（无论是个人还是组织）选择通过静态媒介还是社交媒介进行在线互动，可能会产生不同的感知。
Thus, future theories applied to social media need to be developed and applied carefully, considering the potential for social media to blur the lines between mass media and communication studies. No longer may we silo mass media (McQuail, 2010) and CMC (Walther, 2011) theories. As the medium is inherently part of the message and the message part of the medium, communication scholars will need to carefully understand where these intersections occur and where care must be taken to separate disparate effects or processes. A balance will need to be struck between the communicative elements of social media (i.e., masspersonal communication and perceived interactivity) and the medium characteristics and affordances (i.e., persistence, available channels, medium-specific affordances) when developing theories to provide predictive power focused on the communication and effects thereof within
因此，考虑到社交媒体有可能模糊大众传媒与传播研究之间的界限，未来应用于社交媒体的理论需要谨慎发展和应用。我们不能再将大众传媒（McQuail，2010 年）和 CMC（Walther，2011 年）理论割裂开来。由于媒介本质上是信息的一部分，而信息又是媒介的一部分，因此传播学者需要仔细了解这些交叉点出现在哪里，以及在哪些地方必须注意区分不同的效果或过程。在发展理论时，需要在社交媒体的传播要素（即大众传播和感知互动性）与媒介特征和可承受性（即持续性、可用渠道、特定媒介的可承受性）之间取得平衡，以提供预测力，重点关注社交媒体内部的传播及其效果。
social media, without chaining theories to specific media tools. A theory only applicable to Facebook will remain utile only as long as Facebook remains stable-changes to the system or users' migration to other social media will render the theory useless. We therefore suggest those developing theories and models of social media allow the communicative, rather than medium, element to guide the theory or model. Focusing theory on communication will help ensure its contribution remains robust over time and media, as social media technologies are sure to change more rapidly than the fundamental nature of human communication.
社交媒体，而不是将理论与特定的媒体工具联系在一起。只要 Facebook 保持稳定，仅适用于 Facebook 的理论就会一直有用--系统的变化或用户向其他社交媒体的迁移会使理论失去作用。因此，我们建议那些正在开发社交媒体理论和模型的人，让传播而非媒介元素来指导理论或模型。将理论重点放在传播上将有助于确保其贡献随着时间和媒体的变化而保持稳健，因为社交媒体技术的变化肯定比人类传播的基本性质变化得更快。
因此，考虑到社交媒体有可能模糊大众传媒与传播研究之间的界限，未来应用于社交媒体的理论需要谨慎发展和应用。我们不能再将大众传媒（McQuail，2010 年）和 CMC（Walther，2011 年）理论割裂开来。由于媒介本质上是信息的一部分，而信息又是媒介的一部分，因此传播学者需要仔细了解这些交叉点出现在哪里，以及在哪些地方必须注意区分不同的效果或过程。在发展理论时，需要在社交媒体的传播要素（即大众传播和感知互动性）与媒介特征和可承受性（即持续性、可用渠道、特定媒介的可承受性）之间取得平衡，以提供预测力，重点关注社交媒体内部的传播及其效果。
social media, without chaining theories to specific media tools. A theory only applicable to Facebook will remain utile only as long as Facebook remains stable-changes to the system or users' migration to other social media will render the theory useless. We therefore suggest those developing theories and models of social media allow the communicative, rather than medium, element to guide the theory or model. Focusing theory on communication will help ensure its contribution remains robust over time and media, as social media technologies are sure to change more rapidly than the fundamental nature of human communication.
社交媒体，而不是将理论与特定的媒体工具联系在一起。只要 Facebook 保持稳定，仅适用于 Facebook 的理论就会一直有用--系统的变化或用户向其他社交媒体的迁移会使理论失去作用。因此，我们建议那些正在开发社交媒体理论和模型的人，让传播而非媒介元素来指导理论或模型。将理论重点放在传播上将有助于确保其贡献随着时间和媒体的变化而保持稳健，因为社交媒体技术的变化肯定比人类传播的基本性质变化得更快。
New Means of Access
新的访问方式
While communication constructs should guide theory development, communication will be situated guided by the rules and affordances of social media tools, so that the medium and the message become interdependent. Thus, a final priority of future social media theory and scholarship should be to understand how the methods of accessing a social medium affect its use, users, and communication. This priority will manifest itself in several ways, including the relationships between online and offline experiences, privacy expectations, and user bases.
虽然传播建构应指导理论发展，但传播将受社交媒体工具的规则和承受能力的指导，因此媒介和信息变得相互依存。因此，未来社交媒体理论和学术研究的最后一个重点应该是了解访问社交媒体的方法如何影响其使用、用户和传播。这一重点将体现在多个方面，包括在线和离线体验之间的关系、隐私期望和用户基础。
虽然传播建构应指导理论发展，但传播将受社交媒体工具的规则和承受能力的指导，因此媒介和信息变得相互依存。因此，未来社交媒体理论和学术研究的最后一个重点应该是了解访问社交媒体的方法如何影响其使用、用户和传播。这一重点将体现在多个方面，包括在线和离线体验之间的关系、隐私期望和用户基础。
Modes of Access 访问模式
Unlike initial CMC theories which assumed computers were terminals located on either a work or home office desk, theories of social media will need to account for the ubiquity of social media hardware and access, altering the relationship between online and offline. Steinkuehler
最初的 CMC 理论假定计算机是放在工作或家庭办公桌上的终端，与此不同的是，社交媒体理论需要考虑到社交媒体硬件和访问的无处不在，从而改变在线和离线之间的关系。Steinkuehler
最初的 CMC 理论假定计算机是放在工作或家庭办公桌上的终端，与此不同的是，社交媒体理论需要考虑到社交媒体硬件和访问的无处不在，从而改变在线和离线之间的关系。Steinkuehler
and Williams (2006) have already called for the reconceptualization of "place" given individuals' increasing interactions in virtual environments. As mobile devices (e.g.,
和 Williams（2006 年）已经呼吁，鉴于个人在虚拟环境中的互动日益增多，应重新认识 "场所"。随着移动设备（如
和 Williams（2006 年）已经呼吁，鉴于个人在虚拟环境中的互动日益增多，应重新认识 "场所"。随着移动设备（如
smartphones, smartwatches, Google Glass) enable individuals to ubiquitously connect to social media, the integration of these tools into the fabric of life will alter where and how we interact with others and the corporeal world. Second screening, the ability to interact with a media
智能手机、智能手表、谷歌眼镜）使个人能够无处不在地连接到社交媒体，这些工具与生活结构的融合将改变我们与他人和物质世界互动的地点和方式。第二次筛选，与媒体互动的能力
program or other consumers on one platform (e.g,. tablet computer ) while consuming the media content on another (e.g,. television) is already altering the way we watch television (Lochrie & Coulton, 2011). Likewise, smartphone-enabled virtual tours, in addition to providing geolocated information about points of interest (Yovcheva, Buhalis, & Gatzidis, 2012), may allow users to interact with previous visitors to further augment tourists' experiences or perceptions. Already scholars (Carr, Hayes, Smock, & Zube, 2013) have suggested mobile social media alter the nature of political engagement and communication, as young voters attending political rallies and events can utilize social media tools to help coordinate attendees, supplement on-site interactions, and obtain more information in real-time about key figures and articulated political platforms. Consequently, whereas previous CMC theories divorced place from messages, emergent social media theories may consider the effect of one's physical location on her or his social media experience, reemphasizing the environment element of previous models of communication, again physically relevant via social media communication.
在一个平台（如平板电脑）上观看节目或其他消费者，同时在另一个平台（如电视）上消费媒体内容，这已经改变了我们观看电视的方式（Lochrie & Coulton, 2011）。同样，智能手机支持的虚拟旅游除了提供有关兴趣点的地理位置信息外（Yovcheva, Buhalis, & Gatzidis, 2012），还可以让用户与之前的游客互动，进一步增强游客的体验或感知。已经有学者（Carr, Hayes, Smock, & Zube, 2013）提出，移动社交媒体改变了政治参与和沟通的性质，因为参加政治集会和活动的年轻选民可以利用社交媒体工具帮助协调与会者、补充现场互动，并实时获取更多关于关键人物和政治纲领的信息。因此，以往的 CMC 理论将地点与信息割裂开来，而新出现的社交媒体理论可能会考虑一个人的物理位置对其社交媒体体验的影响，再次强调以往传播模式中的环境因素，这与社交媒体传播同样具有物理相关性。
智能手机、智能手表、谷歌眼镜）使个人能够无处不在地连接到社交媒体，这些工具与生活结构的融合将改变我们与他人和物质世界互动的地点和方式。第二次筛选，与媒体互动的能力
program or other consumers on one platform (e.g,. tablet computer ) while consuming the media content on another (e.g,. television) is already altering the way we watch television (Lochrie & Coulton, 2011). Likewise, smartphone-enabled virtual tours, in addition to providing geolocated information about points of interest (Yovcheva, Buhalis, & Gatzidis, 2012), may allow users to interact with previous visitors to further augment tourists' experiences or perceptions. Already scholars (Carr, Hayes, Smock, & Zube, 2013) have suggested mobile social media alter the nature of political engagement and communication, as young voters attending political rallies and events can utilize social media tools to help coordinate attendees, supplement on-site interactions, and obtain more information in real-time about key figures and articulated political platforms. Consequently, whereas previous CMC theories divorced place from messages, emergent social media theories may consider the effect of one's physical location on her or his social media experience, reemphasizing the environment element of previous models of communication, again physically relevant via social media communication.
在一个平台（如平板电脑）上观看节目或其他消费者，同时在另一个平台（如电视）上消费媒体内容，这已经改变了我们观看电视的方式（Lochrie & Coulton, 2011）。同样，智能手机支持的虚拟旅游除了提供有关兴趣点的地理位置信息外（Yovcheva, Buhalis, & Gatzidis, 2012），还可以让用户与之前的游客互动，进一步增强游客的体验或感知。已经有学者（Carr, Hayes, Smock, & Zube, 2013）提出，移动社交媒体改变了政治参与和沟通的性质，因为参加政治集会和活动的年轻选民可以利用社交媒体工具帮助协调与会者、补充现场互动，并实时获取更多关于关键人物和政治纲领的信息。因此，以往的 CMC 理论将地点与信息割裂开来，而新出现的社交媒体理论可能会考虑一个人的物理位置对其社交媒体体验的影响，再次强调以往传播模式中的环境因素，这与社交媒体传播同样具有物理相关性。
Expectations of Context and Privacy
对背景和隐私的期望
Research already indicates employers' hiring decisions are influenced by applicants' social media presences and portrayals (Bohnert & Ross, 2010; Carr & Walther, 2014), blurring the lines dividing interpersonal and organizational interactions. Petronio's (1991) privacy management theory (PMT) was developed to address how individuals strategically communicated or withheld messages based on transmission medium and potential receivers. However, PMT was predicated on an individual's ability to manage self-presentation. As information in social media is increasingly indexed and cross-applied, the technical and social boundaries around personal information are falling, necessitating adapting PMT or developing new theories to encompass privacy in a setting where information is-by its nature-public.
已有研究表明，雇主的招聘决定会受到求职者在社交媒体上的表现和形象的影响（Bohnert & Ross, 2010; Carr & Walther, 2014），从而模糊了人际交往和组织互动的界限。Petronio （1991 年）提出的隐私管理理论（PMT）旨在解决个人如何根据传播媒介和潜在接收者的情况有策略地传播或隐藏信息的问题。然而，隐私管理理论是以个人管理自我展示的能力为前提的。随着社交媒体中的信息越来越多地被索引和交叉应用，围绕个人信息的技术和社会界限也在不断下降，因此有必要调整隐私管理理论或发展新的理论，以涵盖信息本质上是公开的环境中的隐私问题。
已有研究表明，雇主的招聘决定会受到求职者在社交媒体上的表现和形象的影响（Bohnert & Ross, 2010; Carr & Walther, 2014），从而模糊了人际交往和组织互动的界限。Petronio （1991 年）提出的隐私管理理论（PMT）旨在解决个人如何根据传播媒介和潜在接收者的情况有策略地传播或隐藏信息的问题。然而，隐私管理理论是以个人管理自我展示的能力为前提的。随着社交媒体中的信息越来越多地被索引和交叉应用，围绕个人信息的技术和社会界限也在不断下降，因此有必要调整隐私管理理论或发展新的理论，以涵盖信息本质上是公开的环境中的隐私问题。
Individuals interacting via social media will develop new perceptions and expectations of privacy. Already, an individual seeking support in a social medium does so at the expense of publicizing the cause of that support seeking behavior. The cost-benefit analysis of publicizing one's information can be complex as individuals must predict potential gains or benefits from that release of information; but increasingly individuals choose to publicize their private information to attain social capital and maintain connections with others (Ellison, Vitak, Steinfield, Gray, & Lampe, 2011). Thus, future theories will be needed to account, sometimes literally, for these public disclosures of historically private information. What predicts a user's information disclosure? While most SNS users disclose their name to allow others to establish connections, it would be rare for a user to disclose a social security or bank account number given the confidentiality and potential risk of such disclosures. Theorists may find utility in drawing from extant research into game theory (cf. Camerer, 2003) or context collapse (Davis & Jurgenson, 2014; Marwick & boyd, 2011) to understand how and when users decide to make information public across multiple social networks that may idiosyncratically affect how the individual is perceived by each network cluster.
通过社交媒体进行互动的个人将对隐私产生新的看法和期望。目前，个人在社交媒体上寻求支持时，已经以公开寻求支持行为的原因为代价。公开自己信息的成本效益分析可能很复杂，因为个人必须预测发布信息可能带来的收益或好处；但越来越多的个人选择公开自己的隐私信息，以获得社会资本并保持与他人的联系（Ellison, Vitak, Steinfield, Gray, & Lampe, 2011）。因此，未来的理论需要对这些公开披露的历史私人信息做出解释，有时甚至是字面上的解释。如何预测用户的信息披露？虽然大多数 SNS 用户披露自己的姓名是为了让他人建立联系，但考虑到信息披露的保密性和潜在风险，用户很少会披露社会保险号或银行账号。理论家们可能会发现，借鉴博弈论（参见 Camerer, 2003）或情境坍塌（Davis & Jurgenson, 2014; Marwick & boyd, 2011）的现有研究，对理解用户如何以及何时决定在多个社交网络中公开信息很有帮助。
通过社交媒体进行互动的个人将对隐私产生新的看法和期望。目前，个人在社交媒体上寻求支持时，已经以公开寻求支持行为的原因为代价。公开自己信息的成本效益分析可能很复杂，因为个人必须预测发布信息可能带来的收益或好处；但越来越多的个人选择公开自己的隐私信息，以获得社会资本并保持与他人的联系（Ellison, Vitak, Steinfield, Gray, & Lampe, 2011）。因此，未来的理论需要对这些公开披露的历史私人信息做出解释，有时甚至是字面上的解释。如何预测用户的信息披露？虽然大多数 SNS 用户披露自己的姓名是为了让他人建立联系，但考虑到信息披露的保密性和潜在风险，用户很少会披露社会保险号或银行账号。理论家们可能会发现，借鉴博弈论（参见 Camerer, 2003）或情境坍塌（Davis & Jurgenson, 2014; Marwick & boyd, 2011）的现有研究，对理解用户如何以及何时决定在多个社交网络中公开信息很有帮助。
User Bases 用户基地
Finally, scholars may wish to consider the variance in communication resultant from the accessibility of various social media tools, inherently affecting the user base of those tools. Although our definition specifies social media are "Internet-based," this tenant merely acknowledges data is transmitted via the infrastructure of the Internet-a broad stipulation that allows for significant variance in the accessibility of social media tools. Thus far, research into social media has capitalized on large, publically-accessible tools to create generalizable knowledge of communication in social media, often utilizing highly-visible tools such as
最后，学者们不妨考虑一下由于各种社交媒体工具的可访问性而导致的传播差异，这必然会影响到这些工具的用户群。尽管我们的定义指出社交媒体是 "基于互联网的"，但这一定义仅仅承认数据是通过互联网的基础设施传输的--这一宽泛的规定使得社交媒体工具的可访问性存在很大差异。迄今为止，对社交媒体的研究都是利用大型的、公众可访问的工具来创建社交媒体传播的通用知识，通常利用的是高可见度的工具，例如
最后，学者们不妨考虑一下由于各种社交媒体工具的可访问性而导致的传播差异，这必然会影响到这些工具的用户群。尽管我们的定义指出社交媒体是 "基于互联网的"，但这一定义仅仅承认数据是通过互联网的基础设施传输的--这一宽泛的规定使得社交媒体工具的可访问性存在很大差异。迄今为止，对社交媒体的研究都是利用大型的、公众可访问的工具来创建社交媒体传播的通用知识，通常利用的是高可见度的工具，例如
Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter. Less work has considered interactions in proprietary social media tools only accessible via corporate intranets, with a few notable exceptions (e.g., DiMicco et al., 2008; Thom-Santelli et al., 2010). Rarer still is work addressing greynets (applications and networks clandestinly installed within organizational computer networks; Harrop & Armitage, 2005) and darknets (private networks using nonstandard protocols to ensure anonymity; Harrop & Armitage, 2005), particularly as involvement in both is often limited only to those with the technical self-efficacy and skills to be able to install necessary software and actually access them. Though all of these networks utilize the Internet for data transmission, the walled gardens of their structure may enable unique communicative processes as compared to more accessible media tools.
Facebook、YouTube 和 Twitter。除了少数明显的例外情况（如 DiMicco 等人，2008 年；Thom-Santelli 等人，2010 年），较少研究只能通过企业内部网访问的专有社交媒体工具中的互动。针对 greynets（秘密安装在组织计算机网络中的应用程序和网络；Harrop & Armitage, 2005）和 darknets（使用非标准协议以确保匿名性的私人网络；Harrop & Armitage, 2005）的研究则更为罕见，尤其是因为参与这两种网络的人往往仅限于那些具备技术自我效能和技能，能够安装必要软件并实际访问这些网络的人。尽管所有这些网络都利用互联网进行数据传输，但与更容易访问的媒体工具相比，其结构的围墙花园可能会促成独特的交流过程。
Facebook、YouTube 和 Twitter。除了少数明显的例外情况（如 DiMicco 等人，2008 年；Thom-Santelli 等人，2010 年），较少研究只能通过企业内部网访问的专有社交媒体工具中的互动。针对 greynets（秘密安装在组织计算机网络中的应用程序和网络；Harrop & Armitage, 2005）和 darknets（使用非标准协议以确保匿名性的私人网络；Harrop & Armitage, 2005）的研究则更为罕见，尤其是因为参与这两种网络的人往往仅限于那些具备技术自我效能和技能，能够安装必要软件并实际访问这些网络的人。尽管所有这些网络都利用互联网进行数据传输，但与更容易访问的媒体工具相比，其结构的围墙花园可能会促成独特的交流过程。
Barriers to entry and social contexts within proprietary social media, greynets, and darknets, may affect the nature of user populations and interactions, resulting in nongeneralizable or idiosyncratic communication. For example, although darknet systems are persistent, in that they continue even as individual users log on or off, the anonymous nature of interactions limits users from forming lasting, personal perceptions and relationships (Anonymous, 1998). Additionally, though public social media like LinkedIn foster environments for interactions collapsing social contexts, private social media like IBM's BeeHive may cue users to their intended use for Microsoft-related interactions. Thus, a challenge for developing social media theories will be to, as needed, consider and account for a social medium's accessibility. Whereas a theory developed for open-access social media like Facebook may address generalizable human communication characteristics and effects, a theory developed for limited-access greynets may need to account for the clandestine nature of interactions on that medium, whereby atypical individuals may seek to obfuscate their identities or interactions. An important initial
进入专有社交媒体、灰色网络和黑暗网络的障碍和社会环境可能会影响用户群体和互动的性质，从而导致不可概括或特异的交流。例如，尽管暗网系统具有持久性，即使个人用户登录或退出也能继续使用，但互动的匿名性限制了用户形成持久的个人观念和关系（Anonymous，1998 年）。此外，尽管像 LinkedIn 这样的公共社交媒体可以为社会背景的坍塌创造互动环境，但像 IBM 的 BeeHive 这样的私人社交媒体可能会提示用户，它们的预期用途是与微软相关的互动。因此，发展社交媒体理论所面临的一个挑战是，根据需要考虑并解释社交媒体的可访问性。为 Facebook 这样的开放式社交媒体开发的理论可以解决人类交流特征和效果的普遍性问题，而为访问受限的 greynets 开发的理论则可能需要考虑该媒体上互动的秘密性，即非典型个体可能会试图掩盖他们的身份或互动。一个重要的初步
contribution to this area will be the empirical assessment of the differences in participants, interactions, messages, and feedback between open (in that the majority of those interested can participate) social media and those tools whose access is limited by either membership or knowledge.
对这一领域的贡献将是对开放式（大多数感兴趣的人都能参与）社交媒体与那些受会员资格或知识限制的工具之间在参与者、互动、信息和反馈方面的差异进行实证评估。
进入专有社交媒体、灰色网络和黑暗网络的障碍和社会环境可能会影响用户群体和互动的性质，从而导致不可概括或特异的交流。例如，尽管暗网系统具有持久性，即使个人用户登录或退出也能继续使用，但互动的匿名性限制了用户形成持久的个人观念和关系（Anonymous，1998 年）。此外，尽管像 LinkedIn 这样的公共社交媒体可以为社会背景的坍塌创造互动环境，但像 IBM 的 BeeHive 这样的私人社交媒体可能会提示用户，它们的预期用途是与微软相关的互动。因此，发展社交媒体理论所面临的一个挑战是，根据需要考虑并解释社交媒体的可访问性。为 Facebook 这样的开放式社交媒体开发的理论可以解决人类交流特征和效果的普遍性问题，而为访问受限的 greynets 开发的理论则可能需要考虑该媒体上互动的秘密性，即非典型个体可能会试图掩盖他们的身份或互动。一个重要的初步
contribution to this area will be the empirical assessment of the differences in participants, interactions, messages, and feedback between open (in that the majority of those interested can participate) social media and those tools whose access is limited by either membership or knowledge.
对这一领域的贡献将是对开放式（大多数感兴趣的人都能参与）社交媒体与那些受会员资格或知识限制的工具之间在参与者、互动、信息和反馈方面的差异进行实证评估。
Moving Forward Theoretically
理论上向前迈进
Perhaps the greatest challenge to building theories of social media in the future is attempting to account for developments that lay beyond the horizon of these rapidly-changing technologies. Ledbetter (2014) posits communication scholars need to more closely theorize the association between a medium and the communication it conveys. We suggest the first step toward theorizing that association is understanding the core, shared elements comprising these media, and further argue communication may need to be reconceptualized as technology moves forward. As Ledbetter further asserts, "A medium serves as a mediator for other psychological, relational, and communicative effects" (p. 458), and as such, one cannot theorize, for or with social media, without understanding that medium in a way that transcends time and technology. That is, in essence, what this essay does: It establishes an understanding of "social media."
未来构建社交媒体理论所面临的最大挑战或许是如何解释这些瞬息万变的技术在未来的发展。莱德贝特（Ledbetter，2014 年）认为，传播学者需要更紧密地理论化媒介与其传达的传播之间的关联。我们认为，理论化这种关联的第一步是理解构成这些媒体的核心、共享元素，并进一步认为随着技术的发展，传播可能需要重新概念化。正如莱德贝特进一步断言的那样，"媒介是其他心理、关系和交流效果的中介"（第 458 页），因此，如果不以超越时间和技术的方式理解媒介，就无法为社交媒体或与社交媒体进行理论化。本质上，这就是本文所要做的：建立对 "社交媒体 "的理解。
未来构建社交媒体理论所面临的最大挑战或许是如何解释这些瞬息万变的技术在未来的发展。莱德贝特（Ledbetter，2014 年）认为，传播学者需要更紧密地理论化媒介与其传达的传播之间的关联。我们认为，理论化这种关联的第一步是理解构成这些媒体的核心、共享元素，并进一步认为随着技术的发展，传播可能需要重新概念化。正如莱德贝特进一步断言的那样，"媒介是其他心理、关系和交流效果的中介"（第 458 页），因此，如果不以超越时间和技术的方式理解媒介，就无法为社交媒体或与社交媒体进行理论化。本质上，这就是本文所要做的：建立对 "社交媒体 "的理解。
Theories of social media must be precise enough to predict human communication in extant tools, yet broad enough to account for media not yet available or even predictable: A theory of social media should be able to account for first generation social early such as MySpace and Facebook just as well as it accounts for the next generation, be they the progeny of Google+ (Googlex perhaps?) or virtual reality environments. Theory building therefore requires a shared understanding of social media in a way that transcends discipline and contexts (Hempel, 1966; Shoemaker et al., 2003), so that axioms, propositions, and models are derived from a common meaning shared by all scholars and applied equally to all tools that meet the definition's
社交媒体理论必须足够精确，能够预测现有工具中的人类交流，同时又足够宽泛，能够解释尚未出现或甚至无法预测的媒体：社交媒体理论应该既能解释 MySpace 和 Facebook 等第一代社交媒体，也能解释下一代社交媒体，无论是 Google+ 的后代（也许是 Googlex？因此，理论建设需要以超越学科和语境的方式共同理解社交媒体（Hempel, 1966; Shoemaker et al.
criteria. This article advances such a definition, one not entrenched in either specific technologies or social practices and utile to all disciplines and contexts, and thus responds to previous calls for a unified definition of social media (Effing et al., 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010). As a result, the article and the definition it advances gives the allied communication fields a foundation for future exploration from a unified understanding.
标准。本文提出了这样一个定义，它既不拘泥于特定的技术，也不拘泥于特定的社会实践，而是适用于所有学科和语境，从而响应了之前对社交媒体统一定义的呼吁（Effing 等人，2011；Kaplan & Haenlein，2010；Xiang & Gretzel，2010）。因此，这篇文章及其所提出的定义为相关传播领域提供了一个统一认识的基础，为未来的探索奠定了基础。
社交媒体理论必须足够精确，能够预测现有工具中的人类交流，同时又足够宽泛，能够解释尚未出现或甚至无法预测的媒体：社交媒体理论应该既能解释 MySpace 和 Facebook 等第一代社交媒体，也能解释下一代社交媒体，无论是 Google+ 的后代（也许是 Googlex？因此，理论建设需要以超越学科和语境的方式共同理解社交媒体（Hempel, 1966; Shoemaker et al.
criteria. This article advances such a definition, one not entrenched in either specific technologies or social practices and utile to all disciplines and contexts, and thus responds to previous calls for a unified definition of social media (Effing et al., 2011; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010; Xiang & Gretzel, 2010). As a result, the article and the definition it advances gives the allied communication fields a foundation for future exploration from a unified understanding.
标准。本文提出了这样一个定义，它既不拘泥于特定的技术，也不拘泥于特定的社会实践，而是适用于所有学科和语境，从而响应了之前对社交媒体统一定义的呼吁（Effing 等人，2011；Kaplan & Haenlein，2010；Xiang & Gretzel，2010）。因此，这篇文章及其所提出的定义为相关传播领域提供了一个统一认识的基础，为未来的探索奠定了基础。
With this foundation in place, we explored the developing social and communicative characteristics and challenges the next generation of social media will likely bring. These characteristics have implications for both society and the study of communication processes; and while it may be implausible to accurately predict all the implications of social media, we have attempted to elucidate the features of social media that will be most impactful for communication scholars. Finally, we divined and prioritized directions for scholarship based on those developments. Specifically, considering the social and technical developments predicted for social media, we call for a paradigmatic shift to include the role of non-human, systemgenerated, and algorithmic agents, reconceptualizing the very nature of what constitutes communication. In addition, we advocate for new research methods and tools, and a reconsideration of the convergence of communication and media studies to better account for the role of the medium as both a modifier and a moderator in transmission of a message (Ledbetter, 2014).
在此基础上，我们探讨了下一代社交媒体可能带来的社会和传播特征及挑战。这些特征对社会和传播过程的研究都有影响；虽然准确预测社交媒体的所有影响可能不太可能，但我们还是试图阐明社交媒体中对传播学者影响最大的特征。最后，我们根据这些发展预测并确定了学术研究的优先方向。具体而言，考虑到社交媒体的社会和技术发展预测，我们呼吁进行范式转变，将非人类、系统生成和算法代理的作用纳入其中，重新认识传播的本质。此外，我们主张采用新的研究方法和工具，并重新考虑传播与媒体研究的融合，以更好地解释媒介在信息传播中既是修饰者又是调节者的角色（Ledbetter，2014）。
在此基础上，我们探讨了下一代社交媒体可能带来的社会和传播特征及挑战。这些特征对社会和传播过程的研究都有影响；虽然准确预测社交媒体的所有影响可能不太可能，但我们还是试图阐明社交媒体中对传播学者影响最大的特征。最后，我们根据这些发展预测并确定了学术研究的优先方向。具体而言，考虑到社交媒体的社会和技术发展预测，我们呼吁进行范式转变，将非人类、系统生成和算法代理的作用纳入其中，重新认识传播的本质。此外，我们主张采用新的研究方法和工具，并重新考虑传播与媒体研究的融合，以更好地解释媒介在信息传播中既是修饰者又是调节者的角色（Ledbetter，2014）。
With a stable conception of what social media are as channels, and how communication is changing to account for them, traditional, new, and multidisciplinary theories will be able to account for the communication and processes occurring in these nascent technologies, and will support scholars in their efforts to understand a dynamically evolving media landscape. These technologies have already woven themselves into the tapestry of our daily interactions, and will
有了关于社交媒体作为渠道的稳定概念，以及传播如何变化以适应社交媒体的概念，传统的、新的和多学科的理论将能够解释在这些新生技术中发生的传播和过程，并将支持学者们理解动态演变的媒体景观的努力。这些技术已经与我们的日常互动交织在一起，并将
only become more integrated. Thus, the onus will be on researchers to actively prepare to carefully and theoretically study social media and the communication they facilitate as more than mere channels, but sometimes as actors themselves.
只会变得更加一体化。因此，研究人员有责任积极做好准备，从理论上认真研究社交媒体及其所促进的传播，因为它们不仅仅是渠道，有时本身就是行动者。
有了关于社交媒体作为渠道的稳定概念，以及传播如何变化以适应社交媒体的概念，传统的、新的和多学科的理论将能够解释在这些新生技术中发生的传播和过程，并将支持学者们理解动态演变的媒体景观的努力。这些技术已经与我们的日常互动交织在一起，并将
only become more integrated. Thus, the onus will be on researchers to actively prepare to carefully and theoretically study social media and the communication they facilitate as more than mere channels, but sometimes as actors themselves.
只会变得更加一体化。因此，研究人员有责任积极做好准备，从理论上认真研究社交媒体及其所促进的传播，因为它们不仅仅是渠道，有时本身就是行动者。
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标题：定义、发展和预测社交媒体
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RUNNING HEAD: DEFINING, DEVELOPING, & DIVINING SOCIAL MEDIA
标题：定义、发展和预测社交媒体
标题：定义、发展和预测社交媒体
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RUNNING HEAD: DEFINING, DEVELOPING, & DIVINING SOCIAL MEDIA
标题：定义、发展和预测社交媒体
标题：定义、发展和预测社交媒体
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Table 1. Contemporary examples derived from [authors redacted] definition of social media
表 1.根据[作者节录]社交媒体定义得出的当代实例
表 1.根据[作者节录]社交媒体定义得出的当代实例
| Social Medium 社交媒体 | Not A Social Medium 不是社交媒体 |
| - Social Network Sites (e.g., - 社交网站（如 |
- Online news services (e.g.,
- 在线新闻服务（例如， |
| Facebook, QQ ,Google+, YouTube, Facebook、QQ、Google+、YouTube、 |
online, PerezHilton.com) 在线，PerezHilton.com）。 |
| Yelp, Pheed) | - Wikipedia - 维基百科 |
| - Professional Network Sites (e.g., - 专业网络网站（如 |
- Skype |
| LinkedIn, IBM's Beehive) | - Netflix |
| - Chatboards & Discussion Fora - 聊天室和讨论区 |
- Email - 电子邮件 |
| - Social/Casual Games (e.g., - 社交/休闲游戏（如 |
- Online News - 在线新闻 |
| Farmville) | - Email - 电子邮件 |
| - Wiki "Talk" Pages - 维基 "讨论 "页面 |
- SMS/Texts - 短信/文本 |
| - Tinder | - Oovoo - 敖包 |
| - Tumblr | |
| - Wanelo | - Whisper - 低语 |
